Ruprecht-Karls-Universität Heidelberg

Anglistisches Seminar

Cultural Studies: History of British Institutions Part II

Wintersemester 2006/07

 A brief history of  the Second Boer War

written by

Christian Weckenmann

Heidelberg, Dezember 2006

 

 

Contents:

1  Introduction  3

2  Who are the Boers?  4

3  Brief history of British engagement in South Africa  6

4  The War 8

4.1  The way to war 8

4.2  The conduct of war 9

4.3  A disgraceful peace  12

5  Conclusions  13

6  Bibligraphy  14

 

 

1    Introduction

" Take a community of Dutchmen of the type of those who defended themselves for fifty years against all the power of Spain at a time when Spain was the greatest power in the world. Intermix with them a strain of those inflexible French Huguenots who gave up home and fortune and left their country for ever at the time of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The product must obviously be one of the most rugged, virile, unconquerable races ever seen upon earth. Take this formidable people and train them for seven generations in constant warfare against savage men and ferocious beasts, in circumstances under which no weakling could survive, place them so that they acquire exceptional skill with weapons and in horsemanship, give them a country which is eminently suited to the tactics of the huntsman, the marksman, and the rider. Then, finally, put a finer temper upon their military qualities by a dour fatalistic Old Testament religion and an ardent and consuming patriotism. Combine all these qualities and all these impulses in one individual, and you have the modern Boer – the most formidable antagonist who ever crossed the path of Imperial Britain. Our military history has largely consisted in our conflicts with France, but Napoleon and all his veterans have never treated us so roughly as these hard-bitten farmers with their ancient theology and their inconveniently modern rifles.”[1]

Sir Arthur Conan Dolyle, author of the Sherlock Holmes detective stories, wrote two volumes about the Boer War. He was fascinated by the struggle of this people, called the Boers, against, what was then, the most powerful nation in the world. And he was by no means left all on his own with his keen interest in this war. Back then and still today people have been gripped by it. What is it that prevents this war between the British Empire and a “ragged band of Bible-wielding farmers”[2] to be buried in oblivion? What is it that sets apart this war from so many others?

 

2    Who are the Boers?

“No one can know or appreciate the Boer who does not know his past, for he is what his past has made him." [3]

European engagement in South Africa goes back to 1652, when the Dutch established Cape Colony. At first the sole purpose of this establishment was to create a provision-station for Dutch ships, which sailed the spice route to the East Indies.[4] A group of 90 Calvinist settlers, servants of the Dutch East India Company, were settled there to build a fort and work the land.[5] When the mission was about to fail, due to the lack of motivation on the part of the unfree settlers, the company introduced counteractive measures to save its enterprise. Letters of freedom were issued and the right to own property was granted. This did not only prove to be a b incentive for the settlers to do well but also attracted other groups, such as French Huguenots, Frisian Calvinists, Flemish and German Protestants, who sought a place where they could freely practice their faith.[6] The Boers, as these people later came to be known, seized the chance to lead an independent and self-determined life. However, they still were in the sphere of influence of the British, who had annexed the cape from the Dutch at the beginning of the 19^th century. Tasting liberty, they soon wanted to free themselves from any form of control and moved further into the country to escape British reach. This emigration from the safety of the civilized European colony towards the uncivilized wilderness went down in history as the Great Trek and provided the basis for the foundation of the two Boer republics, namely the Transvaal and the Orange Free State.[7] Yet, the country they claimed as their new homeland was not uninhabited. The foundation of settlements and towns in this region therefore led to conflicts with the native population. One of the major clashes between the Boers and a native power was the Battle of Blood River. It is of significance here as this battle played an important role in the development of the Boer mentality. Jackson describes it “as a defining moment in the creation of the Afrikaner[8] identity”[9]. A short outline of the conflict is therefore necessary: after supposedly successful negotiations between the Boers and the Zulus resulting in the signing of a treaty, it turned out to be part of a deception plan on part of the Zulus, who attacked shortly after. As means of retaliation, the Boer minority prepared for battle. The task ahead of them, to defeat 10.000 Zulus with just 530 Boer fighters, seemed to be humanly impossible. According to Calvinist and puritan tradition a covenant was sworn:

“[...] at this moment we stand before the holy God of heaven and earth to make a promise, if He will be with us and protect us and deliver the enemy into our hands so that we may triumph over him, that we shall observe the day and the date as an anniversary in each year and a day of thanksgiving like the Sabbath, in His honor [...]”[10]

With the assurance of God’s protection and superior firepower, the Boers killed about 3.000 Zulu worriors without suffering one casualty themselves.[11] One of the central elements in Calvinist belief, the self perception as being chosen by God, seemed to have been confirmed. God’s support had manifested. Mere belief became a certainty. With God at one’s side, nothing had to be feared and everything could be overcome.

 

3    Brief history of British engagement in South Africa

In the process of expanding and strengthening the British Empire, England sought to take possession of strategically and economically important areas, such as the Cape of Good Hope. Hence, the British annexed the Cape in 1806, gaining control of the Far East trade routes.[12] The abolishment of slavery by the British in 1834 proved to be a source of conflict between the British and the Boers, as they depended on slaves for their economy to run smoothly. This conflict resulted in the above mentioned Boer separation from the British and in consequence to the foundation of two independent Boer republics.[13] As primary interests were not interfered with, Britain put up with the state of affairs and did not seize immediate counteractive measures. The situation changed when diamonds and gold were found on Boer territory. Britain’s as well as the world’s interest in the two meaningless Boer republics suddenly arose. Thousands of people rushed to South Africa to make their fortunes. Financially b British capitalists, such as Cecile Rhodes, saw their chance of realizing profits and seized control of the valuable mines.[14] Boer isolation thus came to an abrupt end. With the influx of thousands of uitlanders, a name given to foreigners by the Boers, there was a real threat of losing control of their promised land. As the uitlanders were mainly British citizens, a democratic ballot would inevitable have led to the election of a pro-British leadership and Boer interests would no longer be represented. Thus granting the voting right to a group of British diamond and gold diggers, twice as big as the Boer population, was considered to be political suicide and had to be prevented by all means. Therefore President Kruger restricted the voting rights to those who had been resident in the republic for at least fourteen years, thus excluding all uitlandish suffrage. In Britain, this was not a very popular decision. Another thorn in Britain’s flesh was the high taxation on mining and the inefficient public administration. Both measures complicated British mining and were considered to be purposely applied. After all, it was not in Boer interest to make mining conditions convenient for the British and thus attracting even more unpopular uitlanderes.[15]

So from a British point of view the situation presented itself as follows: there were the imperialists, such as Chamberlain and Rhodes, who pushed for action against the Boer government. There were the economic interests in diamonds and gold. There were the plans to consolidate British position of power in South Africa in order to strengthen the empire. There was the unfair treatment of British citizens in depriving them of their right to vote and their was the fact that time was not on British side with President Kruger ordering the latest weapons from Germany.[16] 

From a Boer point of view the situation presented itself differently: the Boers had escaped oppression in Europe. They had started a new life on a new continent. They had left the Cape Colony, merged into a new people and led a self-determined life with God’s support. They would not give up all this without a struggle.  

 

4    The War

4.1  The way to war

For the two opposing parties the prospect of war had a different meaning. The British interest in South Africa was mainly economic and the British were sure of their superiority. They therefore aimed at the war, but knew that they could not declare it without a good reason.[17]  For the Boers the stakes were somewhat higher. The war threatened their very existence in South Africa.

Only with this state of affairs in mind, one can really understand why negotiations between President Kruger of the Transvaal and the British, represented by Milner and Chamberlain, were eventually to fail although a series of concessions was made by Kruger.[18] And only with Boer history in mind, one can really understand why integration into the British Empire was no option. 

The war, however, was not yet declared. The atmosphere was tense. When a British mining engineer was shot by Transvaal police in December 1898, the situation grew even more acute. Negotiations were once more taken up and the Bloemfontein Conference opened on 31^st of May.[19] Milner, British High Commissioner and in charge of the negotiations with the Transvaal, did not however intend to settle the issue. He wanted the Transvaal and its gold and diamonds for the British Empire. With preparations for a potential war on both sides and no progress in settling the differences in a peaceful way, pressure to take positive action increased. When President Steyn of the Orange Free State, who had previously urged Kruger to restraint, saw the hopelessness of the situation, he agreed to support the Transvaal. Thus Transvaal and Orange Free State finally issued an ultimatum, demanding to pull back all British troops within forty-eight hours or war would be declared. The reason to make war on the two republics, which was desperately needed by the British, had been provided. Responsibility for the outbreak was thus taken off British shoulders. The requirements were met. Public support in Britain was ensured due to the proclamation to wage war in order to grant the voting rights to British citizens abroad and to liberate the natives from Boer suppression. The newspapers had beaten the drum in favor of the war for quite a while and prepared the mother country ideologically for what was to come. A certain eagerness and adventurous expectation could be felt in Britain; the shame of the defeat in the first Boer War had to be made up for, after all. Everything considered, Britain’s politicians, soldiers and citizens were more enthusiastic than sorrowful about the outbreak.[20] For them it was clear who was to be made responsible. “Mr. Kruger has asked for war, and war he must have”[21], could be read in the Daily Telegraph on the following day. War started on the 11^th of October 1899.[22]

4.2  The conduct of war

When the Boer War commenced, the British soon realized that they had underestimated the strength and determination of the Boers. The British were ill-prepared and ill-equipped. Their arms were not state-of-the-art and their clothing not apt to the climatic conditions of South Africa. They did not possess good maps of the region and their supply situation was disastrous due to the great distance between Great Britain and the Cape. They had not completed their mobilization and were thus outnumbered by the Boers. In consequence, the war started with a series of defeats culminating in the so called Black Week between 10. – 15. December 1899.[23]

The Boer leadership on the other hand side had equipped its men with the latest Mauser rifles from Germany. They knew the area like the back of their hands and were supplied by their families. The frontier experience had made them sturdy, the use of horses highly mobile and the belief in God’s support very determined. The downside was that as farmers, they had never undergone any military training. The lack of discipline was a problem. Moreover, being two very small republics, they had only a limited number of available soldiers.[24] 

With the British still struggling to get a foothold, the Boers tried to seize the chance of the moment and make the most of the advantages at this early stage of the war. They knew that time was not on their side. The first Boer War in mind, they planned to gain a few fast victories so that the British would be urged to submit to Boer demands once more and grant independence.[25] The British, however, with thousands of soldiers on their way, did not intend to suffer a second disgraceful defeat. The world, especially other colonial powers such as Germany, France, the Netherlands and so forth were very interested in the course of the war. Expectations of the British public “to teach those Dutch farmers a lesson”[26] increased the pressure further. If the British Empire could not deal with a bunch of farmers, how could it claim the hegemony in the world? There was no way the British would accept defeat – this time they meant business. Before the war had really started, it was clear that either side would fight to the end.

With more and more British troops streaming into the country the tide soon turned. The Boer offensive came to a halt and it was Britain’s turn to act. One town after the other was taken by the British and a significant number of Boer fighters were captured. On the 5^th of June 1900, Pretoria, the capital of the Transvaal, was to fall into British hands.[27] With the control over all major cities in the two republics and an overwhelming superiority of firepower and soldiers, the British were sure to have broken Boer resistance. The Boers realized that there was little prospect of winning the war with conventional means. They had to change their way of fighting.[28]

Outnumbered by British forces, frontal attacks were not very promising. The Boers adopted guerilla warfare. Thus they attacked in small groups and mainly targeted the British supply lines. They destroyed railways and bridges and tried to interfere with British communication. The plan of action was to attack and vanish. The British high command was helpless. They were not used and prepared to wage a guerilla war. Immediate means to counter this uncivilized way of fighting had to be found.[29]

The British answer was not long in coming. The main problem from British point of view was the b backing the Boers had in the population. To cut off their supplies or for that matter off their suppliers would sooner or later break their backs. To achieve this, they applied a scorched earth policy. They burned the land, destroyed the farms, killed sheep and cattle and deprived the population of the necessities of life and thus of the possibility to supply.[30] To be able to keep an eye on Boer women and children, they were confined into huge concentration camps.[31] Living conditions there were appalling. Poor diet and low standards of hygiene led to the spread of diseases. Thousands of Boers and black Africans, for whom separate camps had been built, died.[32] These measures, however, did not have the effect of an immediate surrender. Many Boer soldiers, being without home or family to come back to, were more determined to offer resistance than ever. Tired of constantly being raided and frustrated of the inefficiency of their actions to bring war to an end, the British embarked on a different strategy. Orders were issued to build a blockhouse system, consisting of a great number of little fortified constructions. Armed guards, who were assigned to the blockhouses, in combination with barbed wire, that connected the individual huts, restricted the Boer guerilla in their movements.[33] Furthermore women and children were not to be taken to concentration camps anymore but left out in the veldt to force the remaining Boer soldiers to make up their minds whether to continue the fighting or to care for their unprotected families.[34] In addition the scorched earth policy started taking its toll and fresh food supplies and ammunition got scarce. The hopelessness of the situation was apparent - even to the most dedicated and convinced fighters. Voices to agree to peace talks as long as there was still something to negotiate about were raised.

4.3  A disgraceful peace

15^th of May 1902 the two delegations entered into negotiations. Sixteen days later an agreement was found. The terms of the peace treaty were as follows: the Boers had to surrender and lose their independence. In return the British agreed to pay a compensation for the war damage in the amount of ₤ 3 million. They granted an amnesty for Boer soldiers and rebels. In addition, a swift return of all prisoners of war, who had been sent overseas, was guaranteed. They also held out the prospect of eventual self-government and agree to not interfere with the question of the rights for the non-whites.[35]

 

5    Conclusions

With the Boer surrender in May 1902, the British had officially won the war. But judging from the initial goals proclaimed by the British and the Boers, there were only losers. Neither side achieved its aim. The war had claimed tens of thousands of lives. The Boers had lost most of their farms, most of their cattle, many of their wives, children and fellow men and on top of all their independence. For the British the Boer War can be described as an “expensive failure”[36] - expensive in financial terms, expensive in a moral way and expansive from a strategic and military point of view. Firstly, it has been estimated that the war had cost the British Government about ₤ 210 million.[37] Secondly, great sympathy was shown with the fate of the Boers throughout the world and the Boer War was considered to have been brought about by the British. The concentration camps and other atrocities committed by the British were deemed to be against all rules of conduct for a civilized nation and condemned worldwide. The concession to the Boers to postpone the question about the voting rights for the natives until after the republics had become self-governing was proof of the little importance the British ascribed to the right of the natives. Keeping in mind that the liberation of the natives from Boer suppression was proclaimed to be one of the major justifications for the war, British hypocrisy was revealed and severe damage to British creditability was done. Thirdly and lastly, rival countries in the strife for colonial possessions as well as countries under British dominion had witnessed British powerlessness. The British army had not lived up to expectations considering its strength. The proof of British vincibility had not been passed unobserved. 

 

6    Bibligraphy

Literature:

Carver, M. (1999). The National Army Museum Book of the Boer War. London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Sidgwick & Jackson.

Doyle, A. C. (1900). The Great Boer War. Vol. 1/2.  Leipzig: Tauchnitz Edition.

Henshaw, P. (2001). The Origins of the Boer War. In K. Wilson (ed.), The International Impact of the Boer War. (S. 8-25). Chesham: Acumen.

Jackson, T.  (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books.

Online sources:

Answers.com, world’s greatest encyclodictionalmanacapedia. History of Cape Colony.

http://www.answers.com/history%20of%20cape%20colony, 05/02/2007.

Answers.com, world’s greatest encyclodictionalmanacapedia. Boer.

http://www.answers.com/topic/boer, 05/02/2007.

BBC Homepage. Afrikaners Versus English.

http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/
storyofafrica/12chapter3.shtml, 05/02/2007.

Digger History. Boer War.

http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-conflicts-periods/
other/boer_war.htm, 05/02/2007.

SOUTH AFRICAN HISTORY ONLINE. 16 December 1838.

http://sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1838-12-16.htm, 05/02/2007.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Uitlander.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uitlanders, 05/02/2007.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Cape Colony.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Colony, 05/02/2007.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Second Boer War.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War#Second_phase:_
The_British_offensive_of_January_to_September_1900, 05/02/2007.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Boer.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boer#Nationalism, 05/02/2007.

---

[1] Doyle, A. C. (1900). The Great Boer War. Vol. 1.  Leipzig: Tauchnitz Edition, p. 11.

[2] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p. 27.

[3] Doyle, A. C. (1900). The Great Boer War. Vol. 1.  Leipzig: Tauchnitz Edition, p. 12.

[4] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books. p.9.

[5] cf. http://www.answers.com/history%20of%20cape%20colony

[6] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boer#Nationalism

[7] cf. http://www.answers.com/topic/boer

[8] Afrikaner being a synonym for the Boers

[9] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.12.

[10] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.11.

[11] cf. http://sahistory.org.za/pages/chronology/thisday/1838-12-16.htm

[12] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Colony

[13] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.10.

[14] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books. p.12f.

[15] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uitlanders

[16] cf. Carver, M. (1999). The National Army Museum Book of the Boer War. London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Sidgwick & Jackson, p.8.

[17] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books. p.21.

[18] cf. Carver, M. (1999). The National Army Museum Book of the Boer War. London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Sidgwick & Jackson, p.9.

[19] cf. Jackson, T.  (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books. p.22

[20] Henshaw, P. (2001). The Origins of the Boer War. In K. Wilson (ed.), The International Impact of the Boer War. Chesham: Acumen, p. 12.

[21] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.23.

[22] cf. Carver, M. (1999). The National Army Museum Book of the Boer War. London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Sidgwick & Jackson, p.11.

[23] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War#First_phase:
_The_Boer_offensive_.28October-December.2C_1899.29

[24] cf. http://www.diggerhistory.info/pages-conflicts-periods/other/boer_war.htm

[25] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.32.

[26] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.26.

[27] the capital of the Orange Free State had been taken some months before

[28] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War#Second_phase:_
The_British_offensive_of_January_to_ September_1900

[29] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War#Third_phase:_Guerrilla_war_.28September_1900-May_1902.29

[30] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p.131-143.

[31] cf. http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/12chapter3.shtml

[32] cf. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War#Second_phase:_
The_British_offensive_of_January_to_ September_1900

[33] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p. 162 f.

[34] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p. 168 f.

[35] cf. Jackson, T. (1999). The Boer War. London and Basingstoke: Channel 4 Books, p. 174.

[36] cf. Carver, M. (1999). The National Army Museum Book of the Boer War.
London, Basingstoke and Oxford: Sidgwick & Jackson, p. 252.

[37] Ibid.