Mälardalen University Bachelor Thesis
School of Business 10 p
Department of Public Technology Ecological Economics

Women and Agriculture
- A case study of a rural village in Mozambique -

Authors: Martin Schwartz and Lena Widefjäll

2006-11-24

Abstract

Level:
Bachelor Thesis in Business administration with alignment towards Ecological Economics.

Problem:
How is the division of labour between women and men in agriculture and in household in Maciene? How is the female farmer’s access to economic resources and access to land in Maciene? What are the possibilities to develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene in aspects of division of labour, access to economic resources and access to land? Can micro-credits develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene?

Purpose:
The purpose of this thesis is to study female farmer’s situation in Maciene in aspect of division of labour in agriculture and in household, access to economic resources and access to land. The purpose is also to see what the possibilities are to develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene in these three aspects, and if micro-credits can develop their situation.

Method:
The thesis is based on a field study that was performed in the village of Maciene in Mozambique in the spring of 2006. The main method was qualitative interviews, but it also included participation observations and literature studies.

Result:
In Maciene there are socially constructed roles for women and men that rule the division of labour in agriculture and households. These structures put a heavier workload on the women. There are not much sources of income for both women and men. The married women manage the household’s economic resources but they need to discuss everything with their husbands. Women get access to the land through marriage but it is possible for unmarried women or widows to inherit and own the land. The land is often recognised under the name of the husband and it can mean that some women may loose the land when the husband dies. These traditions forms hinder for the land law to have practical significance. Women and men have difficult to imagine another division of labour, which we would identify as equal. Education, workshops and micro-credit projects that target women are good possibilities to develop the situation. Better access to seeds, tools for agriculture and water would make the women’s workload less and is very important in improving the situation for the female farmers.
 

“Gender equality is more than a goal in itself. It is a precondition for meeting the challenge of reducing poverty, promoting sustainable development and building good governance.”
- Kofi Annan, UN Secretary-General
 

Table of contents

1. Introduction ... 1

1.1 Background ... 1
1.2 Problem area and problem definition ... 2
1.3 Purpose ... 3
1.4 Delimitation ... 3
1.5 Target group ... 3
1.6 Definitions and abbreviations ... 3
1.7 Disposition ... 4

2. Scientific and theoretic approach ... 5

2.1 Hermeneutic ... 5
2.2 Ecological Economics and institutional theory ... 6
2.3 Feminist theory ... 9

3. Scientific method ... 11

3.1 Realisation ... 11

3.2.1 Literature review ... 12
3.2.2 Choice of respondents ... 13
3.2.3 Interview performance ... 15
3.2.4 Participation observation ... 16
3.2.5 Analyze method ... 16
3.2. Ethical considerations ... 17

3.3 Critical reflections on method and sources ... 18

4. Women’s situation in Mozambique ... 20

4.1 An introduction to Mozambique ... 20
4.1.1 A developing country with a colonial history ... 21

4.2 Women’s situation ... 22
4.2.1 The family situation of women ... 23
4.2.2 Division of labour between women and men ... 25
4.2.3 Women’s access to economic resources ... 26
4.2.4 Women’s access to land ... 27

4.3 Possibilities to develop women’s situation ... 27
4.3.1 Women and micro-credits ... 28

5. The rural village Maciene ... 31

5.1 An introduction to the village ... 31
5.1.1 The development work ... 31
5.1.2 Previous studies about women in Maciene ... 32

5.2 Local leaders’ view on women’s situation ... 33
5.2.1 Division of labour between women and men ... 34
5.2.2 Women’s access to economic resources ... 35
5.2.3 Women’s access to land ... 35

5.3 Local leaders view on possibilities ... 37
5.3.1 Women and micro-credits ... 39

6. The farmers in Maciene ... 41

6.1 Female and male farmer’s view ... 41
6.1.1 Division of labour between women and men ... 42
6.1.2 Women’s access to economic resources ... 45
6.1.3 Women’s access to land ... 46

6.2 Female farmer’s view on possibilities ... 47

7. Analysis ... 49

7.1 Female farmer’s situation in Maciene ... 49
7.1.1 Division of labour between women and men ... 50
7.1.2 Female farmer’s access to economic resources ... 51
7.1.3 Female farmer’s access to land ... 52

7.2 Developing female farmer’s situation in Maciene ... 53
7.2.1 Local leaders’ view on female farmer’s situation ... 53
7.2.2 Possibilities to develop the division of labour ... 54
7.2.3 Possibilities to develop female farmer’s to access economic resources ... 55
7.2.4 Possibilities to develop female farmer’s access to land ... 55

8. Conclusions ... 56

8.1 Final words ... 57
8.1.1 Future research ... 58

List of sources
Appendix 1 Interview guide organizations
Appendix 2 Interview guide The Hunger Project
Appendix 3 Interview guide MINAG in Xai-Xai
Appendix 4 Interview guide Mr. Matsinhe, The Anglican Church in Maciene
Appendix 5 Interview guide village leaders
Appendix 6 Interview guide female farmers
Appendix 7 Interview guide male farmers
 

1. Introduction

African women are invisible producers. The continents basic survival depends on them. The women are the ones that grow, process, transport and market practically all of Africa’s food. They provide 90 percent of the water, wood and fuel, and they spend many hours fetching these resources. Besides, they manage the household and bring up the children. The women own only one percent of the land and receive less than seven percent of farm extension services. They are undernourished, illiterate and they lack influence in the decisions affecting their lives.¹ Mozambique, previous a Portuguese colony, is situated on the southeastern coast of Africa. 80 percent of the population is engaged in agriculture and most of them are peasant farmers. 70 percent of the population lives in absolute poverty, which means that they live with less than one dollar in a day. The poorest people live in the rural areas. The average lifetime is low and the infant mortality rate is high. HIV/AIDS is a large problem in the country.² The illiteracy rates are high, and among rural women less than one fifth know how to read and write.³ In the survival strategy for the rural families’ women are the main people responsible for the self-reliance and they work continuously.⁴

This bachelor thesis is based on a field study performed in the rural village Maciene in Mozambique. The village is situated in the Gaza province, in the southern part of the country. Most of the people in the village are peasant farmers, but they also live from cattle breeding and small-scale fishing.⁵ The village is situated in the Lebombo diocese within the Anglican Church. The Swedish church diocese in Västerås and the Swedish Mission Council are since many years supporting a development project in the village that is called The Maciene Vision.⁶ Since 2002 has Mälardalen University been part of the project, and students at the programme Economy for sustainable development and the Public health programme have been given the opportunity to perform field studies in Maciene.⁷
 

1.1 Background

Many of the previous field studies in Maciene have examined women’s situation. Students at the programme of public health performed these studies for their bachelor and master thesis. Eva Karevik and Anna Svensson studied the socio-economic conditions of 174 women in Maciene centre and also women’s descriptions concerning education and access to health information. Their result shows that Maciene is a typical agriculture community and few people have an employment that generates income. The women describe themselves as powerless in order to affect their situation concerning education. There is a positive attitude to education but external circumstances forms obstacles. The major factor that affects women’s opportunities to education is money and in this matter the family plays a central role.⁸ Also Pernilla Strömberg studied women’s socio-economic situation and focused on family planning and women’s reproductive health. The health centre gives information about family planning and the Anglican Church is preaching abstinent. Women think positive about family planning and contraceptive, and the information they get.⁹ Emma Forsberg studied pregnant and breastfeeding women. Her results shows that the women in Maciene approximately have given birth to 2,4 children. The women give birth to children in short interval and a third of the women have lost a child. During the pregnancy the women work less, but during the breast-feeding they work like normal. The women are low educated and in average they attend school for 4,2 years.¹⁰ Anna Gidlund studied everyday life conditions and beliefs regarding health and wellbeing in three households in the village. It was concluded that it is important to stimulate dialogues and participation to increase the beliefs regarding feelings of possibility to influence the community and to see the connection to an improved life situation. Also household members must dare to challenge beliefs seen as barriers to achieve their goals. Gidlund recommends further research in Maciene to explore different roles and meanings of gender in preventive and promoting work. She also points out that equality related questions are important.11
 

1.2 Problem area and problem definition

With background of previous thesis about women in Maciene, this thesis focuses on a new problem area, women and agriculture. The female farmer’s situation is examined in three different areas. Firstly, the division of labour between women and men is examined, both in agriculture and in household. It is assumed that there are specific roles for female and male farmers that depend on the cultural context. We believe that women are responsible for more work than men and that they are in a subordinated position. Secondly the female farmer’s access to economic resources is examined. It is assumed that the men, in their role as the head of the household, have more power about the families’ economic resources. The third area deals with the ownership of the land. According to the law women have the right to own land but in practise it is believed that the culture forms hinders for women to own land. This study examines also possibilities to develop the female farmer’s situation in these three areas in Maciene. Micro-credits are a common tool to improve poor people’s situation in developing countries, and especially women’s situation. This thesis examines how micro-credits could develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene.

The problem is defined in the following questions:

• How is the division of labour between women and men in agriculture and in household in Maciene?
• How is the female farmer’s access to economic resources and access to land in Maciene?
• What are the possibilities to develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene in aspects of division of labour, access to economic resources and access to land? Can micro-credits develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene?
   

1.3 Purpose

The purpose of this thesis is to study female farmer’s situation in Maciene in aspect of division of labour between women and men in agriculture and in household, access to economic resources and access to land. The purpose is also to see what the possibilities are to develop the female farmer’s situation in Maciene in these three aspects, and if micro-credits can develop their situation.

[...]

1 The Hunger Project, The African Woman Food Farmer – Her future is Africa’s future. Brochure.
2 Utrikespolitiska institutet, 2003, pp. 24-25
3 United Nations Development Programme, Maputo, 2002, Mozambique National Human Development Report 2001 Gender, Women and Human Development: An agenda for the future, p. 89
4 Andrade, Ximena, et al., 1997, Families in a changing environment in Mozambique, p. 34
5 Holtmar, Marie and Wretling, Niklas, 2003, The water Issue in the Village of Maciene
6 Mälardalen University a) www.mdh.se 2006-07-18
7 Mälardalen University c) www.mdh.se 2006-07-18
8 Karevik, Eva and Svensson, Anna, 2004, The socio-economic situation and women’s descriptions concerning education and access to health information
9 Strömberg, Pernilla, 2004, Socio-economic situation and family planning – A study of women in Maciene, Mozambique
10 Forsberg, Emma, 2003, Gravida och ammande kvinnor i Maciene, Mozambique
11 Gidlund, Anna, 2006, Everyday life conditions and beliefs regarding health and wellbeing