FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ‐ AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FOREST AREAS IN THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK, SCOTLAND
“If you look from Aviemore on a clear evening, the granite screes of Lairig Ghru and Braeriach do glow a warm red in the sun. The name Am Monadh Ruadh still lives among the oldest folk of Strath Spey, but long ago, outsiders had replaced it with 'the Cairngorms', on maps and in guide books.” WATSON, 1975
Cover photograph: Hikers on the way in the forests of Glen Doll,
FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL
OF FOREST AREAS IN THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PAR,K SCOTLAND
OF
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of illustrations iii
List of tables iii
List of abbreviations iv
List of Gaelic expressions iv
1. Introduction. 1
1.1 Problem statement and focus of research 1
1.2 Objective of the study 2
1.3 Methodology 2
1.4 Structure of the work 3
2. Study area: The Cairngorms National Park 4
2.1 Natural features 5
2.2 Socio economic features 6
2.3 Forests policy aims 7
3. Sustainability and multi functional forests 9
3.1 Sustainability and Sustainable Forest Management 9
3.2 Forest functions 10
3.3 The social function of forests 11
3.4 Conclusion 13
4. Forest recreation 14
4.1 The forest recreation context 14
4.1.1 History 14
4.1.2 Current patterns of forest recreation 14
4.1.3 Conflicts and integration with other land uses 17
4.1.4 Forest recreation and rural development 17
4.1.5 Instruments of support 18
4.2 The framework of forest recreation and the recreational potential 19
4.2.1 Natural attractiveness 20
4.2.2 Accessibility 21
4.2.3 Recreational demand 22
4.2.4 External factors of influence 22
4.3 Conclusion 24
FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL
OF FOREST AREAS IN THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PAR,K SCOTLAND
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5. The Scottish context: forests and forest policy 25
5.1 Forests in Scotland 25
5.2. Forest policy framework 29
5.3 Scottish forest policy 29
5.4 EU Rural Development Regulation and the Scottish Rural Development
Programme 31
5.5 Policy instruments 31
5.6 Conclusion 33
6. Assessment of the recreational potential of forests in the study area 35
6.1 Preparing the analysis 35
6.2 Indicator system 36
6.3 Calculating the recreational potential 37
6.4 Indices and indicators 37
6.4.1 Attractiveness of the forest Site 38
6.4.2 Attractiveness of the landscape 38
6.4.3 Existence of forest trails 40
6.4.4 Accessibility from visitor sources 40
6.4.5 Accessibility from visitor destinations 41
6.5 Weighting of indices and main factors 42
6.6 Mapping the recreational potential of forest areas 42
6.7 Mapping the recreational potential of non forested areas 44
7. Conclusion 46
8. List of references 48
Appendix I: Scoring and weighting tables for the indicators I
Appendix II: Interim maps showing the five indices and their values IV
Appendix II: IV
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FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ‐ AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FOREST AREAS IN THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK, SCOTLAND LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Illustration 1: Location of the study area in Scotland ......................................................................... 4 Illustration 2: The Cairngorms National Park ........................................................................................ 5 Illustration 3: Forest along river Spey, the Cairngorms in the background .............................. 6 Illustration 4: Forest of Scots Pines in the Cairngorms National Park ........................................ 8 Illustration 5: Open Birch wood, Speyside ............................................................................................ 12 Illustration 6: Hiking as an activity for outdoor recreation .......................................................... 15 Illustration 7: The forest recreation framework ................................................................................ 20 Illustration 8: Forest visitor centre near Ballater, Cairngorms NP ............................................ 21 Illustration 9: Forest plantations in Glen Clova, Cairngorms NP ................................................ 26 Illustration 10: Woodland cover of Scotland in 2006 ...................................................................... 28 Illustration 11: Forest policy framework for Scotland .................................................................... 29 Illustration 12: Small forest pocket in Glen Muick, Cairngorms NP .......................................... 34
Illustration 13: Indicator system............................................................................................................... 36 Illustration 14: The recreational potential of forest areas in the Cairngorms NP ............... 43 Illustration 15: The recreational potential of non‐forested areas in the Cairngorms NP 45
Illustration 16: Values of forest attractiveness .................................................................................... IV Illustration 17: Values of landscape attractiveness ............................................................................. V Illustration 18: Values of existence of forest trails ............................................................................... V Illustration 19: Values of accessibility from visitor sources .......................................................... VI Illustration 20: Values of accessibility from visitor destinations ................................................ VI
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Tourist destinations and visitor numbers in the Cairngorms NP 2007/2008 ....... 7
Table 2: Scoring of forest type ........................................................................................................................ I Table 3: Scoring of NNR presence ................................................................................................................ I Table 4: Scoring and weighting of indicators for landscape attractiveness ............................... I
Table 5: Scoring of the distance to forest trails .................................................................................... II Table 6: Scoring and weighting of indicators for accessibility from visitor sources ............ II Table 7: Scoring and weighting of indicators for accessibility from visitor destinations . III
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FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT ‐ AN ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FOREST AREAS IN THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK, SCOTLAND LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
a.s.l. above sea level ca. circa CAP EU Common Agricultural Policy CNPA Cairngorms National Park Authority e.g. for example EAFRD European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development EU European Union FCS Forestry Commission Scotland GIS Geographic information system i.e. that is
km, km², m kilometres, square kilometres, metres NNR National Nature Reserve, Scotland NP National Park RDC Rural Development Contracts SFM Sustainable Forest Management SFS Scottish Forestry Strategy SNH Scottish Natural Heritage SRDP Scottish Rural Development Programme WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
LIST OF GAELIC EXPRESSIONS
Glen A narrow valley with steep slopes Loch Lake Strath A flat, broad valley
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1. INTRODUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
“The Highlands of Scotland are certainly an impressive massif. Today, vast and barren, often the only trees are those planted by the Forestry Commission. Their predecessors had been cleared 2,000 years before the Romans arrived, in the Neolithic and early Bronze Ages, leaving only isolated pockets of the original pine and birch woods.” (BREEZE QUOTED BY SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 31) 1.1 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND FOCUS OF RESEARCH
The ancient forests of Scotland are deeply settled in the Scottish mind, but the image of a great wood of Caledonia varies particularly from the Scottish forests today. According to the citation of BREEZE (BREEZE QUOTED BY SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 31), this is due to historic developments in which forests and other land uses have always been linked with economic development and natural degradation. The native woodlands of Scotland were deforested until the beginning of the 20 th century, when forest cover was down to less than five per cent. Today, achieved primarily through the plantation of non‐native species by the Forestry Commission, Scotland has a forest cover of 17 per cent. But native species inhabit only 30 per cent of the land area (Forestry COMMISSION 2009, P. 1; SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 16). Like all the European Countries in the late 1990s, also the UK and Scotland came up with strategies to develop their forest resource in an integrating way, trying to put more weight on non‐productive functions of forests. The main site of forest and woodland areas, the rural countryside, faces significant problems nowadays. In former times dominated by the primary sector, rural areas are threatened by a loss of young labour force due to a lack of jobs and resulting population loss, ageing population, decreasing importance of the primary sector and a lack of provided public services. Especially Scotland being an outstanding example with regard to the presence of remote and rural areas has to confront with these problems (the majority of the Scottish land area is classed as rural or remote rural, see SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, B, P. 10). Rural diversification and an increase in job opportunities are hence objectives pursued by rural policy.
Here, forest recreation comes into play. It can provide opportunities and potentials for rural Scotland. Research showed that forest recreation as part of rural diversification is widely recognised across Europe. But Scotland’s forest resource shows some limitation with regard to forest recreation: it is on the one hand limited in extent, with only a few densely forested areas. On the other hand, large areas of plantation forests consisting of non‐native tree species do hamper recreation due to a lack of naturalness. The latter fact points as well at conflicts with other forest functions, especially commercial forestry. Another problem is a lack of awareness for forest recreation. According to these problems, the focus of research is set by the following questions.
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1. INTRODUCTION
• Which role does forest recreation play in current forest management? • What are the determinants and the framework of forest recreation? • What is the Scottish context of forestry and forest policy? • How can the recreational potential of forests be defined and assessed? • How can this assessment support rural development and diversification? 1.2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
With regard to the research questions, the main objective of this study is to assess and map the recreational potential of forests in a specific study area. The study area is the Cairngorms National Park, because it comprises both large forests of native tree species and non‐native woodlands. Alongside these issues, it is a major destination for tourism and recreation. The resulting map shall provide information on recreational potential of forest sites from which a broad range of benefits arises. Analysing and mapping the recreational potential of forests in the Cairngorms shall contribute to the awareness of stakeholders and land owners for possible economic opportunities. Areas of high potential shall highlight opportunities to utilise recreation for economic diversification. Areas of lower potential could point at sites for recreational improvement. In addition, the assessment shall help as well to target sites for afforestation measures, which would contribute to the development strategy of the National Park and deliver new forest sites of a high recreational potential.
This main objective is based on different aims. These aims concern the building of a suitable theoretical background for the assessment. The background is built especially by theory and current patterns of forest recreation and the determination of factors influencing forest recreation. Furthermore, an examination of instruments to support forest recreation in Scotland shall develop a background of rural development and enable a placement of the used assessment method among these instruments afterwards. 1.3 METHODOLOGY
The methodological approach of this work based first on a literature review. Forest recreation is recognised since the Middle Ages, but research on forest recreation began to be pursued only in the last decades (BELL & PETURSSON 2009, PP. 7). The patterns of forest recreation were researched as well as its determinants and prerequisites. Furthermore, literature on the Scottish context built the background to understand the forest resource of Scotland, its use and the intended development. Forest and rural development policy in Scotland were studied to examine the instruments which shall and do influence forest recreation.
For the analysis of this work, a special study area in Scotland has been chosen by virtue of various reasons (see Chapter 2.2). The main instrument of this spatial analysis was a geographic information system (GIS). In more detail, the assessment of the recreational potential of forests in the Cairngorms National Park was based upon a grid GIS analysis.
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1. INTRODUCTION
For the reason that the assessment of an area of 3,800 km² demands for a regional approach, grid GIS analysis is the most appropriate method (see e.g. VAN DER HORST 2000, PP. 226). Grid GIS methods allow the user to calculate and display a value for each cell of a grid. Space is therefore defined as an array of equally sized cells arranged in rows and columns. Each cell has a spatial reference and an attributed value. In general, the applied GIS methodology had the aim to calculate and display the recreational potential value for each cell of a forest area. Because the recreational potential cannot be described by a single variable or indicator, different indicators were developed which needed to be combined for the assessment. This approach is a multi‐criteria analysis that integrates different indices and indicators by scoring and weighting. Subsequently, the main terms for this study shall be defined. Forests and woodlands
In the understanding of this work the term forest describes an area of trees which has a closed canopy cover consisting of trees of which some have maturity status. The terms forest, woodland and woods are used identically. Forest recreation
Forest recreation in the understanding of this work is any off‐work and therefore leisure activity carried out by visitors or inhabitants in a forest. Recreational potential
The recreational potential shall be defined as the attractiveness of a forest area for the carrying out of recreational activities. 1.4 STRUCTURE OF THE WORK
Following this introduction, the second chapter gives a brief description of the study area, the Cairngorms National Park, and outlines the reasons for its choice. The third chapter provides an overview of the sustainable forest management context and forest functions. Following, the fourth chapter examines current patterns in forest recreation and against this background, the forest recreation determinants and its framework are studied. Chapter 5 deals with the Scottish context represented by the forest resource, forest policy and instruments to develop forest recreation. The actual assessment of the recreational potential of forests in the Cairngorms takes place in chapter 6. Summarising, the last chapter concludes the work and highlights areas for the application of the results.
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2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
The area of the Cairngorms National Park is situated in the north‐eastern part of Scotland (see Illustration 1). It covers 3,800 km² and is hence the largest National Park in the UK. Established in 2003, it is also the youngest (BARKER & STOCKDALE 2009, P. 483). The park comprises the most rural and remote areas in north‐eastern Scotland but is well accessible from urban centres such as Aberdeen, Inverness, Dundee and Perth (all within a distance of less than 100 km, see Illustration 1). At present time, it is recognised by visitors and tourists for its wildness and naturalness and is hence a major destination for outdoor recreation and tourism. Illustration 1: Location of the study area in Scotland
As part of the Grampian Mountains and hence the Scottish Highlands, the most distinctive natural feature of the Cairngorms landscape is an extensive area of highland plateau. This plateau is then surrounded by a diverse mix of heather clad moors, forested areas, lakes, rivers, farmlands and floodplains (BARKER & STOCKDALE 2009, P. 483). , The straths, the main valleys of the rivers Dee (south‐east of the plateau, called the Deeside) and Spey (north‐west of the plateau, called the Speyside), contain the main settlements Kingussie, Aviemore, Grantown‐on‐Spey (all Speyside), Braemar and Ballater (both Deeside) and the primary road network (see Illustration 2). ‐ 4 ‐
2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
Illustration 2: The Cairngorms National Park
2.1 NATURAL FEATURES
A landscape assessment in 1996 by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) divides the Cairngorms landscape in three main areas: the highland plateau, the uplands and glens and the straths (TURNBULL JEFFRETY PARTNERSHIP 1996, P. 7). Each area has its own main character with diverse vegetation types and habitats. Their combination forms the distinct character of the National Park. The highland plateau is the highest area of arctic landscape in the UK and comprises some of the highest mountains of the UK reaching 1,300 metres above sea level. It is dominated by granite rocks and ground hugging vegetation. The uplands and glens surrounding the plateau are covered with extensive heather moorland, rough grassland and partially forests. These show little human impact. Contrary, the two major straths, the Deeside and the Speyside, are dominated by a mix of farmland, forests and settlements and have a long history of cultivation (TURNBULL JEFFRETY PARTNERSHIP 1996, PP. 25). ‐ 5 ‐
2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
Illustration 3: Forest along river Spey, the Cairngorms in the background
The various vegetation types of the three areas are moreover home to a particular biodiversity. Besides a huge area of alpine habitats, moorlands with heather vegetation and native woodlands generate a living environment for many species like e.g. the red grouse (SCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE 2002, PP. 7). 2.2 SOCIO‐ECONOMIC FEATURES
The socio‐economic environment in the park faces different challenges and it bears the need of strategies for rural development. The area has 16,000 inhabitants and structural change is evident: the local economy, in the past dominated by primary sector activities such as agriculture, forestry and fishing, now is more diversified. For example, 20 per cent of the population work in hotels and restaurants, whereas only five per cent account for employment in the primary sector (BARKER & STOCKDALE 2009, P. 483). Illustration 2 shows a great number of tourist sites within the area of the park (see Illustration 2). In addition, table 1 presents data on visitors to a selection of tourist destinations in the study area (see Table 1). The high numbers of visitors in the Strathspey lead to the conclusion that the Spey valley is more developed in case of tourism than the Deeside. Overall is becomes clear that tourism is a major feature of the economy.
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2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
Table 1: Tourist destinations and visitor numbers in the Cairngorms NP 2007/2008
Centre, Aviemore
Wildlife Reserve, Ballater
Besides obvious pressure on those employed in primary sector activities, BARKER & STOCKDALE (2009) furthermore describe trends of rural ageing and a thinning within the labour force. Young people leave the area of the National Park because of few job opportunities and high prices for housing, which rise due to a high demand for holiday homes (BARKER & STOCKDALE 2009, P. 484). Hence, the call for an integrated development considering the natural features of the park as well as these structural changes led to the establishment of the Cairngorms National Park in 2003 under the National Parks (Scotland) Act 2000 (BARKER & STOCKDALE 2009, P. 483). Alongside common goals like conservation and enhancement of the natural and cultural heritage, the National Park objectives concern especially the support of recreation for diversification and, being unique in Britain, the promotion of a sustainable social and economic development of the park’s communities (CNPA 2007, P. 18). 2.3 FORESTS & POLICY AIMS
Regarding the forest resource, the area of the Cairngorms contains the largest remaining fragments of ancient Caledonian Pine forests, being as well home to a manifold native flora and fauna (SCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE 2002, PP. 7). Accompanied by forest plantations, the area reaches currently a forest cover of 20 per cent, which is higher than the Scottish average and draws the attention to forest recreation (CNPA 2008, P. 7). The forests are mainly situated in the major river valleys and reach only partially higher altitudes (see Illustration 2).
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2. STUDY AREA: THE CAIRNGORMS NATIONAL PARK
Illustration 4: Forest of Scots Pines in the Cairngorms National Park
The Cairngorms Forest and Woodland Framework is the long‐term strategy to steer the forest development in the park. It promotes multi‐objective forestry to deliver social, environmental and economic benefits (CNPA 2008, P. 11). The main strategic objectives following the EU Rural Development Regulation and the aims of the Scottish Forestry Strategy (see Chapters 5.3 & 5.4) are the establishment of new native forests (especially in higher altitudes close to the natural tree line at ca. 700 m a.s.l., see Chapter 5.1) and the restructuring of existing forests to deliver multiple outcomes such as habitat connection and recreational benefits (CNPA 2008, P. 11). Regarding the latter, the contribution of forestry to tourism shall be increased. Accordingly, forests shall develop their role as a major sustainable tourism asset. They shall provide high quality recreational opportunities for visitors and contribute to the landscape’s character and identity. In addition, the framework aims at raising the awareness of stakeholders for economic diversification through forest‐based tourism (CNPA 2008, P. 12). The Cairngorms National Park is highly attractive for recreation and tourism. According to the distinct character of the landscape and its perceived wildness and remoteness described above, recreation and tourism are crucial features. Because the park contains besides other natural features large remnants of native woodlands and a comparatively high forest cover, forest recreation is seen to play a significant role. Moreover, the policy strategy of the Cairngorms aims at improving the economic benefits of forest‐based tourism and recreation to diversify and strengthen the rural economy. Rural diversification is evidently of need with regard to the socio‐economic challenges in the park. For all these reasons, the Cairngorms National Park was chosen as the study area. It provides a large potential for developing forests for recreation.
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3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
The image of forests and forestry has changed greatly during the 20 th century. The historic single purpose forestry of production evolved to a multi‐facet recognition of forests based on a broad range of benefits and services they deliver. A dominant driver of this development was the rise of sustainable development. This chapter shall briefly regard sustainability in the context of forest management and the different functions of forests. It shall then highlight the social function of forests being the main driver for forest recreation and tourism. 3.1 SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT
The term sustainability is nowadays omnipresent in development and planning debates. Historically, it was first used by a German scientist called Hans Carl von Carlowitz in a publication from 1713 on forestry. To prevent the forest resource from exploitation and achieve a certain economic stability, von Carlowitz suggested to cut only as many trees as trees grow per unit of time. He called that “nachhaltige Waldwirtschaft” (sustainable forestry) and proposed it as a guiding principle for the development of forests and woodland (WILDERER 2007, P. 2). However, forests were still regarded for the single purpose of production.
After the highly recognised definition of sustainability by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987 (WCED 1987) and the growing awareness of the important functions of forests, the discussion on the sustainable management of forests was continued on two important conferences. In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro came up with different guidelines and principles for forestry. Within the context of sustainability, sustainable forest management should integrate social, economic and ecological as well was spiritual and cultural aspects of forests (PALO ET AL. 1999, P. 7). Following up, the major conference in Europe was the second Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests in Europe in Helsinki 1993, in which European guidelines and principles for forestry were developed. One of the results was the following definition of sustainable forest management.
This definition draws up the different functions of forests and the deriving benefits for the social, economical and ecological dimension. These shall be considered in forest management and development. Moreover, it becomes clear that the forest resource offers benefits on different spatial scales, from local level to global level.
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3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
3.2 FOREST FUNCTIONS
Today, the view on forests and woodlands is holistic compared to their predominant purpose of wood production and delivery of non‐timber products in the past. With the decrease of the importance of wood production in the industrialised world, other forest functions increased in weight. With regard to sustainability and sustainable forest management, the consideration of diverse forest functions draws a more complex view on forests.
Forests have been used for their productive function since prehistoric times. The productive function includes the provision of timber products as well as non timber products. Throughout history forests have provided natural products such as timber, cork, resin but as well plants, plant products and animals. These products have built the basis for people’s livelihood in the past and, in more recent centuries, for forest‐related economic activities, which led to the exploitation of forests and the increasing amount of forest plantations (FÜHRER 2000). Today, forestry and agriculture as the main primary sector industries still cover about 80 per cent of the European territory. Being predominantly rural, these areas comprise only 25 per cent of the European inhabitants (RÖNNINGEN 2001, P. 3). Therefore the productive function of forests is partially still of high importance for rural economies. But facing a decrease in timber prices due to changes on the world market, the import of cheaper timber from overseas, modern forestry methods and equipment which reduce the labour‐force and an in general decrease of land value, these areas need to look at other qualities of the land to produce additional revenues (RÖNNINGEN 2001, P. 3). This ‘post‐productivist transition’ in European countries as well as the debates on sustainable development led to the re‐ discovery and the increase in weight and recognition of other forest functions. Hence in the past decades, forests have been re‐discovered to offer a range of non‐ economic benefits. These benefits derive from forests’ ecological and social functions. Regarding ecology, forest habitats represent a considerable part of the flora and fauna and vary particularly across different kinds of forested areas (FÜHRER 2000, P. 30). Thus forest areas contribute significantly to biodiversity and its conservation. Bearing in mind the idea of sustainable development and the aim of conserving habitats and their species, the ecological function of forests maintaining the natural environment became important in policy objectives. However, the condition and the characteristics of each forest’s ecosystem determine this potential (FÜHRER 2000, P. 30). That means that the condition of habitats and biodiversity is strongly influenced by the condition of the forest, its main purpose and its management strategy. BELL (2001, P. 9) states that plantation forestry has “often been seen as harmful to biodiversity”, because non‐native elements such as tree species created habitats of low natural value e.g. in Scotland. Forests of a more native character comprising indigenous trees and vegetation have a higher value and are more appropriate to deliver this ecological function of biodiversity maintenance.
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3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
FÜHRER (2000) mentions further ecological functions of forests, which have positive effects on the environment by affecting climate, hydrology and the quality of water and air. Furthermore, pointing also at a global understanding of their importance, forests have a crucial role in carbon sequestration. They act as carbon sinks and contribute to the mitigation of the climate change (FÜHRER 2000, P. 30).
Another ecological function of forest areas is the protective one. It refers to the ability of forests to offer prevention against destructive natural events like avalanches, desertification and soil erosion (FÜHRER 2000, P. 30). The presence of forests in areas of such risks can protect human settlements (e.g. in mountainous areas) and infrastructure as well as the environment (e.g. declining risk of erosion). 3.3 THE SOCIAL FUNCTION OF FORESTS
Alongside the preceding functions, the sustainable development debate and current changes in society have increased the weight of the social function of forests. This function describes the capacity of forests and woodlands to provide outdoor recreation, to improve public health and well‐being and to offer sites for nature tourism. BELL & PETURSSON (2009) reveal the importance of nature access and recreation in today’s society referring to high urbanised populations and related health impacts of modern living such as stress, obesity and lack of exercise (BELL & PETURSSON 2009, P. 1). Accordingly, the main social values of forests are their immaterial benefits such as aesthetic qualities and the improvement of psychological and physical health for people (TYRVÄINEN ET AL. 2009, P. 35). TYRVÄINEN ET AL. (2009) clarify that forests offer the aesthetic enjoyment of nature, especially next to urban settlements but also in the countryside. A study of visits to forests in the Netherlands showed that 58 million visits were made to dutch forest areas, whilst only 26 million visits were made to beaches in the same year (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 13). This shows that forests provide higher aesthetic and recreational values for the society than other destinations. People enjoy these benefits directly or indirectly. Direct enjoyment takes place through a broad range of recreational activities such as walking, jogging or biking, which can be carried out in forests and wooded areas. Serving health and well‐being, people use forest recreation to recover from daily stress and to regain positive feelings. Problems of today’s societies like obesity and a lack of exercise are addressed by national policies, which promote recreational and outdoor activities. Moreover, being in contact with forests and trees is seen to increase environmental awareness and knowledge on environmental processes, particularly for children (TYRVÄINEN ET AL. 2009, P. 35).
Indirectly, people enjoy the benefits of forests as part of their environment. They live or work next to these areas and experience the aesthetic value in their everyday life. By these means forests contribute to the quality of working or housing areas, which therefore achieve higher property values (TYRVÄINEN ET AL. 2009, P. 35). This indirect enjoyment bases on the fact that forests add amenity values to the landscape they are
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3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
situated in. This addition of visual amenity to the entire landscape is widely recognised in research (ROBERTS ET AL. 2000, P. 1; VAN DER HORST 2000, P. 221; TYRVÄINEN ET AL. 2009, P. 35). Forests are seen to improve the appearance of landscapes and contribute to their perceived character. The amenity services attract locals, visitors and tourists to carry out outdoor recreation in or next to forest areas. The perception of the landscape as a whole is in the foreground implying the visual value of existing forests. Illustration 5: Open Birch wood, Speyside
Besides aesthetic values, forests themselves offer further values through their natural features such as biodiversity. MARTIN (2005) refers to the provision of wildlife and both natural and cultural heritage in a peaceful and quiet surrounding (MARTIN 2005, P. 57). Recreational activities concentrate on forest areas because the forests alleviate the experience of flora and fauna. Font & Tribe point out that especially the experience of wildlife is a key driver for people to visit forests (FONT & TRIBE 1999, P. 3). Thus, the social function of forests in these terms is the possibility for the society to experience nature through wildlife. This serves as well environmental awareness and education. This forest function is also associated with economic benefits. Recreational and tourism activities offer opportunities for areas suffering from structural change and a decrease of income in the primary sector. Research carried out by the Macaulay Land Use Research Institute supports this, highlighting the diversification of rural economies by generating employment and income from the social function of forests. Tourism and recreation expenditure is found out to be significant for the rural economy (ROBERTS ET AL. 2000, P. 1).
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3. SUSTAINABILITY AND MULTI‐FUNCTIONAL FORESTS
Summarising, forests offer great benefits for people and society through the social function and its determinants. They contribute to well‐being and health and strengthen environmental awareness. Forest areas have a great significance for landscapes and their perception by different population groups, which again conduces to the emergence of potentials and opportunities for the rural economy. Forests in landscapes are seen to contribute to a higher landscape value and hence to a higher recreational potential. 3.4 CONCLUSION
Overall, the multifunctional character of forests which is displayed here demands integrated approaches for their management. Not all of the functions allow a management which considers each benefit at the same time or at the same scale. For instance, there are forests which are more appropriate for recreation purposes, biodiversity conservation or timber production. Although the Director of Forests in the German Government Forestry Office states that in 90 per cent of the German forests the productive, the protective and the recreational function of forests can be delivered at the same time (LANG 1995 QUOTED BY FONT & TRIBE 1999, P. 3), the increase of one of the uses would lead to a weakening of other functions. Regarding these conflicts, it becomes clear that decisions in forestry and forest development have to carefully trade‐off the effects on the forest functions and their benefits.
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4. FOREST RECREATION
4. FOREST RECREATION
The examination of the social function of forests has shown that forests can offer diverse benefits for the society. This chapter gives an overview of current forest recreation patterns and investigates which factors determine the recreation in forests. 4.1 THE FOREST RECREATION CONTEXT
Today, forest recreation is widely recognised across Europe. This chapter highlights history and current trends and examines conflicts with other functions and land uses, potentials for rural development and the instruments of support. 4.1.1 HISTORY
As stated in chapter 3, forests play a vital role in recreation. This function is not new. Berry‐picking or mushroom collecting in forests has been a part of rural life since centuries (BELL & PETURSSON 2009, P. 2). But forest recreation even dates back to medieval times, when royal families and aristocrats used large forest estates especially for hunting. For instance, the establishment of royal forests in Great Britain, already put under specific forest laws, served the protection of the game and were used for hunting and recreation (CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, P. 80). In the 17 th and 18 th century recreation and travelling were solely available to the upper classes due to high costs. The 19 th century brought industrialisation, the railway and new working patterns. Often, Sundays signified the only possibility for the middle and lower classes to participate in recreational activities. Natural areas became important to obtain fresh air, exercise and meet people. The forests were still used for hunting but soon became also important for walking, hiking and the experience of nature. Royal forests became accessible for all people due to the pressure created by the expanding population in cities. Further increase in mobility, higher average income and increase in leisure time during the 20 th century led to the shift towards, as Pröbstl et al. define it, the “recreation society” (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 12). Former royal forests and hunting estates turned into the first nature parks with the purpose to offer nature recreation in high quality settings. The building of visitor facilities in these parks during the 1970s, usually dominated by woodlands and forests, signified the start of a more and more growing recognition of nature and forest recreation. 4.1.2 CURRENT PATTERNS OF FOREST RECREATION
Forest recreation gains a high recognition today. As a major feature in rural landscapes, often situated in protection areas of different levels such as natural or national parks, forests and woodlands are seen as one of the main environments in which outdoor recreation is carried out. As stated in chapter 3.3, forests attract more people than e.g. beaches in terms of recreation. Regarding forest visitor surveys in different countries, the importance of forests becomes even more evident. Research carried out in Scotland shows that more than 50 per cent of the population visited forests over a period of one
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year (August 2005 to August 2006). Moreover, more than 60 million visits to forests were estimated for this period (EDWARDS ET AL. 2009, P. 50). For Sweden and France even higher numbers of visits are reported for an equal time interval, 373 respectively 1.192 million visits (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 13). The specific role of forests shown by these numbers can be explained by the special suitability of forests for outdoor recreation. MARTIN (2007), summarising opinions of land managers and planners in Scotland, states that forests provide the ability for year‐round use and that they are suitable for all‐ weather use. In addition, forests are able to absorb relatively large numbers of people and can accommodate a wide diversity of uses and activities (MARTIN 2007, P. 17). These reasons in connection with major changes in society, especially in rural areas, draw attention to economic potentials (see Chapter 4.1.4). Activities
The special suitability of forests for recreation and nature tourism is the basis for an immense range of recreational activities, which people can carry out in forests. FONT & TRIBE (2000, P. 2) describe these opportunities. According to them one can distinguish two major groups of activities, which base on different perceptions and experiences of forests. On the one hand there are forest‐related activities like hunting, bird‐watching, berry or mushroom picking and orienteering. These refer directly to the forest and its features such as the biodiversity in flora and fauna. Activities of this group involve an active engagement with the forest resource. On the other hand, non forest‐related activities like mountain‐biking, horse riding and walking take place in forest areas. Further activities, which can be seen to be particularly considered by tourists, are adventure sports such as quad‐biking and high‐rope courses. These activities do not necessarily need the surrounding of a forest, but it is well researched that people taking part in these outdoor activities prefer the presence of forests as a characteristic of the landscape (FONT & TRIBE 2000; VAN DER HORST 2006). They therefore profit from the aesthetic value of forests.
Illustration 6: Hiking as an activity for outdoor recreation
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Visit patterns
Besides the type of activities which characterise forest recreation, research on forest recreation and visits investigates the visit patterns. It considers e.g. the visitor and its background, the time of forest visits, the duration and the distance between forest and the residence of the visitor (TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008, P. 14). It can be assumed that recreation is often a short‐time activity close to home, e.g. going for a walk in a close park or forest area. These activities are carried out more regularly. Further forest recreation can also involve day‐trips to the countryside by travelling longer distances from home, possibly including also overnight stays in hotels or camp‐sites. Forest recreation in tourism activities signifies a third possibility. People travel to special areas to conduct and participate in forest‐related and non forest related activities. The current situation of forest recreation in Europe and the patterns of forest visits vary amongst the European countries due to different circumstances and aspects affecting forest recreation (see Chapter 4.2). Here, a general overview on forest recreation shall be given through research results of the TNS Travel & Tourism in Scotland (TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008), who examined five different forest districts. From this study it can be derived that non forest‐related activities account for the majority of forest visits. Walking and dog walking account together for almost 80 per cent. Cycling and mountain biking reached a proportion of eleven per cent (TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008, P. IV). This dominance of certain activities is accompanied by an average length of forest visits of one hour and 20 minutes and a percentage of two thirds for the visitors who travelled up to six miles to reach a forest. This strengthens the impression that forest recreation today is above all short‐timed and takes place close to the residence. However, the research also demonstrates the high diversity of forest recreation. Relatively high percentages for overnight and longer stays underline that. Of all visitors, 18 per cent were on an overnight trip. Concerning the length of the stay in a forest area, 16 per cent of all visitors stated to stay longer than two hours (TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008, P. IV). Besides the major activities of walking and cycling, jogging and running, passing through, horse riding and picnicking were mentioned (TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008, P. 49).
This research shows the great weight of daily recreation in forests being primarily of short duration and taking place not far from people’s home. Nevertheless, forest recreation has a versatile character and offers a broad range of opportunities due to forests’ special suitability. This applies to most of the European countries although aspects like forest cover, accessibility or visual amenity values are different and affect forest recreation (see Chapter 3). But differences can also occur within countries. For instance, forests of higher values situated in National Parks might cause larger travel distances and longer duration of stays whereas forests next to settlements are places for daily recreation. Therefore, the attractiveness of forest areas determines the number of visitors and the type of visit respectively the activity.
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4.1.3 CONFLICTS AND INTEGRATION WITH OTHER LAND USES
With regard to chapter 3, disrespecting the multi‐functional character of forests can lead to conflicts among the forest uses. In some countries, where forest cover is comparably low and population density relatively high at the same time, severe pressures occur on the forest resource by crowding. Alongside regions of high population density, areas of special tourism interest might suffer from crowding. There, forests are in danger to be degraded ecologically and physically (BELL 2008 QUOTED BY BELL & PETURSSON 2009, P. 3). It can be expected that these forests show a particular decrease in their services for biodiversity protection and nature conservation. From another perspective, industrial forestry practices might affect landscape values negatively. Techniques like extensive clear‐cutting and replanting leading to severe visual effects on the landscapes are not acceptable to many forest visitors and tourists (BELL 2008 QUOTED BY BELL & PETURSSON 2009, P. 7). Besides the conflicts with nature conservation, crowding and forestry use, PRÖBSTL ET AL. (2009) name also conflicts between different forest user groups and activities of hunting and fishing (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 27). That shows that different recreational uses as well as prioritised activities like hunting are often not compatible with each other. Although the criteria for a sustainable forest management aim at integrating all forest uses, forestry priorities in countries but also within their regions remain (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 23).
Moreover, forestry competes with other land uses. This is the case next to urban centres and towns, where it is endangered by new housing or industrial developments. In the rural landscape structural and demographic changes dominate the use of land. Forestry and agriculture lost their economic importance and hence rural development policy shifts its weight towards more integrated approaches, involving also environmental protection, transport, housing, education and rural diversification (KEATING 2001, PP. 2). Forest recreation is immensely affected by individual opinions and decisions of different parties to develop or use a forest area. It becomes clear that an integration of forest recreation (i) with other uses and functions of the forest resource and in a wider context (ii) with other land uses involving all actors is crucial. Approaches and decisions should base on participatory decision‐making with respect to all stakeholders, e.g. political decision‐makers, public bodies, associations, land owners, forest visitors and the general public.
4.1.4 FOREST RECREATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
As acknowledged already, major changes in society increase the demand for leisure and recreation activities. Nature tourism and recreation have become the fastest growing tourism sector (TYRVÄINEN ET AL. 2009, P. 36). These activities predominantly take place in rural and remote areas, where people prefer to spend their leisure time distant to their city‐life. But people are not solitary spending their time; also, expenditure is linked to the activities. In Great Britain for example, 18 per cent of all consumer spending was spent on leisure activities in 2005 (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 13). This spending involves
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various categories of expenditure, e.g. travel costs, accommodation, entertainment, food and drink as well as souvenirs. The Macaulay Land Use Research Institute investigated the demand side of forest recreation, extrapolating and modelling forest visitor behaviour and spending (HILL ET AL. 2003, P. 53). For instance, day visitor spending in Britain was researched that is completely attributable to forests. The results show that day visits to forests contribute 2.3 billion pounds to the British economy annually. With regard to tourism, the research results could associate 13 per cent of the tourism expenditure with forest‐related expenditure (HILL ET AL. 2003, P. 53). Although these figures are subject to considerable uncertainty and reflect only the case of Great Britain, they give an idea about the economic significance of forest recreation. SIMPSON ET AL. (2009) illustrate in their paper how forest recreation can be integrated in the rural economy. The existing expenditure mentioned above has to reach the rural entrepreneurs to diversify their income and create sustainable livelihoods. They state that the more rural an area is the higher the priority has to be which is put on recreation and nature conservation (SIMPSON ET AL. 2009, P. 64). The possible degree of specialisation of farm enterprises into non‐productive activities such as recreation and tourism services depends on the recreational potential of the area, too. Besides farm enterprises, new business development in recreation and tourism can improve rural incomes. To name a few examples, enterprises concentrating on sports and outdoor offers, forest restaurants, forest education walks, special accommodation offers in forested areas and on linkages with other tourism attractions are found successful (SIMPSON ET AL. 2009, P. 67).
There is a wide range of starting points and niches for enterprises in tourist and recreational services. The recreational potential of forests is on the hand offering these opportunities, but on the other hand it also might limit the quality and the extent of this diversification. Policy at all levels is aiming at the sustainable development of rural areas and refers in particular to rural diversification through tourism and recreation. 4.1.5 INSTRUMENTS OF SUPPORT
The great shift towards multi‐functionality in forestry leads among other objectives to the support of forest recreation. The toolbox of instruments to improve forests for recreational services is well developed. COLLINS ET AL. (2009) give a brief overview on these instruments. First of all, forest policy and regulation carry the main influence on forest recreation (COLLINS ET AL. 2009, P. 87). Regulatory tools cover all scales, from international to local level, and apply to different sectors. In case of forest policy itself, the EU strategy on the highest level promotes a holistic and sustainable management of forests, impicating for instance non‐wood forest products such as recreation and tourism. The national forest programmes consider these aims and set out a vision for their forest resource, which is then addressed by regional programmes. In addition, a broad range of other policy areas affects forestry and recreation, e.g. rural development, environment, energy, trade and industry (COLLINS ET AL. 2009, P. 87). Together with the
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rights of access, forest acts and nature conservation acts determine the legislative regulation for forest recreation in European countries. These acts often relate to multi‐ functionality, but in practise implementation faces problems due to a lack of inter‐ sectoral integration. Collins et al. moreover state that policy decisions and processes are inefficient involving stakeholders in decision‐making (COLLINS ET AL. 2009, P. 87). Secondly, economic incentives display an instrument to develop forest recreation. Predominantly voluntary, incentives can be paid as grant aid, economic compensation, subsidies, tax relief, cross compliance and corporate investment. Incentives are demonstrated also by more general schemes like e.g. the European Agricultural and Rural Development Fund supporting rural development (COLLINS ET AL. 2009, P. 91). To act efficient, payments should be related directly to the extent and character of a measure.
Thirdly according to COLLINS ET AL. (2009), there is a strong need to strengthen cooperation among the great number of stakeholders from different levels and sectors. Both facilitation by central bodies like e.g. forest owner associations and area‐based strategies are instruments to achieve a higher integration. Encouragement and advice for the involved actors can only happen via direct cooperation and contact. Fourthly, going along with integration and cooperation on the different levels, capacity building is crucial to increase knowledge on forest recreation opportunities and their development. Fifthly, regarding the side of forest recreation demand, awareness has to be increased among the population. Promoting forest recreation via different tools achieves higher participation and benefits. At last, the presence of current research results on forest recreation patterns is as important as the presence of good governance, in which the resources namely tools and actors are coordinated and allocated in a participatory and effective way (COLLINS ET AL. 2009, P. 87). 4.2 THE FRAMEWORK OF FOREST RECREATION AND THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL
In order to assess the recreational potential of forests it is necessary to consider the factors and determinants which influence forest recreation. Illustration four points out three main determinants of forest recreation: natural attractiveness, accessibility and recreational demand (see Illustration 7). Besides natural factors such as forest cover, biodiversity and visual amenity, accessibility to a forest area determines forest recreation. Additionally, the recreational demand defines the demand for forest recreation within the society. These internal factors are also influencing each other. For instance, a higher accessibility might lead to a higher recreational demand but also to a decrease in natural amenity and wildness. This “triangle” of forest recreation is then affected by external factors such as policy and societal trends, which build the framework for forest recreation.
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Illustration 7: The forest recreation framework
4.2.1 NATURAL ATTRACTIVENESS
Forest recreation is influenced by the character of (i) the forest itself and (ii) the landscape it is situated in. Forest recreation in a special area therefore depends heavily on the visual attractiveness and the natural features of the site. Although sustainable forest management aims at balancing all forest uses, forest areas still vary in their appearance due to their use (see Chapter 3). These different visual appearances and features are linked to the amenity services of forests, which base on the perception by forest visitors. Forest plantations with the primary aim of wood production score lower in amenity values than forests, in which the use is not obvious (FONT & TRIBE 2000, P. 3). Visitors prefer forests without evidence for harvesting and clear‐cutting. Other factors are tree species composition and related biodiversity issues. Native forests with a higher diversity in flora and fauna are seen to score higher than forest plantations of non‐native species. A higher biodiversity alleviates as well the possibility to observe wildlife, which increases recreational potential (see Chapter 3).
Regarding forests in a wider context, forest cover, its fragmentation and other natural features are crucial for the aesthetic value of a landscape. It has to be stated that visual amenity and landscape quality is a research field on its own involving the landscape on the one hand and the psychological, social and cultural background of the viewer on the other (see e.g. DANIEL 2001). This study shall not concentrate on the perception of different visitor groups but on the presence of natural conditions and features and their broad common perception. Forest cover varies strongly from country to country due to historic developments (see Chapter 5.1) and a lower forest cover is often accompanied by a high degree of fragmentation (SIMPSON ET AL. 2009, P. 70). Whereas one could assume that a lower forest cover leads to a lower potential for forest recreation, even small fragmented forest patches can add amenity benefits to the landscape. SIMPSON ET
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AL. (2009) state that visitors and tourists prefer broad and far views on the landscape besides being in forests, so that forests are not always the primary motivation for a visit (SIMPSON ET AL. 2009, P. 69). It is moreover the diversity in landscape features, meaning landform, vegetation cover and features such as lakes and rivers which determine the visual amenity and natural beauty of a landscape. Hence, protection and conservation areas such as regional nature parks or national parks, which are often distinct for special natural features and their diversity including forests, are main areas of activities in forest recreation. Especially these provide visitors a unique sense of place with regard to naturalness, remoteness and wildness (SIMPSON ET AL. 2009, P. 71). 4.2.2 ACCESSIBILITY
Accessibility is the second major issue affecting forest recreation. It can be regarded in different ways: physical access, legal access and accessibility defined by the social, economic or cultural background of the individual visitor (SKOV‐PETERSEN & GOOSSEN 2009, P. 136, EDWARDS ET AL. 2009, P. 50). Besides the physical access, legislation and the background of the visitor determines strongly the demand for forest recreation (see factors influencing forest recreation). Physical access for recreational purposes is dependent on the location of the forest. Forests situated next to human settlements offer a higher potential for recreation than forest in more remote areas. So, accessibility decreases with an increase in distance to the forest site from human settlements (SKOV‐ PETERSEN & GOOSSEN 2009, P. 136). In terms of day‐trips and tourism, the proximity to cultural or tourist sites plays also a role for forest recreation. The visit of such a site could involve a walk in the close forest afterwards (BELL & PETURSSON 2009, P. 7). SKOV‐ PETERSEN & GOOSSEN (2009) show in their assessment of opportunity supply in recreation that accessibility involves furthermore the availability and presence of local infrastructure and facilities enabling people to access the forest site, for instance parking‐spaces, bus‐stations and entrance points. These enable visitors to enter the area (SKOV‐PETERSEN & GOOSSEN 2009, P. 136).
Illustration 8: Forest visitor centre near Ballater, Cairngorms NP
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A major point of accessibility is as well the presence of infrastructure and facilities in the forest. Forest areas with walking and hiking trails, toilets, viewpoints, visitor centres and picnic sites are more attractive than those without. In terms of accessibility this refers to the legal access. The presence of recreation infrastructure, signifying an encouragement for access by forest managers, and the public’s right to enter the forest base strongly on the framework of forest ownership and regulation (SKOV‐PETERSEN & GOOSSEN 2009, P. 136, see Chapter 4.2.4). Concluding, attractiveness and forest recreation increase in those areas which offer higher accessibility in distance, infrastructure and recreation facilities. 4.2.3 RECREATIONAL DEMAND
The recreational demand shall describe the demand for forest recreation among the society. It is strongly linked to demographic issues such as density and ageing, but implicates as well the cultural background of visitors. Besides influences of accessibility of to a forest and its natural attractiveness, it is dependent on the societal trends and the use of instruments to support forest recreation, e.g. promotion of recreation (see Illustration 7). For the reason that recreational demand is difficult to assess, surveys on forest visits allow researchers to monitor and model recreational demand (see e.g. TNS TRAVEL & TOURISM 2008; SIEVÄNEN ET AL. 2009). 4.2.4 EXTERNAL FACTORS OF INFLUENCE
There are various external factors affecting forest recreation. This chapter shall put emphasis on ownership patterns, management, regulation and societal trends. Ownership patterns, management and regulation
Ownership patterns, legislative regulation and management issues are major determinants setting the frame for forest recreation. Forest ownership either of private or public nature often defines the level of possible recreation. Whereas private forests are often kept for economic purposes such as commercial forestry or as investments, public forests are frequently managed to deliver multiple purposes (BELL 2001, P. 10). The reason is that public forests are often the first to implement principles of state policy intervention. Therefore they aim notably at multiple objectives to increase benefits for common interest. On the contrary as long as there are no incentives or duties, private owners do not implement a multi‐purpose forest management. Alongside ownership, regulation and access rights affect recreational activities. Across European countries, two main approaches towards public access become apparent: those where private land is inaccessible and those where there private land is “subject to Everyman’s right” (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 23). In the northern countries except of France, free access is granted to natural and forested areas with the obligation of responsible behaviour. In the Mediterranean region, private land has limited access (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 23). In general, public forests are often more suitable for recreation than private ones due to their multi‐purpose management and accessibility to the public. Nevertheless,
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everyman’s right in northern and central European countries offers highly recognised recreational opportunities, e.g. cultural activities such as berry or mushroom‐picking. Societal trends
As shown above, the demand for forest recreation and recreation in general has increased throughout the last centuries. The main drivers for an increasing demand of forest recreation are trends in or affecting the society, which have effects on e.g. daily routines, residence location or common societal opinions and attitudes. PRÖBSTL ET AL. (2009) list a number of major themes which have already and will affect the trends in outdoor and forest recreation. These major issues determine the framework in which the demand for recreation develops itself. However, changes in recreation patterns occur through steady and long‐term processes. According to Pröbstl et al. the affecting issues are: • Demographic change • The affluent society • Health and well‐being • Re‐spiritualisation • Globalisation • Balance of work and leisure • The information and knowledge society • Environmental awareness
• Changes in forest management (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 14)
Not all of these issues shall be regarded here, but the most important effects on recreation might have occurred especially through demographic changes, aspects of the affluent society, changes in the balance of work and leisure time and the rising awareness for the environment. As a special case, changes in forest management for example such as the provision of recreation facilities can on the one hand have an effect on recreation patterns, but on the other hand it can also be the adoption to a higher demand for recreation.
Changes in the demand for recreation occurred most importantly due to the industrialisation and development. The shift from an agricultural and countryside‐based economy to an industrial and service‐oriented one with urban growth poles was the first stage towards a society with a high recreational demand. Today, demographic aspects like ongoing migration to cities, depopulation of rural landscapes and especially ageing influence the recreational demand (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 14). For instance, people from cities seek recreation and the experience of a higher natural value in the countryside to escape the city‐life. Time for recreation and leisure is increasing due to retired people with a higher life expectancy as well as due to people having children later, which enables them to travel more. In general, the leisure time in Europe seems to have increased. But in fact, more flexible working contracts and an increase in part‐time
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workers leads to this statistical phenomenon (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 16). Changes in the balance of leisure and working time affecting recreation thus concern especially greater flexibility and a more varied pattern of leisure time within the society. Aspects of the affluent society with characteristics like high average income and consume orientation regard higher proportion of expenditures on tourism, recreation and leisure. PRÖBSTL ET AL. (2009) show that consumers who can buy those material products that they want start to search for intangible products such as special experiences through journeys or extreme sports (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 15). The issues of health and well‐being as well as environmental awareness refer to the increasing importance of nature recreation. Societies are increasingly concerned about the health of their citizens. They face conditions like stress and obesity caused e.g. by living in poor living environments. To counter these conditions, people shall access the outdoors to profit from nature’s amenity and health services. Rising environmental awareness among the whole society leads to higher identification and engagement with nature and therefore supports as well the rise of outdoor recreation. (PRÖBSTL ET AL. 2009, P. 16) Hence, the different major issues point out that there is and will be a high demand for outdoor recreation now and in future. More significant, the combination of these issues present in our society generates an image which calls for a broad and manifold supply of outdoor recreation opportunities. 4.3 CONCLUSION
Concluding, this chapter has shown that forest recreation plays a significant role in the society today. A large proportion of the population uses forest sites for daily recreation as well as for tourism activities. Besides existing conflicts with other forest functions and land uses, recreation provides chances for rural development and is supported by manifold instruments. According to the forest recreation framework, diverse factors influence forest recreation. Alongside the internal factors natural attractivity, accessibility and recreational demand, external factors such as ownership patterns and policy influence forest recreation. The aim of assessing the recreational potential of forest areas is strongly linked to difficulties due to the complexity of the matter. In the understanding of this work, the recreational potential of forests shall thus be determined by only two factors: accessibility and natural attractiveness. Investigating recreational demand is far more complex and would exceed the limitation of this work. Moreover, the recreational potential in this study is the current situation of a forest site. Influences of policy and regulation as well as ownership patterns are not regarded (see Chapter 6).
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5. THE SCOTTISH CONTEXT: FORESTS AND FOREST POLICY
5. THE SCOTTISH CONTEXT: FORESTS AND FOREST POLICY
The case study area lying within the Grampian Mountains of Scotland demands for an approach towards the Scottish context for forest recreation. This chapter thus describes the forests of Scotland, implicating their historic development. Then, forest policy in Scotland is delineated and the instruments of support for forest recreation in Scotland are presented to show possibilities for recreation development and rural diversification. 5.1 FORESTS IN SCOTLAND
Scotland is a special case with regard to its forest resource of today. Strongly affected by historic developments, it is today one of the least wooded countries in Europe. Indeed, almost its entire territory was once covered by forest. Native woodlands
The imagination and myth of the “Great Wood of Caledon” which covered most of Scotland but especially the Highlands is present since the Roman invasion (SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 20). Today, it is well researched that forests covered almost 80 per cent of the Scottish land area at their maximum extent 3,000 BC (see e.g. TIPPING 1994, SMOUT ET AL. 2005). The expression “Caledonian woodland” refers especially to the extent of Pine and Pine/Birch woods as the major woodland type in the highlands, which stretched from the area around the Great Glen and the Cairngorms northwards. They covered the valleys and hills of the highlands, only limited by the tree line at 2,300 feet a.s.l. (ca. 700 m) (TIPPING 1994, P. 13; SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 26). Scots Pine and Birches were dominating, but the valleys were as well inhabited by other broadleaved species such as Elder and Oak. In addition to these variations, the native woodland showed what today is considered natural and authentic forest: different ages and sizes of trees, varied understoreys, multi‐layered canopies, open spaces and a huge amount of dead timber (SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 7).
“[...] there was hardly a glen that was not roofed with trees, the high hills rising like islands from the bluegreen canopy. The wolf and the lynx roamed its trackless deeps. Bears and wild boars snuffled among its roots [...]” (MILES & JACKMAN QUOTED BY SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 24)
Supplementary, this quotation taken from the book “The Great Wood of Caledon” shows how the native woods in the Highlands could have been perceived by the inhabitants and invaders of Scotland. These woods, also mentioned by the Roman invaders as the “Caledonia Silva” 200 AD (SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 20), seemed to be impenetrable, dense and with a particular fauna. History
This ancient Scottish forest suffered from climatic changes and enormous human impact during the following historic periods. Neolithic times brought first woodland clearances
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to gain arable land for agricultural cultivation in the following millennia (TIPPING 1994, PP. 17) Following, Iron and Bronze Age brought further agricultural expansion and clearance, but forest loss and decrease in special woodland types were also accompanied by climatic changes. The Roman invasion in the first century AD continued the process of deforestation by building settlements and large and efficient farms (CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, P. 78). The Middle Ages brought further development in iron smelting and agriculture. Moreover, a large amount of timber was needed for construction. Deforestation was even increased in remote areas by improvements regarding road network and transport possibilities (CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, P. 84). Additionally, other land uses such as sheep pasture and large sporting estates for game‐ bird or deer shooting became more profitable than forestry (ROBBINS & FRASER 2003, P 102). A rise in tree‐planting due to wood and timber shortages could be observed throughout Scotland during the 19 th century. Hence the first forest plantations of non‐ native species occurred, for instance Forest of Atholl (CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, P. 84). At the beginning of the 20 th century, forests were covering 4.6 per cent of the Scottish land surface. This issue led to debates on afforestation and the Forestry Act of 1919, through which also the Forestry Commission was created (CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, P. 89). In general, the evolving forest policy was aiming at expanding the woodlands as a strategic resource for possible future wars. As this strategic aim was lost, the forest policy shifted towards a wider perspective on forests and multiple‐use forestry, also delivering benefits for the environment and the society. In general, the 20 th century led to an immense afforestation, primarily through plantations of introduced conifers such as Sitka spruce, Norway spruce, Lodgepole Pine and Japanese Larch (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 67; CAMERON UNPUBLISHED, PP. 89). The last 75 years of planting efforts resulted in the forest resource of today.
Illustration 9: Forest plantations in Glen Clova, Cairngorms NP
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Forests and woodlands today
Despite excellent tree‐growing conditions, Scotland has less woodland compared to other countries. After forest cover had reached a minimum of five per cent around 1900, the forest cover today accounts for 17.1 per cent of the land area. This signifies an area of 1.33 million hectares of woodland, of which 65 per cent is in private ownership, i.e. private owners and voluntary, charitable and public sector organisations. The remaining 35 per cent are managed by the Forestry Commission Scotland and are known as the national forest estate (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 67). Native woods account for 29 per cent of the forest area and are inhabited by native species such as Scots Pine, Birch and Oak. 45 per cent of these native woods can be classed as semi‐natural woodland (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 16). Semi‐natural woodland is defined as a self‐sown, regenerating naturally with never a planted generation (SMOUT ET AL. 2005, P. 1). More important in case of biodiversity conservation and historical landscapes is the ancient woodland in Scotland, defined as woodland in continuous existence since before 1750 on the same sites with locally native tree species and shrubs. Ancient woodland represents only one per cent of the forest cover today (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 80). Most of the native woodlands are in private ownership. The Forestry Commission forests contain only about 17 per cent native species (FOREST POLICY GROUP 2009, P. 3). These figures show that the afforestation of the 20 th century led to an expansion of primarily non‐native woodland, inhabited by introduced tree species like e.g. Sitka spruce.
Regarding the last decade, the following trends point at recent developments of the forest resource. The development of forest area shows an increase of the proportion of native species by five per cent from 1995 to 2005 (FOREST POLICY GROUP 2009, P. 6). Moreover, broadleaf species expanded due to the planting of new native woodland. In general, a decrease in new planted area becomes apparent in all ownerships since 1990. Only the broadleaf species in private planting increased. In 2007, private owners planted ca. 5,000 hectares of broadleaves and 2,500 hectares of conifer. The Forestry Commission, managing the national forest estate, reduced planting of new forest areas from 1970 onwards, when more than 15,000 hectares of conifer species were planted. In 2007, there is a lack of new planting of the Forestry Commission (FOREST POLICY GROUP 2009, P. 6). This reduction in new planting is due to the increase in restocking, i.e. the replanting after felling of usually conifer forest. Both, private and Forestry Commission areas see an increase in restocking because more forests reach maturity and are felled, concerning especially conifer forests (FOREST POLICY GROUP 2009, P. 8). The following map shows the woodland cover of Scotland in 2006, distinguishing mainly conifer, mainly broadleaf and mixed areas (see Illustration 10). The cover is dispersed and the largest connected forest areas can be found in the north‐east and the south‐west of the Scottish territory. The map furthermore highlights the dominance of conifer woodland.
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Illustration 10: Woodland cover of Scotland in 2006
The vision set out in the Scottish Forestry Strategy of 2006 identifies strengths and weaknesses of the forest resource in different dimensions (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 16). Amongst others, there has been a great progress in the last 20 years with regard to design and location of forests, which contributes particularly to the recognition by millions of visitors each year. Forests therefore became part of the Scottish landscape again. Poor designed forests remain, for instance plantations of non‐native species, which have to be restructured in future to deliver more diverse benefits. The forest resource of Scotland today interacting with water and open heather and moorland areas makes Scotland’s rural landscape attractive and delivers various benefits in different dimensions (see Chapter 3). ‐ 28 ‐
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5.2. FOREST POLICY FRAMEWORK
Illustration 7 below shows the main policy drivers for forest development on EU, national and regional level for Scotland (see Illustration 11). Besides the important Rural Development Regulation, the Water Framework Directive plays a role in forest development at EU and national scale. In addition, various other strategies with their instruments have effects on forests, like e.g. sustainable development and planning policy. They all define the objectives in forest development and build the basis for the instruments to deliver these goals. Due to the limited extent of this work and the importance of forest policy and rural development for forest recreation, the following sections concentrate on the UK and Scottish forestry strategies and on the Rural Development Regulation of the EU. Illustration 11: Forest policy framework for Scotland
5.3 SCOTTISH FOREST POLICY
According to sustainable forest management debates after the Helsinki conference (see Chapter 3), the Lisbon Conference of European Countries in 1998 came up with Pan‐ European Criteria of SFM (FORESTRY COMMISSION 2004, P. 9). These criteria were then addressed by different strategies to implement sustainable forestry in Great Britain. As the main document for the UK, the UK Forestry Standard sets out standards for the sustainable management of the UK forest resource (FORESTRY COMMISSION 2004). ‐ 29 ‐
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In Scotland, since the constitutional reform and the devolution of forestry in 1999, the Forestry Commission Scotland (FCS), founded in 2003, is the central agency responsible for forest policy in Scotland (THE CABINET OFFICE 1999, P. 3). In 2006, the second Scottish Forestry Strategy (SFS) was published by the Scottish Executive in cooperation with the FCS. It determines a long‐term vision for the Scottish forestry and sets up principles and outcomes to be achieved. The vision of this strategy is to increase the forest cover up to 25 per cent in 2050. Furthermore, people in Scotland will benefit from the enjoyment and the use of forest and its goods and take care of them for future generations. The forest plays a particular role in culture, economy and environment (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 15).
With the underlying principles of sustainable forest management, social inclusion, forestry for and with people and the integration of forestry with other land uses the strategy shall achieve the following outcomes: • “Improved health and wellbeing of people and their communities”
• “Competitive and innovative businesses contributing to the growth of the Scottish economy”
• “High quality, robust and adaptable environment” (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 8)
To achieve the vision and these major outcomes, the SFS defines more detailed objectives for seven key themes: “Climate change, Timber, Business development, Community development, Access and health, Environmental quality and Biodiversity” (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 21). For this study dealing with forest recreation, especially the key themes environmental quality, access and health and partially the theme business development are crucial. The objectives to achieve a higher environmental quality involve the creation and restructuring of woodlands through their sustainable management and their design in landscapes, especially in National Parks. Forests shall be managed sensitively to enhance the visual impact of woodlands from external and internal views (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 44). The theme Access and health describes the objective to improve the health of people through access to nature. Woodlands contribute to health by the activities people can perform in them. Therefore, aims are improving woodland access e.g. through the development of core paths networks (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 40). Relevant objectives for forestry in business development are the recognition of forests’ possible contribution to rural diversification. Direct revenues from forest‐related tourism shall be enhanced, especially through the promotion of forest‐related activities such as deer‐stalking. Eco‐ tourism seems to be a major economic potential for Scottish landscapes including the forest areas (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 32).
Because it is a stable long‐term strategic framework, the Scottish Forestry Strategy is implemented by short to medium‐term implementation plans (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006,
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A, P. 59). These plans observe the progress made in the last implementation period and define the short or medium‐term objectives for the key themes. Moreover, five Regional Forestry Forums guarantee the development of forestry strategies on the regional level in Scotland. These promote the principle of local forestry frameworks and support the implementation of the SFS (FORESTRY COMMISSION SCOTLAND, 2009, A). An example for these frameworks is the Cairngorms Forest and Woodland Framework, which defines the strategy to develop the forest and woodlands in the case study area of this work (see Chapter 2.3).
5.4 EU RURAL DEVELOPMENT REGULATION AND THE SCOTTISH RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME
A second area of support for forest recreation and its determinants is the context of rural development, more specifically the EU Rural Development Regulation (see Illustration 11). The European Union aims at increasing economic competitiveness and achieving a sustainable development of rural areas, which face immense structural changes in the globalised world. Whereas the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is an instrument to support the agricultural sector in the EU by direct payments for crops and land, EU Rural Development Policy has a wider focus to support rural development. Besides increased competitiveness of the agricultural and forestry sector, rural development shall enhance the countryside by land‐management and improve the quality of life in rural areas through rural diversification (EUROPEAN COMMISSION 2005, P. 9). The EU supports rural development through the European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFRD).
The Scottish Rural Development Programme (SRDP, SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, B), with a budget of 1.6 billion pounds, is the main instrument to deliver the aims of the EU Rural Development Policy in Scotland in the period from 2007 to 2013. It allocates the funding of the EAFRD, which is complemented by two thirds of the Scottish Government (THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT 2009, A). The SRDP incorporates the aims of the EU and develops outcomes and measures. Measures linked to the theme of this study are especially afforestation, investments for the social and ecological value of forests and the improvement of landscapes (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, B, P. 69). By the means of this study it becomes apparent that woodland improvement and expansion are seen to deliver benefits for recreation and tourism through their ability to improve landscape design in general. The linkage between the forest resource and forest‐related recreational and tourism activities is regarded strongly as it contributes to the improvement of the local and rural economy of Scotland. The following section examines the instruments, which shall achieve these strategic goals. 5.5 POLICY INSTRUMENTS
This section examines the instruments used to achieve the strategic policy objectives. It points out how the expansion and improvement of forests and thereby recreation and
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tourism are supported. In policy in general, these instruments cover a huge range of intervening methods, from formal regulation to the informal support by incentives and funding. Nevertheless, not all of the instruments shall be regarded here. This observation will focus on the instrument of incentives, which has a great weight in policy today.
With regard to formal instruments, the FCS regulates forestry under different acts, which primarily concern tree‐felling, replanting and the use of the resources. An amendment of the Forestry Act 1967 in 1985 which created the Wildlife and Countryside Act led e.g. to the duty of the FCS to balance afforestation and sustainable forest management, especially in the conflict between production and conservation (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 55). There are various acts which apply to forestry and forest development. Other formal instruments refer to state intervention. The utilisation of these is appropriate where other instruments do not achieve their goals and possibly where fiscal resources are needed. This way of intervention concerns especially land management, e.g. the purchase of appropriate land to create woodland next to settlements.
The group of informal instruments is unlikely larger. Information and guidance can e.g. support the forestry sector by promotion of research results and innovations. Encouraging stakeholders to take part in forest initiatives is the main idea in this case (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 54). Another informal way to support the forestry takes place through public sector services, like the maintenance and expansion of the road network. Being important for the timber industry by the means of transport, it also supports accessibility for recreation and tourism. As an even more indirect instrument, the FCS on behalf of the Scottish Ministers manages the National Forest Estate. Being the single largest public land resource managed by the Scottish Executive, the development of these 35 per cent of Scottish forest area is seen to be able to acquire a leadership role in forest development for all Scottish forests. Topics like a closer relation between forestry and the tourism sector as well as a greater emphasis on habitat networks and native woodland restoration are pursued and might encourage also private land owners (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 57).
The broadest range of instruments and mechanisms is displayed by funding. The revenues from timber sales, which are free of income tax within the UK, are probably the strongest incentives in the forest policy sector. In addition, the EU and the Scottish Government offer funding for diverse actions which encourage and affect land owners and other stakeholders to steer their forest development in the direction set out by the Scottish Forestry Strategy. For example, the EU supports forestry by the principal mechanisms of the Rural Development Regulation and the EU Structural Funding. Other funding is available from the Scottish Government, namely the Scottish Executive or Scottish Natural Heritage (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, A, P. 56). The following section
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comes up with examples for incentives and grants, which influence forest expansion and improvement for recreation and tourism. Examples for incentives and funding
Within the framework of the EU Rural Development Regulation and the SRDP, forestry and forest‐related developments are supported by a range of grants. The Rural Development Contracts (RDC) - Rural Priorities is one instrument to determine prioritised areas and actions of funding (FORESTRY COMMISSION SCOTLAND 2009, B). They enable Scottish regions to select specific priorities of development. Applications for funding have to meet these regional priorities through the selection of available funded options. Thus, the actual funding is linked to these options but has to consider the priorities for the certain region (THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT 2009, B). Funded options in forestry are for instance the creation of new woodland and the sustainable management of forests (FORESTRY COMMISSION SCOTLAND 2009, C). The creation of new woodland offers six opportunities in woodland planting. Besides three productive woodland types, there are the options of native, naturally regenerated native and mixed woodland (THE SCOTTISH GOVERNMENT 2009, B). Hence, planting initiatives of all kinds are funded. The option of sustainable management of forests can target different woodland areas, but they are supposed to possess a high environmental value. Within this option, woodlands with a high level of access and recreational use shall receive support to maintain and develop a high environmental standard. Besides the Rural Development Regulation, another programme of funding are the Forestry Challenge Funds, in which two funds are available: Woods In and Around Towns (WIAT) and Forestry for People (F4P). The WIAT fund aims at the regeneration of woodlands situated within a distance of one kilometre to villages of more than 2,000 inhabitants. The outcome should be an improvement of the quality of life and better recreational sites for people in larger settlements (FORESTRY COMMISSION SCOTLAND 2009, D). The Forestry for People fund shall achieve “local involvement in woodland projects for health, learning and strengthening communities” (FORESTRY COMMISSION SCOTLAND 2009, D). 5.6 CONCLUSION
The historic development of Scottish forests, the native woods of the past and the present situation showing a low forest cover and large non‐native plantations demands for a particular intervention of forest policy. Thus, policy in Scotland today aims especially at afforestation of native species and the restructuring of plantation sites. Moreover, forestry and its relation to tourism and recreation are strongly addressed by forest policy. The contribution to rural development receives a high weight in policy strategies. Nevertheless, same weight is given to other priorities for action, e.g. habitat network improvement for biodiversity conservation. Scottish forest policy aims at integrating all functions of forests to manage the resource sustainably. The instruments
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to deliver these policy aims are manifold. With a special focus on landscape improvement for recreation and health of the Scottish people as well as for the tourism sector, different funding sources support measures which increase the forest cover, restructure existing forests towards a better design and improve their accessibility. Although incentives are an informal policy instrument and thus might be weaker than formal ones, information, guidance and the promotion of forestry in cooperation with incentives and funding measures constitute a powerful toolbox to encourage people and stakeholders to take action in forest recreation and tourism development.
Illustration 12: Small forest pocket in Glen Muick, Cairngorms NP
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6. ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FORESTS IN THE STUDY AREA
This chapter describes the assessment of the recreational potential of forest areas in the Cairngorms National Park. It outlines the methodology of the analysis in detail and comes up with the resulting maps. The analysis refers to the preceding theory chapters and concentrates on the definition of recreational potential specified in chapter 4.3 (see Chapter 4.3). 6.1 PREPARING THE ANALYSIS
Before describing the assessment in detail, the main method, data origin and data validity shall be clarified briefly. GIS gridbased analysis
With regard to the methodology (see Chapter 1.3), the assessment of the recreational potential used a multi‐criteria approach implemented by a GIS grid‐based analysis. In grid‐based analyses, the cell size is crucial because it determines the detail of the analysis. But, the choice of the appropriate cell size is dependent on the available data and computing performance. In the case of analysing the recreational potential of forests, a cell size of 50 x 50 metres was availed. This cell size allows a certain detail in the analysis and delivers diversified outcomes for regional level.
With regard to the recreational potential defined in chapter 4.2.5, the main factors natural attractiveness and accessibility constitute the recreational potential of a forest site and hence a cell in the grid. For the reason that both main factors bear a certain complexity and cannot be described by a single variable or indicator, an indicator system was developed for the assessment. The choice of indicators was, as well as the cell size, strongly dependent on the available data. Data availability and validity
The data used for this analysis stems from different sources. A significant amount of data was obtained from the EDINA digimap collection, which offers e.g. Ordnance Survey data (EDINA 2010). Ordnance Survey as the national mapping agency of Great Britain provides different map datasets for different scales. The utilised data is the OS Meridian 2 (contour lines, scale 1:50,000) and the OS Strategic (scale 1:250,000). The latter provided most of the data used in the analysis, being data on transport, settlements, tourism and regional woodland. Solely the data on National Nature Reserves, National Park boundaries, Ancient Semi‐Natural Woodland Inventory and lakes in the National Park was taken from the Scottish Natural Heritage information service (SCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE 2010, A). The data was then processed to create the necessary indicators and background data.
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Concerning the validity of the data it has to be stated that data at a scale of 1:250,000 is appropriate for a regional investigation. However, data access was limited due to difficulties to obtain data from Scotland. Data on land use, vegetation cover and more detailed forest types would have led to an improvement of the analysis. According to validity, data is seen to be valid for the reason that OS and SNH are agencies of the Scottish Government. 6.2 INDICATOR SYSTEM
The indicators and their links which were developed on the basis of the definition of recreational potential are shown in illustration 13 (see Illustration 13). The use of indices which combine indicators leads to a higher transparency in the analysis and calculation. Natural attractiveness is separated into two indices: the attractiveness of the forest site and the attractiveness of the landscape. Accessibility as the second determinant consists of three indices, namely the existence of forest trails, the accessibility from visitor sources and from visitor destinations. The indices are described by indicators that were developed against the background of the available data (see above). According to FÜRST & SCHOLLES (2008) who set requirements for indicators, the here developed indicators are replicable, comparable, objective, controllable and measurable (SCHOLLES 2008, P. 320). Illustration 13: Indicator system
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6.3 CALCULATING THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL
The final value of the recreational potential of a forest cell is calculated by a weighted aggregation of values on different steps. In order to come up with a meaningful and reasonable result, it was necessary to develop a scoring system which is applied to every indicator. The here applied scoring ranges from the value 1 to the value 5, with 1 signifying the lowest possible value. Each indicator and its cell values were classified with this scoring system, based on theory discussed before and on plausible assumptions.
The aggregation of the values took place through a weighted summing up on different levels. The different levels of weighting concern the weighting of indicators, indices and the final weighting of the main factors (see Illustration 13). Weighting on different levels was crucial because it allowed the determination of the influence of each indicator and index on the final output. Different weight values have been tested during the analysis process to observe changes in outcomes. The multi‐level weighting made it possible to adapt and optimise the indicator system to achieve the most ideal result. Recreational Potential was therefore calculated in the following steps:
with
J: index value
M: main factor value
6.4 INDICES AND INDICATORS Following, the indices and their indicators shall be illustrated in detail. The description of the indices gives also the information on the weighting of the indicators. The weighting tables showing all values used for the assessment are attached in appendix I (see Appendix I). For the indicators, the data processing operations and the scoring of the data will be described briefly. The interim maps showing the five indices and their values can be found in appendix II (see Appendix II).
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6.4.1 ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE FOREST SITE
Based on the available data, the index attractiveness of the forest site is defined as a combination of two indicators, the forest type and the presence of Scottish National Nature Reserves. Forest type
To calculate recreational potential of forest cells, it is crucial to implicate forest type data in the analysis. Due to limited data availability, SNH and OS data on forests and woodlands was combined for this indicator. SNH provided data in its Scotland Ancient Woodland Inventory, in which three different types of woodlands are listed: ancient woodland, woodland on roy maps and long‐established woodlands of plantation origin. This data shows the forests and woodlands which are existent since centuries. These forests have a higher value due to their presence on historic sites (SCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE 1997). Additional plantation areas which arose in recent decades and during the 20 th century were added from the OS data. The combination of these two datasets is not exact due to different scales of origin, but the resulting four forest types made a scoring of forest attractiveness possible. Ancient woodland and woodland on Roy maps was scored highest, whereas long‐established woodland and other plantations scored less (see Appendix I). Presence of National Nature Reserves (NNR)
The presence of reserves and protection areas increases the value of forest recreation as stated in chapter 4.2.1. National Nature Reserves in Scotland (NNRs) “contain examples of some of the most important natural and semi‐natural terrestrial and coastal eco‐ systems in Great Britain” (SCOTTISH NATURAL HERITAGE 2010, B). They are managed for habitat conservation and for scientific purposes. The indicator shows whether a forest area is situated in a National Nature Reserve or not. The recreational value is higher when a forest lies within these areas (see Appendix I). Weighting attractiveness of the forest site
Due to the limited data availability, only these two indicators define the attractiveness of a forest cell. It is assumed that the forest type is affecting attractiveness stronger than the presence of National Nature Reserves. Therefore the weight of the forest type was set at 70 per cent, whereas the presence of NNRs accounts for 30 per cent. 6.4.2 ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE LANDSCAPE
The index attractiveness of the landscape consists of four indicators. Landscape attractiveness of a forest cell in this analysis considered the presence of lakes and rivers, the relief energy and the closeness to the natural tree line. Distances were calculated for these indicators with the GIS spatial analyst tool “Euclidean distance”. The tool calculates each raster cell’s linear distance to the next feature, e.g. a lake, by using the theorem of Pythagoras. The calculated linear distance values of cells to the nearest feature were then sorted in classes of different sizes. Then, the scoring values were attributed to these classes.
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Distance to lakes
Lakes in the landscape of the Cairngorms are a major natural feature. In general, lakes are seen to be a feature which increases recreational potential. Thus, forests next or in close distance to lakes have a higher value for recreation than those far away from lakes. It is assumed that lakes affect the recreational value of landscapes over kilometres. Consequently, a class size of 1,000 metres was chosen, which means that cells within a distance of 1,000 metres to a lake received the highest scoring value of five (see Appendix I). Distance to rivers
The reasons that led to the choice of lakes as crucial natural features account also for rivers. Rivers influence the landscape amenity positively and contribute to a higher recreational potential. Only major rivers were selected from the incoming data because they are main features of the landscape. The applied scoring reflects the issue that lakes have a wider influence on landscapes. The influence of rivers is smaller, which explains the class size of 500 metres (see Appendix I). Relief energy
Landscape amenity is extremely influenced by landform. As shown in chapter 4.2.1, high landscape amenity bases on a high diversity in landform and land cover. For this reason, the relief energy as an indicator to measure landform value was calculated. Because relief energy should consider landscape at a larger scale, equal cells of one km² were used. Relief energy was defined as the standard deviation of gradient values of 50 x 50 m cells in a raster of 1,000 x 1,000 m. The average gradient of hill slopes was calculated from a digital elevation model. The slope data of the 50 x 50 m grid was then used to calculate the standard deviation for the raster of 1,000 x 1,000 m cells. At last, the standard deviation values were classified in classes of 2.5 degrees each. The cells of more than 10 degree in standard deviation scored highest (see Appendix I). Distance to natural tree line
The “distance to the natural tree line” indicator describes that forest cells closer to the natural tree line have a higher recreational potential. This assumption derives from the fact that forest areas appear more natural when the vegetation matches the natural and climatic circumstances in the highlands of Scotland (see Chapter 5.1). The natural tree line was modelled at an altitude of 650m a.s.l. to accommodate natural variation. The classes were kept smaller to value only those areas which are particularly close the natural tree line (see Appendix I). Weighting attractiveness of the landscape
Relief energy was weighted highest with 40 per cent because it influences the amenity of the landscape significantly. Lakes have a higher value for recreation in a forest than rivers (30 and 20 per cent), whereas the distance to the natural tree line can be seen as the least important factor of influence on landscape value of forests (see Appendix I).
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6.4.3 EXISTENCE OF FOREST TRAILS
The existence of forest trails, derived only from the indicator “distance to forest trails”, was valued as an index itself because it signifies a major accessibility feature. Therefore it is not treated as a natural tourist destination (see Chapter 6.4.5). Distance to forest trails
The existence of forest trails is crucial for the accessibility of forest areas. Sign‐posts for entrance points and way‐marked paths promote these areas and strengthen access. The available geodata offered entrance points to such forest trails in the Cairngorms National Park area. Because a path network was not provided, the Euclidean distance was again used to map influences of forest trails on forest cells in the surrounding area. Classing and scoring of distances was implemented as shown in the appendix (see Appendix I). Within a distance of two kilometres forest cells score the value three or higher, which signifies a walk of about half an hour. 6.4.4 ACCESSIBILITY FROM VISITOR SOURCES
A second index of accessibility is the accessibility from visitor sources. Accessibility in this understanding is the closeness of forests to visitor sources. The closer a forest area is to a source, the higher is the accessibility. Visitor sources for the analysis were tourist accommodation sites, settlements and primary roads. The method to analyse accessibility was the Euclidean distance. It presents a simple model to describe the accessibility of forest cell in relation to different visitor sources. Distance to tourist accommodation
Tourist accommodation sites were selected from OS data. The selected sites are camping sites, caravan sites, camping and caravan combined sites and youth hostels. Data on hotels and pensions was not available. Tourists might accept longer ways to sites for forest recreation. Thus, the class sizes are larger than the ones of the settlement and primary road indicators (see Appendix I). Distance to settlements
Settlements are a second major source of forest visitors. Besides people living in villages and towns, tourists are also expected to park their own vehicle or arrive with public transport in the settlements. The analysis of distances based on the centres of villages in the Cairngorms area. Because daily recreation plays also a role in this indicator, class sizes were chosen smaller to model the likelihood that people are not walking or driving far for daily forest recreation (see Appendix I). Distance to primary roads
As a last source, the primary roads of the area were chosen. These are part of a transport type which has to be treated specially. Visitors might stop along the roads and start their forest visit directly from there. The class sizes and scorings are equal to the indicator distance to settlements (see Appendix I).
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Weighting of accessibility from visitor sources
Settlements are seen to have the most influence on accessibility due to the presence of public transport, parking and housing. Because tourist accommodation is lacking hotel and private accommodation data, it was only weighted with 35 per cent. Least influence is attributed to the primary roads for the reason that other tourist sources have a higher influence (see Appendix I). 6.4.5 ACCESSIBILITY FROM VISITOR DESTINATIONS
The third index of accessibility is the accessibility from visitor destinations. Accessibility here means the closeness of forests to tourist sites, divided in nature and other tourism destinations. Besides natural tourists who choose their destination with regard to landscape amenity and nature tourism destinations, visitors of other tourist sites might combine a visit with a trip to close natural features such as forests (see Chapter 4.2.2). Hence, the closer a forest area is to one of these destinations, the higher is this accessibility. Once again, linear distances alleviated calculations. Distance to natural tourist destinations
Nature tourism is a notable feature in the Cairngorms National Park. It is in fact a famous area for hill‐walking and hiking, but also for other outdoor activities (see Chapter 2). Points referring to these sites were selected from the OS geodata. These natural tourist destinations cover picnic sites, viewpoints on mountain tops and wildlife centres. The reclassification of distances for the scoring of accessibility values used larger distances than for other tourist sites because it is assumed that nature visitors spend more time and travel farer distances (see Appendix I). Their primary visit purpose is nature recreation.
Distance to other tourist destinations
Other tourism sites, e.g. museums, whiskey distilleries and castles, are scattered across the Cairngorms area. As stated above, visitors of these sites often combine their visit with spending time in the close nature. Other tourist sites for the analysis were castles, public gardens, museums, whiskey distilleries, visitor centres of different kinds and other landmarks. A smaller class size was chosen due to the assumption that a combination of visiting other tourist sites and forest visits requires settings close to each other (see Appendix I).
Weighting of accessibility from visitor destinations
Nature tourism receives a high recognition in the Cairngorms National Park. The presence of protection and conservation designations within its boundaries underlines the high value for nature recreation (see e.g. CNPA 2007). That is why the weighting turns out to be higher for the indicator measuring the distance to natural tourist destinations (60 per cent to 40 per cent, see Appendix I).
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6.5 WEIGHTING OF INDICES AND MAIN FACTORS
According to the calculation methodology of the recreational potential for each forest cell (see Chapter 6.4), two more weighting steps had to be carried out. First, a weighted sum of index values led to the values of the main factors natural attractiveness and accessibility. A 60 per cent weight was attached to the values of landscape attractiveness, 40 per cent were given to the forest type. The surrounding landscape of a forest area has a greater affect on natural attractiveness then the forest itself, especially in case of the Cairngorms with their distinct diversity in landscape features. In the accessibility aggregation, the existence of forest trails received a weight of 20 per cent. Playing a vital role, forest trails use their promotional and advertising function to increase accessibility to close forest sites. Both other indices, the accessibility from visitor sources and visitor destinations, received a 40 per cent weight. This weighting underlines the great significance of forest accessibility from tourist and recreational sites and visitor sources.
At last, the weighted aggregation of natural attractiveness and accessibility rests upon the premise that both main factors have the same weight in influencing the recreational potential of a forest. The theory chapter (see Chapter 4.2) showed that both factors are evidently crucial for forest recreation. As a consequence, calculations for the cells considered both factors with a weight of 50 per cent. The result of this calculation led, after being classed, to the mapping of values of recreational potential (see Chapter 6.6, Illustration 14).
6.6 MAPPING THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FOREST AREAS
The mapped recreational potential values of forest areas in the Cairngorms National Park are shown in illustration 14 (see Illustration 14). Still based on 50 x 50 m cells, the values are illustrated in class sizes of 0.5. Approximately half of the entire forest area receives values lower than 2.5 in this analysis, which points at a lack of recreational potential. These cells are summarised in one class.
Only a few areas in the Cairngorms National Park reach a high level of recreational potential, signified by the class describing the values greater than 3.51. These areas lie especially in the area west of Braemar, in the Aviemore area and near Ballater. Values of the two classes within the bounds of 2.5 and 3.5 are situated next to the high quality areas, but also appear dispersed.
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Illustration 14: The recreational potential of forest areas in the Cairngorms NP
According to the limited data availability, these results have to be treated with care. The calculation based indeed on theory but as well on plausible assumptions in indicator choosing, scoring and weighting. Nonetheless, the map draws a differentiated image of the recreational potential of forest sites in the study area. On a regional scale, it locates these recreational values, provides an overview on the situation to the viewer and raises awareness. Provided information could be useful and beneficial for forest policy as well as in other regional policies. Areas of application are e.g. policy strategies which determine long‐term development aims. Alongside information and awareness building, the recreational potential of forest sites could also lead to local planning and intervention, because it points at areas lacking potential for recreation. At last it has to be stated that the information is important for various stakeholders, reaching from public bodies to private land owners and from regional level to local level. Especially land owners, single or ownership groups, could become engaged in forest recreation by ‐ 43 ‐
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the means of this map. The results offer chances for diversification and business creation, e.g. in gastronomy, accommodation or in the delivering of special forest activities.
6.7 MAPPING THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF NON‐FORESTED AREAS
By the means of interim data of the calculation process the recreational potential for non‐forested areas as a second output could be calculated and mapped. Regarding the aims of the Scottish Forestry Strategy and the Forest and Woodland Framework of the Cairngorms National Park (see Chapters 2.3 & 5.2.2), it becomes apparent that afforestation and further diversification of forestry into the supply of recreational opportunities is a main objective for future development. Mapping sites of afforestation where the recreational potential of forests would be high is hence meant to be an instrument to support stakeholders in afforestation‐related decision‐making. With the help of different interim data results a map was created which based on the indices of landscape attractiveness and accessibility from visitor sources and destinations. The indicator “distance to forest trails” was left out, because forest trails have no significance for future forest developments. The weighted summing up of these indices by using equal weight for landscape attractiveness and accessibility delivered the database for mapping recreational potential for non‐forested areas (see Illustration 15). The natural tree line at 650 m above sea level determines in this abstract model the only limitation to afforestation. The classing and mapping of the results aimed at showing the areas which score higher values than 2.5 (see Illustration 15). The map shows a high recreational potential of areas especially in remote glens close to the natural tree line and lakes. Moreover, higher accessible areas next to Braemar, Aviemore and Kingussie could also be suitable for afforestation measures which aim specifically at the social function of forests. In general, the areas appear dispersed and scattered across the entire NP area, but often these areas are adjacent to existing forest areas.
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6. ASSESSMENT OF THE RECREATIONAL POTENTIAL OF FORESTS IN THE STUDY AREA
Illustration 15: The recreational potential of nonforested areas in the Cairngorms NP
Although the outcomes are valid, a lack of data on vegetation cover, wetlands and peat lands inhibit a targeting that is more substantiated. Afforestation targeting has to take into account a diversity of features, which exceeds the extent of this study as well as the available data. Nevertheless, the map reveals areas with a notable potential for forest and outdoor recreation, considering various indicators. It can therefore assist stakeholders in decision‐making to choose suitable sites for afforestation reflecting upon the social function of forests.
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7. CONCLUSION
7. CONCLUSION
The study has shown that the social function of forests receives a high recognition today. Forest recreation is one of the main outdoor leisure activities carried out in many countries of the European continent, may they be directly forest‐related or not. As one of the non‐productive functions of forests, it gains more and more weight in forest management together with nature protection and biodiversity conservation. One has to bear in mind that it is difficult to derive all benefits from a forest at the same time. The appearance of forests, especially in Scotland, is still particularly influenced by their use. In fact, policy and the overwhelming principle of sustainable forest management aim at an integration of all uses, but requirements of recreation forests are difficult to be reconciled with other forest purposes, especially commercial forestry. This brings up a strong typecast of commercial forests and forests for nature conservation and recreation. Nevertheless, especially the Scottish forest policy aims at a more accommodating commercial forestry, avoiding large clear‐cuts, the planting of non‐ native tree species and forests solely consisting of even‐aged trees. However, commercial forestry still builds a basis for the rural economy and may not be marginalised.
This study has moreover pointed out that various instruments support forest recreation. Playing a great role in forest and rural policy in Scotland, the most important tools for recreation and tourism are informal ones, offering incentives, information and guidance and promoting forest recreation and rural diversification. These collaborate with formal instruments such as the Forestry Act 1967 and the Wildlife and Countryside Act in Scotland (see Chapter 5.5). Overall, this toolbox is manifold and encourages stakeholders to improve and develop recreation in forests for different reasons. The instruments contribute to the overall goal and policy vision of a healthier, greener, wealthier and fairer Scotland, especially in the context of the large proportion of rural space (SCOTTISH EXECUTIVE 2006, B, P. 95).
According to the informal instruments, the assessment of the recreational potential of forest areas could be an instrument of support for forest recreation and rural development. Although data availability was constraint and factors such as ownership patterns could not be considered in the analysis of the Cairngorms National Park, the chosen indicators and their weighted summing up basing on theory and plausible assumptions delivered satisfying and reliable outcomes. Thus the main objective of the study has been achieved (see Chapter 6.7). Both maps, displaying on the one hand the recreational potential of currently forested areas and on the other hand recreational potential of non‐forested sites, offer various possibilities for their application in policy and forest development planning on regional as well as on local level. Revealing lacking areas and high potential sites, the maps are able to raise awareness for a differentiated view on forests in the National Park. Stakeholders on regional level can easily
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7. CONCLUSION
distinguish sites where the recreational function of forests shall be supported. Moreover, the maps could alleviate conflict‐resolution between recreational and commercial functions of the forest resource. Areas of low recreational potential could become major sites for commercial forestry and vice versa. Hence, the maps can support decision‐making processes which determine the future development of forests in the park.
On the local level, the results could be the basis for decision‐making of land owners and recreation and tourism businesses. A high recreational potential on own forest land could engage land owners (single owner or community forestry initiatives) to increase recreational opportunities, e.g. through sign‐posting and development of path networks. Opportunities for business development might become also apparent, e.g. in the gastronomy or accommodation sector. For non‐forested sites, land owners receive information on recreational potential of sites which could become afforested. In both cases, the results of the assessment have to be accompanied by awareness‐raising for economical benefits of forest recreation in rural areas.
This work showed that rural diversification can be especially delivered by forest recreation due to the high demand of the society. In addition, an area like the Cairngorms National Park provides the setting for special nature recreation activities which release higher economical benefits. Whereas private land owners often have little interest in offering recreational opportunities for visitors, broader bottom‐up approaches involving many land owners and communities could lead to the deliverance of a diversified recreational supply. These communities and groups would in return profit from the increasing visitor number demanding for recreation. Visitors stay longer in more attractive areas and hence enlarge their spending. Accordingly, showing recreational potential and raising awareness among the stakeholders affects the rural businesses and might end up in business creation and a stronger service sector with more job opportunities. Therefore and according to the results of this study, knowledge on the recreational potential of forest areas is essential and necessary to support rural diversification and development.
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8. LIST OF REFERENCES
8. LIST OF REFERENCES
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APPENDIX I: SCORING AND WEIGHTING TABLES FOR THE INDICATORS
Table 2: Scoring of forest type
Table 3: Scoring of NNR presence
Source: own table
Table 4: Scoring and weighting of indicators for landscape attractiveness
‐ I ‐
Table 5: Scoring of the distance to forest trails
Table 6: Scoring and weighting of indicators for accessibility from visitor sources
‐ II ‐
APPENDIX II: INTERIM MAPS SHOWING THE FIVE INDICES AND THEIR VALUES
Source for all illustrations: own calculations based on Ordnance Survey data (2010) and Scottish Natural Heritage data (2010) Illustration 16: Values of forest attractiveness
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