Seite 2
FOUNDATIONS
OF CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
IN ISRAEL AND THE OCCUPIED TERRITORIES
DISSERTATION
zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Dr.iur. (Doctor iuris)
der Rechtswissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Wien
vorgelegt von
Mag.iur. Yvonne Alexandra Schmidt
Erstbegutachter: O. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Gerhard LUF
Zweitbegutachter: O. Univ.-Prof. Dr. Peter PIELER
Wien, Jänner 2001
Seite 3
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
A
CKNOWLEDGMENTS
......................................................................................
I
A
BBREVIATIONS
.............................................................................................
II
G
LOSSARY
......................................................................................................
V
P
REFACE
........................................................................................................
IX
INTRODUCTION
.........................................................................
1
A. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES REGARDING THE
RIGHT TO SELF-DETERMINATION OF THE
JEWISH AND THE PALESTINIAN ARAB PEOPLE
..
............................................................................................................
29
1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................
29
2. IDEOLOGY AND DOCTRINES OF THE CONCEPT OF
POLITICAL ZIONISM ..........................................................
32
3. SOURCES OF THE CONCEPT OF POLITICAL
ZIONISM ..................................................................................
38
3.1. T
HE
B
ASLE
P
ROGRAMME
-
D
ECLARED IN
1897
...........................................
38
3.2. T
HE
B
ALFOUR
D
ECLARATION OF
2
N
OVEMBER
1917
..................................
39
3.3. T
HE
M
ANDATE FOR
P
ALESTINE
-
G
RANTED TO
G
REAT
B
RITAIN IN
1922
....
45
3.3.1. General Remarks ............................................................................................
45
3.3.2. What is the "Self" of a Nation and Who has the Right to Express its Will? ..
46
3.3.3. US President Woodrow Wilson's "Fourteen Points", 1919 and The Mandate for
Palestine, 1922: Self-Determination For Whom? ..........................................
48
3.4. T
HE
B
ILTMORE
P
ROGRAMME
-
E
STABLISHED IN
1942
.................................
49
3.5. T
HE
J
ERUSALEM
P
ROGRAMME
-
E
STABLISHED IN
1951
...............................
50
3.6. R
EVISION OF THE
J
ERUSALEM
P
ROGRAMME IN
1968
...................................
50
4. ESTABLISHMENT OF "JEWISH NATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS" BY THE ZIONIST MOVEMENT ......
50
4.1. I
NTRODUCTION
.............................................................................................
50
4.1.1. The Fundamental Principle of "Inalienability of Land" .................................
52
4.1.2. The Fundamental Principle of "Jewish Labour" ............................................
52
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©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
ii
4.1.3. The "Jewish National Institutions" and their Significance for the State of Israel
.........................................................................................................................
53
4.2. T
HE
W
ORLD
Z
IONIST
O
RGANIZATION
(WZO)
-
E
STABLISHED IN
1897
.......
54
4.3. T
HE
J
EWISH
A
GENCY
(JA)
-
E
STABLISHED FORMALLY IN
1922
-
C
ONSTITUTED IN
1929
....................................
55
4.4. T
HE
J
EWISH
N
ATIONAL
F
UND
(JNF)
-
E
STABLISHED IN
1901
......................
57
5. PALESTINIAN ARAB OPPOSITION TO POLITICAL
ZIONISM IN THE 1920'
S
AND 1930'
S
: MAJOR EVENTS
LEADING TO THE REJECTION BY THE
PALESTINIAN ARAB PEOPLE OF THE UNITED
NATIONS GENERAL ASSEMBLY RESOLUTION 181
(II) OF 29 NOVEMBER 1947 .............................................
61
5.1. T
HE
P
ERIOD FROM
1880
UNTIL
1919
............................................................
61
5.1.1. The Henry McMahon - Sharif Hussein Correspondence (1915 - 1916) ........
62
5.1.2. The King-Crane Commission - Established in August 1919 .........................
65
5.2. T
HE
D
ISTURBANCES IN
P
ALESTINE IN THE
Y
EARS
1920,
1921,
1925
AND
1929
... ....................................................................................................................
67
5.2.1. The Shaw Commission - Established in 1929 ................................................
69
5.2.2. The Hope Simpson Report - Published in October 1930 ...............................
70
5.2.3. The Passfield White Paper - Published in October 1930 ...............................
70
5.2.4. The Ramsay MacDonald Letter - Issued in 1931 ...........................................
72
5.3. T
HE
G
ENERAL
S
TRIKE IN
1936
AND THE
O
PEN
R
EBELLION FROM
1936
TO
1939
..............................................................................................................
72
5.3.1. The Royal (Peel) Commission - Established in 1936 ....................................
73
5.3.2. The MacDonald White Paper - Issued in 1939 ..............................................
73
5.4. T
HE
P
ERIOD FROM
1940
UNTIL THE
A
DOPTION OF THE
U
NITED
N
ATIONS
G
ENERAL
A
SSEMBLY
R
ESOLUTION
181
(II)
OF
29
N
OVEMBER
1947
...........
75
5.5. T
HE
P
ERIOD AFTER THE
A
DOPTION OF THE
U
NITED
N
ATIONS
G
ENERAL
A
SSEMBLY
R
ESOLUTION
181
(II)
OF
29
N
OVEMBER
1947
UNTIL THE
S
IGNMENT OF
A
RMISTICE
A
GREEMENTS IN
1949
.........................................
77
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................................
86
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©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
iii
B. ISRAEL'S INITIAL OBLIGATIONS TO ENACT A
CONSTITUTION INCLUDING A BILL OF HUMAN
RIGHTS AND THE ISSUE OF JUDICIAL REVIEW
..........................................................................................................
98
1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................
98
2. THE ROLE OF THE ISRAELI SUPREME COURT IN
THE SPHERE OF CIVIL AND POLITICAL RIGHTS
...................................................................................................
107
2.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
107
2.2. T
HE
I
NSTITUTIONAL
O
RGANIZATION OF
I
SRAEL
'
S
J
UDICIAL
S
YSTEM
........
108
2.2.1. General/Civil/Regular Courts of Law ..........................................................
108
2.2.2. Tribunals and Authorities Vested with Judicial Powers ..............................
109
2.3. T
HE
S
UPREME
C
OURT OF
I
SRAEL
...............................................................
111
2.3.1. The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court ........................................................
111
2.3.2. Judicial Activism and Judicial Restraint ......................................................
112
2.3.3. The Normative Status of Human Rights Case Law .....................................
117
2.3.4. Summary and Conclusions ...........................................................................
119
3. THE NATURE AND LEGAL STATUS OF THE
DECLARATION OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE
STATE OF ISRAEL, 1948 .................................................
120
3.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
120
3.2. S
UPREME
C
OURT
J
URISPRUDENCE
.............................................................
121
3.2.1. The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel - Considered as
"Political Instrument" ...................................................................................
121
3.2.1.1. Zvi Zeev v. Gubernik (1948) .............................................................................
121
3.2.1.2. El-Karbutli v. Minister of Defence (1948) ........................................................
124
3.2.2. The Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel - Considered as
"Instrument of Interpretation" ......................................................................
125
3.2.2.1. Kol Ha'am Company Limited v. Minister of Interior (1953) ............................
126
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
iv
4.
ISRAEL'S OBLIGATION TO ENACT A
CONSTITUTION INCLUDING A BILL OF RIGHTS AS
REQUESTED BY THE DECLARATION OF THE
ESTABLISHMENT OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL, 1948
...................................................................................................
130
4.1. T
HE
E
LECTIONS TO THE
C
ONSTITUENT
A
SSEMBLY AND ITS
T
RANSFORMATION INTO
"T
HE
F
IRST
K
NESSET
"
........................................
130
4.2. T
HE
H
ARARI
R
ESOLUTION
-
A
DOPTED IN
1950
..........................................
133
4.3. A
RGUMENTS
R
AISED
A
GAINST THE
E
NACTMENT OF A
C
ONSTITUTION
INCLUDING A
B
ILL OF
R
IGHTS
....................................................................
135
4.3.1. General Remarks ..........................................................................................
135
4.3.2. The View of David Ben Gurion ...................................................................
136
4.3.3. The View of the Religious Parties ................................................................
137
4.3.4. Other Arguments Raised Against the Enactment of a Constitution including a
Bill of Human Rights ...................................................................................
141
4.4. T
HE
P
OWER OF THE
K
NESSET TO
E
NACT A
C
ONSTITUTION
.......................
141
4.4.1. Background ..................................................................................................
141
4.4.2. The Opinion of Legal Scholars ....................................................................
142
4.4.2.1. Professor Melville B. Nimmer's Opinion ..........................................................
142
4.4.2.2. Professor Claude Klein's Opinion ......................................................................
143
4.4.2.3. Professor Amnon Rubinstein's Opinion .............................................................
144
4.4.2.4. Professor Eliahu Likhovski's Opinion ...............................................................
144
4.5. S
UMMARY AND
C
ONCLUSIONS
...................................................................
145
5. THE ATTITUDE OF THE ISRAELI SUPREME COURT
TOWARDS JUDICIAL REVIEW OF PRIMARY
LEGISLATION OF THE KNESSET IN HUMAN
RIGHTS CASES ...................................................................
146
5.1. B
ACKGROUND
.............................................................................................
146
5.2. I
NITIAL
A
RGUMENTS AND
R
EASONS FOR THE
O
BJECTION TO
J
UDICIAL
R
EVIEW
.......................................................................................................
148
5.2.1. The Doctrine of Sovereignty of the Israeli Parliament ................................
148
5.2.2. The Principles of Separation of Powers and Democracy .............................
150
5.2.2.1. Leon v. Gubernik (1948) ...................................................................................
150
5.2.2.2. Other Decisions and Arguments of the Supreme Court .....................................
152
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
v
5.3. F
IRST
S
TEPS TOWARDS
J
UDICIAL
R
EVIEW OVER
P
RIMARY
L
EGISLATION
:
E
NTRENCHED
C
LAUSES IN
B
ASIC
L
AWS
.....................................................
153
5.3.1. The Basic Law: The Knesset (1958) ............................................................
153
5.3.2. Bergman v. Minister of Finance (1969) .......................................................
154
6. NORMATIVE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BASIC
LAWS AND REGULAR LAWS .......................................
156
7. THE ENACTMENT OF TWO BASIC LAWS ON
HUMAN RIGHTS IN 1992 AND THEIR IMPACT ON
THE ISRAELI LEGAL SYSTEM ....................................
157
7.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
157
7.2. T
HE
B
ASIC
L
AW
:
H
UMAN
D
IGNITY AND
F
REEDOM
,
1992
(A
MENDED IN
1994)
161
7.3. T
HE
B
ASIC
L
AW
:
F
REEDOM OF
O
CCUPATION
,
1992
(R
E
-
ENACTED IN
1994)
.....................................................................................................................
170
8. UNITED MIZRAHI BANK
V
. MIGDAL COOPERATIVE
VILLAGE (1995) ...................................................................
171
8.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
171
8.2. T
HE
F
ACTS OF THE
C
ASE
............................................................................
173
8.3. T
HE
D
ECISION OF THE
D
ISTRICT
C
OURT
....................................................
174
8.4. T
HE
D
ECISION OF THE
S
UPREME
C
OURT
....................................................
175
8.4.1. The Opinion of Supreme Court President Barak ..........................................
176
8.4.1.1. The Knesset's Authority to Enact a Constitution ..............................................
177
8.4.1.2. Kelsen's Basic Norm or "Grundnorm" Model ...................................................
178
8.4.1.3. Hart's "Rule of Recognition" Model ..................................................................
182
8.4.1.4. Dworkin's Empirical Model ...............................................................................
183
8.4.2. The Opinion of Supreme Court Justice Shamgar .........................................
184
8.4.3. The Opinion of Supreme Court Justice Cheshin ..........................................
184
8.4.4. The Opinion of Supreme Court Justice Bach ...............................................
186
8.5. T
HE
S
IGNIFICANCE OF THE
U
NITED
M
IZRAHI
B
ANK
C
ASE
........................
187
9. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..............
187
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
vi
C. THE CONCEPT OF THE STATE OF ISRAEL AS A
"JEWISH STATE" AND ITS IMPACT ON THE
RIGHT TO EQUALITY AND OTHER CIVIL AND
POLITICAL RIGHTS
...........................................................
194
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................
194
2. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STATE AND
RELIGION IN ISRAEL .......................................................
198
2.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
198
2.2. T
HE
O
TTOMAN
M
ILLET
S
YSTEM AND
I
TS
A
DOPTION BY THE
B
RITISH
M
ANDATORY
R
EGIME AND THE
I
SRAELI
G
OVERNMENT
............................
202
2.2.1. The Ottoman Period .....................................................................................
202
2.2.2. The British Mandatory Period ......................................................................
203
2.2.3. The Establishment of the State of Israel .......................................................
204
2.3. H
ISTORICAL
B
ACKGROUND OF THE
"S
TATUS
Q
UO
"
A
RRANGEMENT
........
206
2.3.1. The Doctrine of Ultra-Orthodox Judaism and its Original Position towards
Political Zionism ..........................................................................................
207
2.3.2. The Changing Position of Ultra-Orthodox Judaism towards the Concept of
Political Zionism ..........................................................................................
208
2.4. T
HE
P
RESENT
I
MPORTANCE OF THE
"S
TATUS
Q
UO
"
A
RRANGEMENT
........
209
2.5. T
HE
N
ATURE OF
R
ELIGIOUS
L
AW IN
I
SRAEL
'
S
L
EGAL
S
YSTEM
.................
211
2.5.1. General Remarks ..........................................................................................
211
2.5.2. The Question of the Legal Nature of Canon Law ........................................
212
2.5.3. The Nature of Jewish Law ............................................................................
215
2.6. H
ISTORICAL
B
ACKGROUND REGARDING THE
P
OSITION OF
J
EWISH
L
AW IN
I
SRAEL
'
S
L
EGAL
S
YSTEM
............................................................................
218
2.7. T
HE
O
FFICIAL AND
A
CTUAL
P
OSITION OF
J
EWISH
L
AW IN
I
SRAEL
'
S
L
EGAL
S
YSTEM
.......................................................................................................
219
3. THE CONCEPT OF ISRAEL AS A "JEWISH STATE"
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE RIGHT TO EQUALITY
AND MINORITY RIGHTS .................................................
222
3.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
222
3.2. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON THE
R
IGHT TO
E
QUALITY
AND
P
ALESTINIAN
A
RAB
M
INORITY
R
IGHTS
.............................................
224
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
vii
3.2.1. The Absence of a Constitutional and Ordinary Law Protecting the Right to
Equality and Minority Rights and The Non-Recognition of the Arab
Community in Israel as National (Palestinian) Minority .............................
224
3.2.2. The Flag and Emblem Law, 1949 ................................................................
228
3.2.3. The National Anthem of Israel .....................................................................
228
3.2.4. The State Stamp Law, 1949 .........................................................................
229
3.2.5. The Days of Rest Ordinance, 1948 ..............................................................
229
3.2.6. The Martyrs and Heroes Remembrance Day Law, 1959 .............................
230
3.2.7. The Yad Yitzhak Ben-Zvi Law, 1969 and
The Mikve Yisrael Agricultural School Law, 1976 .....................................
230
3.2.8. The State Education Law, 1953 ...................................................................
231
3.2.9. The Broadcasting Authority Law, 1965 .......................................................
233
3.2.10. The Chief Rabbinate of Israel Law, 1980 and
The Kashrut (Prohibition of Deceit) Law, 1983 ........................................
233
3.2.11. The Foundations of Law Act, 1980 ...........................................................
234
3.2.12. Other Legislation .......................................................................................
237
3.3. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON
J
URISPRUDENCE
RELATING TO THE
R
IGHT TO
E
QUALITY AND
M
INORITY
R
IGHTS FOR
P
ALESTINIAN
A
RAB
C
ITIZENS IN
I
SRAEL
....................................................
237
3.3.1. Abu-Gosh v. Minister of Education and Culture (1971) ...............................
238
3.3.2. Watad v. Minister of Finance (1983) ............................................................
238
3.3.3. Adalah & Others v. Minister of Religious Affairs & Others (1998) .............
239
3.3.4. Follow-Up Committee for Arab Education in Israel & Others v. Ministry of
Education & Others (1997) ..........................................................................
239
4. THE CONCEPT OF ISRAEL AS A "JEWISH STATE"
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE RIGHT TO CITIZENSHIP
AND NATIONALITY ..........................................................
241
4.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
241
4.2. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON
L
EGISLATION RELATING
TO THE
R
IGHT TO
C
ITIZENSHIP AND
N
ATIONALITY
....................................
243
4.2.1. The Law of Return, 1950 and The Nationality Law, 1952 ..........................
243
4.2.1.1. Acquiring Citizenship by Return .......................................................................
244
4.2.1.2. Acquiring Citizenship by Residence .................................................................
246
4.2.1.3. Acquiring Citizenship by Birth ..........................................................................
247
4.2.1.4. Acquiring Citizenship by Naturalization ...........................................................
247
4.2.2. Conclusions ..................................................................................................
248
4.3. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON
J
URISPRUDENCE
RELATING TO THE
R
IGHT TO
C
ITIZENSHIP AND
N
ATIONALITY
...................
248
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©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
viii
Al-Jalil v. Minister of Interior (1952) .............................................................................
249
Al-Rachman v. Minister of Interior (1951) and Bader v. Minister of Interior (1952) - ..........
Al-Rachman v. Commander of Yagur Prison (1954) and Bader v. Minister of Police (1954) ..
249
5. THE CONCEPT OF ISRAEL AS A "JEWISH STATE"
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE RIGHT TO ASSOCIATION
..........................................................................................................
....................................................................................................
250
5.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
250
5.2. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON
L
EGISLATION AND
J
URISPRUDENCE RELATING TO THE
R
IGHT TO
A
SSOCIATION
.....................
254
5.2.1. The Prevention of Terrorism Ordinance, 1948 ............................................
254
5.2.2. The Penal Law, 1977 ....................................................................................
259
5.2.3. The Non-Profit Societies Law, 1980 ............................................................
260
5.2.4. The Political Parties Law, 1992 ...................................................................
261
5.2.5. The Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 .............................................
262
5.2.5.1. Jiryis v. District Commissioner of Northern District (1964) .............................
262
6. THE CONCEPT OF ISRAEL AS A "JEWISH STATE"
AND ITS IMPACT ON THE RIGHT TO POLITICAL
PARTICIPATION ..................................................................
265
6.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
265
6.2. T
HE
I
MPACT OF THE
"J
EWISH
S
TATE
"
C
ONCEPT ON
L
EGISLATION AND
J
URISPRUDENCE RELATING TO THE
R
IGHT TO
P
OLITICAL
P
ARTICIPATION
........
.....................................................................................................................
268
6.2.1. The Period from 1949 to 1985 ......................................................................
268
6.2.1.1. Yeredor v. Central Elections Committee for the 6th Knesset (1965) ................
270
6.2.1.2. Neiman v. Central Elections Committee for the 11th Knesset (1984) ...............
274
6.2.2. The Basic Law: The Knesset (Amendment No. 9) (1985) ...........................
280
6.2.2.1. Ben-Shalom v. Central Election Committee for the 12th Knesset (1988) .........
281
6.2.3. The Political Parties Law, 1992 ...................................................................
284
6.2.3.1. Ganem Yaseen v. Yamin Israel (1995) ..............................................................
285
7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................
286
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
ix
D. ISRAEL'S PERMANENT STATE OF EMERGENCY
AND THE QUESTION OF ITS COMPATIBILITY
WITH THE CONCEPT OF A LIBERAL
DEMOCRACY BASED ON HUMAN RIGHTS AND
FREEDOMS
..........................................................................
288
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................
288
2. THEORETICAL DISCUSSION OF "NATIONAL
SECURITY" AND "LIBERAL DEMOCRACY" ...........
291
3. ISRAEL'S CONCEPT OF "STATE SECURITY" AND
THE QUESTION OF ITS COMPATIBILITY WITH THE
IDEAS OF A "LIBERAL DEMOCRACY AND HUMAN
RIGHTS" .................................................................................
298
3.1. I
DEOLOGICAL
F
OUNDATIONS OF
I
SRAEL
'
S
C
ONCEPT OF
"S
TATE
/N
ATIONAL
S
ECURITY
"
..................................................................................................
298
3.2. T
HE
C
ONCEPT OF
B
ALANCING
I
NTERESTS IN
"S
ECURITY
M
ATTERS
"
........
300
3.3. I
SRAEL
'
S
R
ULES OF
E
VIDENCE IN
"S
ECURITY
M
ATTERS
"
...........................
300
3.4. I
SRAEL
'
S
P
ERMANENT
S
TATE OF
E
MERGENCY
:
L
EGAL
S
OURCES AND
J
USTIFICATIONS
.........................................................................................
303
4.
ISRAEL'S FORMAL "SECURITY" AND
"EMERGENCY" LEGISLATION: LEGAL SOURCES
AND JUSTIFICATIONS ......................................................
306
4.1. B
ACKGROUND
.............................................................................................
306
4.2. B
RITISH
M
ANDATORY
"E
MERGENCY
"
L
EGISLATION
.................................
307
4.3. I
SRAELI
"S
ECURITY
"
AND
"E
MERGENCY
"
L
EGISLATION
............................
308
4.3.1 "Emergency" Legislation Enacted by Israel's Parliament ............................
308
4.3.2 "Emergency" Legislation Based on: The Law and Administration Ordinance,
1948 and The new Basic Law: The Government (1992) .............................
309
5. THE BRITISH MANDATORY DEFENCE (EMERGENCY)
REGULATIONS, 1945 ..........................................................
312
5.1. H
ISTORICAL
B
ACKGROUND AND
N
ORMATIVE
N
ATURE OF THE
B
RITISH
D
EFENCE
(E
MERGENCY
)
R
EGULATIONS
,
1945
...........................................
312
5.2. T
HE
V
ALIDITY AND
S
COPE OF
A
PPLICATION OF THE
B
RITISH
D
EFENCE
(E
MERGENCY
)
R
EGULATIONS
,
1945
WITHIN
I
SRAEL SINCE
1948
...............
316
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
x
5.2.1 The Validity of the Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 .....................
316
5.2.2. Challenges to the Validity of the Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 ........
.......................................................................................................................
317
5.2.2.1. Herzl Kook v. Minister of Defence (1948) ........................................................
318
5.2.3. The Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 as Legal Basis for the System of
Military Government within Israel from 1948-1966 ....................................
321
5.2.3.1. General Overview ..............................................................................................
321
5.2.3.2. The Military Government's Systematic Violation of the Civil and Political Rights
of the Palestinian Arab People (1948-1966) ......................................................
323
5.2.3.3. The Role of the Israeli Supreme Court in the Context of the Military Government
............................................................................................................................
325
5.2.3.4. Summary and Conclusions ................................................................................
326
5.3. T
HE
V
ALIDITY AND
S
COPE OF
A
PPLICATION OF THE
B
RITISH
D
EFENCE
(E
MERGENCY
)
R
EGULATIONS
,
1945
WITHIN THE
O
CCUPIED
T
ERRITORIES
SINCE
1967
..................................................................................................
327
6. CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................
331
7. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................
336
E. THE ADMINISTRATIVE, LEGAL AND JUDICIAL
SYSTEM IN THE OCCUPIED TERRITORIES
.......
338
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................
338
2. THE ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN THE OCCUPIED
TERRITORIES SINCE 1967 ..................................................
345
2.1. T
HE
P
ERIOD FROM
1967
UNTIL
1981
..........................................................
345
2.2. T
HE
E
STABLISHMENT OF A
"C
IVIL
A
DMINISTRATION
"
IN
1981
.................
347
2.3. I
SRAEL
'
S
U
NDERSTANDING OF
"S
ECURITY
M
ATTERS
"
?
............................. 349
2.4. T
HE
E
STABLISHMENT OF
J
EWISH
S
ETTLEMENTS IN THE
O
CCUPIED
T
ERRITORIES
...............................................................................................
353
2.4.1. General Remarks ..........................................................................................
353
2.4.2. The Allon Plan and Labor Settlement Plan ..................................................
354
2.4.3. The Gush Emunim Settlement Plan .............................................................
355
2.4.4. The Suburbia Settlement Plans ....................................................................
357
2.5. I
SRAEL
'
S
M
ETHODS AND
J
USTIFICATIONS FOR THE
E
XPROPRIATION AND
R
ESTRICTION ON THE
U
SE OF
O
CCUPIED
P
ALESTINIAN
L
AND
...................
359
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
xi
2.5.1. General Remarks ..........................................................................................
359
2.5.2. Military Orders and other Normative Sources concerning Expropriations .........
of Land in the West Bank .............................................................................
360
2.5.2.1. Declaration of Occupied Land as "Absentees' Property" -
Military Order No. 58, 1967 ..............................................................................
360
2.5.2.2. "Requisition" of Occupied Land for "Military Purposes" -
Hague Regulations, 1907 ....................................................................................
361
2.5.2.3. Declaration of Occupied Land as Israeli "State Land" -
Military Order No. 59, 1967 and Military Order No. 291, 1968 ........................
362
2.5.2.4. Expropriation of Occupied Land for "Public Purposes" -
Military Order No. 321, 1969 ............................................................................
367
2.5.3. Military Orders and other Normative Sources concerning the Restriction ..........
on the Use of Land in the West Bank ...........................................................
368
2.5.3.1. Declaration of Occupied Land as "Combat Zones" -
Military Order No. 271, 1968 ............................................................................
368
2.5.3.2. Declaration of Occupied Land as "Closed Areas" -
Military Order No. 378, 1970 ............................................................................
369
2.5.3.3. Declaration of Occupied Land as "Nature Reserves" -
Military Order No. 363, 1969 ............................................................................
369
2.5.3.4. Prohibition of Construction on Occupied Land -
Military Order No. 393, 1970 ............................................................................
370
2.5.4. Israel's Settlement Policy in Jerusalem .........................................................
370
2.5.5. Settlement and By-Pass Roads in the West Bank ........................................
376
3. THE LEGAL AND JUDICIAL SYSTEM IN THE
OCCUPIED TERRITORIES SINCE 1967 ........................
377
3.1. I
SRAEL
'
S
A
PPROACH TOWARDS THE
A
PPLICATION OF
I
NTERNATIONAL
L
AW IN
THE
O
CCUPIED
T
ERRITORIES
......................................................................
377
3.2. L
EGAL
D
UALISMUS AND
A
PARTHEID IN
I
SRAEL AND THE
O
CCUPIED
T
ERRITORIES
...............................................................................................
379
3.3. T
HE
Q
UESTIONABLE
R
OLE OF
I
SRAEL
'
S
S
UPREME
C
OURT
.........................
385
4. THE IMPACT OF THE OSLO I AND II
AGREEMENTS SIGNED IN 1993 AND 1995 ON THE
OCCUPIED TERRITORIES ................................................
387
5. CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................
390
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©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
xii
F. THE RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION,
SPEECH AND THE PRESS
...............................................
392
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................
392
2. JURISPRUDENCE .................................................................
398
3. LICENSING OF NEWSPAPERS AND THE PRINTING
PRESS ......................................................................................
402
3.1. S
TATUTORY
P
ROVISIONS
............................................................................
402
3.1.1. The Press Ordinance, 1933 ...........................................................................
403
3.1.2. The Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 .............................................
407
3.2. S
UPREME
C
OURT
C
ASES CONCERNING
S
ECTION
19(2)
OF THE
P
RESS
O
RDINANCE
,
1933
......................................................................................
409
3.2.1. Kol Ha'am Company Limited v. Minister of Interior (1953) .......................
409
3.2.2. Omar International Inc. NY v. Minister of Interior (1981) ..........................
415
3.3. S
UPREME
C
OURT
C
ASES CONCERNING
R
EGULATION
94(2)
OF THE
D
EFENCE
(E
MERGENCY
)
R
EGULATIONS
,
1945
...........................................................
416
3.3.1. Adoption of a Strong Legal Formalistic and Positivistic Approach ............
416
3.3.2. El-Ard v. District Commissioner (1964) ......................................................
419
3.3.3. Al Assad v. Minister of Interior (1979) ........................................................
420
3.3.4. Makhoul v. Jerusalem District Commissioner (1981) .................................
421
4. CENSORSHIP .........................................................................
424
4.1. P
HILOSOPHICAL AND
H
ISTORICAL
D
IMENSIONS OF
C
ENSORSHIP
..............
424
4.2. S
TATUTORY
P
ROVISIONS FOR
M
ILITARY
C
ENSORSHIP
..............................
425
4.2.1. The Defence (Emergency) Regulations, 1945 .............................................
425
4.3. T
HE
C
ENSORSHIP
A
GREEMENT BETWEEN THE
E
DITORS
'
C
OMMITTEE AND THE
I
SRAEL
D
EFENCE
F
ORCES
(IDF)
.................................................................
427
4.4. S
UPREME
C
OURT
C
ASES CONCERNING
M
ILITARY
C
ENSORSHIP
................
432
4.4.1. Hadashot v. Minister of Defence (1984) - "The Bus No. 300 Affair" .........
432
4.4.2. Schnitzer v. Chief Military Censor (1988) ...................................................
437
4.5. S
ELF
-C
ENSORSHIP
I
MPOSED BY
N
EWSPAPERS
E
DITORS
............................
440
4.6. T
HE
P
RIOR
C
LEARANCE
A
RRANGEMENT
...................................................
442
4
4.6.1. Cohen v. Minister of Defence (1962) ...........................................................
443
4.7. F
OREIGN
P
RESS AND
J
OURNALISTS
............................................................
444
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Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
xiii
5. THE ISRAELI BROADCASTING MEDIA - RADIO AND
TELEVISION .........................................................................
445
5.1. S
TATUTORY
P
ROVISIONS
............................................................................
445
5.1.1. The Broadcasting Authority Law, 1965 .......................................................
445
5.1.2. The Second Television and Radio Broadcast Authority Law, 1990 ............
446
5.2. S
UPREME
C
OURT
C
ASES CONCERNING
I
SRAEL
'
S
B
ROADCASTING
A
UTHORITY
(IBA)
..........................................................................................................
446
5.2.1. Zichroni v. Broadcasting Authority (1982) ..................................................
447
5.2.2. Kahane v. Broadcasting Authority (1985) ...................................................
449
6. CONCLUSIONS .....................................................................
454
7. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................
454
G. THE RIGHT TO PROPERTY
..........................................
456
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................
456
2. ISRAEL SINCE 1948 ...........................................................
465
2.1. G
ENERAL
R
EMARKS
...................................................................................
465
2.2. D
ECLARATION OF
P
ALESTINIANS AS
"A
BSENTEES
"
AND
C
ONFISCATING THEIR
L
AND AND
M
OVABLE
P
ROPERTY
...............................................................
475
2.2.1. The Emergency Regulations (Absentees' Property), 1948 and The Absentees'
Property Law, 1950 ......................................................................................
475
2.2.2. Main Features and Institutions Involved in the Context of the Application of
the Absentees' Property Law, 1950 ..............................................................
479
2.2.2.1. The Custodianship Council for Absentees' Property .........................................
479
2.2.2.2. The Development Authority ..............................................................................
483
2.2.2.3. The Jewish National Fund (Keren Kayemet Le-Israel) .....................................
485
2.2.3. Jurisprudence regarding "Absentees' Property" Cases .................................
487
2.2.4. The Creation of so called "Present Absentees" ............................................
488
2.2.4.1. Statutory Provisions ...........................................................................................
488
2.2.4.2. Jurisprudence regarding "Present Absentees" ...................................................
489
2.2.5. The Klugman Report - Published in 1992 ....................................................
490
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©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
xiv
2.3. R
EQUISITION OF
P
RIVATE
L
AND AND
H
OUSES DURING AN
O
FFICIALLY
P
ROCLAIMED
"S
TATE OF
E
MERGENCY
"
FOR THE
P
URPOSES OF
"S
TATE
S
ECURITY
"
AND
"E
SSENTIAL
S
ERVICES
"
....................................................
491
2.3.1. The Emergency Regulations (Requisition of Property), 1948 and The
Emergency Land Requisition (Regulation) Law, 1949 ................................
491
2.3.2. Jurisprudence regarding Land Requisition in a "State of Emergency" for the
Purposes of "State Security" .........................................................................
493
2.4. D
ECLARATION OF
L
AND AS
"C
LOSED
A
REAS
"
AND THE
C
REATION OF THE SO
CALLED
"U
PROOTED
V
ILLAGES
"
................................................................
494
2.4.1. Regulation 125 of the British Mandatory Defence (Emergency) Regulations,
1945 ..............................................................................................................
494
2.4.2. Supreme Court Cases concerning Regulation 125 of the Defence (Emergency)
Regulations, 1945 .........................................................................................
496
2.4.2.1. Asslan & Others v. Military Governor of Galilee (1951) ..................................
496
2.4.2.2. The Establishment of Military Firing Ranges in the al-Roha Area of Wadi Ara and
in Umm al-Fahem (1976, 1985 and 1998) ..........................................................
500
2.5. D
ECLARATION OF
L
AND AS
"S
ECURITY
Z
ONE
"
AND
C
ONFISCATING THIS
L
AND
..........................................................................................................
506
2.5.1. The Emergency Regulations (Security Zones), 1949 ...................................
506
2.5.2. Supreme Court Cases concerning the Emergency Regulations (Security Zones),
1949 ..............................................................................................................
509
2.5.2.1. Daoud & Others v. Minister of Defence & Others - First Case (1951) .............
509
2.5.2.2. Daoud & Others v. Security Zones Appeal Committee, Office of the Military
Governor of the Galilee - Second Case (1951) ..................................................
511
2.5.2.3. Committee of Displaced Persons from Ikrit & Others v. Minister of Defence -
Third Case (1981) ..............................................................................................
513
2.6. D
ECLARATION OF
L
AND AS
"W
ASTE
L
AND
"
AND
C
ONFISCATING THIS
L
AND
..
.....................................................................................................................
515
2.6.1. The Emergency Regulations (Cultivation of Waste Lands), 1949 ...............
515
2.6.2. Supreme Court Cases concerning the Emergency Regulations (Cultivation of
Waste Lands), 1948 ......................................................................................
517
2.7. L
EGALIZATION OF
A
CTIONS BY
M
EANS OF
"T
RANSFER OF
O
WNERSHIP
"
OF
L
AND
..........................................................................................................
518
2.7.1. The Land Acquisition (Validation of Acts And Compensation) Law, 1953 .......
.......................................................................................................................
518
2.7.2. Supreme Court Cases concerning the Land Acquisition (Validation of Acts
And Compensation) Law, 1953 ....................................................................
520
2.8. E
XPROPRIATION OF
L
AND FOR
"P
UBLIC
P
URPOSES
"
..................................
521
2.8.1. The Land (Acquisition for Public Purposes) Ordinance, 1943 ....................
521
2.9. I
SRAEL
'
S
S
YSTEM OF
O
WNERSHIP AND
A
DMINISTRATION OF
L
AND
..........
524
Seite 17
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
xv
2.9.1. The Basic Law: Israel's Land (1960) ...........................................................
524
2.9.2. The Israel Land Administration Law, 1960 .................................................
526
2.9.3. The Agricultural Settlement (Restrictions on Use of Agricultural Land and of
Water) Law, 1967 .........................................................................................
526
2.9.4. The World Zionist Organization (WZO) and Jewish Agency (Status) Law,
1952 ..............................................................................................................
527
2.9.4.1. General Remarks ...............................................................................................
527
2.9.4.2. The Covenant between the Israeli Government and the WZO ..........................
528
2.9.4.3. The Covenant between the Israeli Government and the JA ...............................
528
2.9.4.4. Ka'adan v. Israel's Land Administration (1995) ................................................
531
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................
536
H. SUMMARY AND FINAL CONCLUSIONS ...............
540
APPENDICES
...........................................................................................
551
A
PPENDIX
1
Basic Law: Human Dignity and Freedom (1992) ...............................................
551
A
PPENDIX
2
A
Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1994) ........................................................
552
A
PPENDIX
2
B
Basic Law: Freedom of Occupation (1992) ........................................................
553
B
IBLIOGRAPHY
...........................................................................................
554
T
ABLE OF
C
ASES
.........................................................................................
567
T
ABLE OF
L
EGISLATION AND
L
EGAL
M
ATERIALS
......................................
585
D
OCUMENTS
-
P
RESS
R
ELEASES
-
R
EPORTS
...............................................
595
M
APS AND
P
HOTOS
......................................................................................
605
Seite 18
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
I
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my very best friend living in Austria who over more than two years supported
my work in financial and technical aspects. Without this friend's help I could have
hardly translate my scientific ambitions into actions. Regrettably it is better this
friend remains anonymous.
To the University of Vienna, to Mr. Fritz Edlinger, Secretary General of the
Society for Austro-Arab Relations (SAAR), to Dr. Walter Schwimmer, Secretary
General of the Council of Europe and President of the Austrian Israel Society, and to
Mag. Alexander Maksimovic, Managing Director of the Austrian Israel Society for
their financial supports.
To Mr. Ari Rath, former Chief Editor of the Jerusalem Post, for his technical and
financial supports in the initial stages of my field and library researches which I
conducted in Jerusalem and throughout the Occupied Territories from spring 1998
to spring 1999.
To Professor Dr. David Kretzmer of the Hebrew University and also member of
the United Nations Human Rights Committee whose personality, books and
numerous articles inspired my work in many regards.
To several Palestinian, Israeli and international human rights NGO's, especially to
Adalah-The Legal Center for Arab Minority Rights in Israel, AIC-The Alternative
Information Center, Amnesty International, B'Tselem-The Israeli Information
Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories, JMCC-Jerusalem Media and
Communication Centre, LAW-The Palestinian Society for the Protection of Human
Rights and the Environment for the provision of different publications and other
research material.
To the great Palestinian Arab people living in Israel and the Occupied Territories
(East Jerusalem, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights), to my very
best Palestinian Arab friend living in the "Little Triangle" in Israel, and especially to
my Palestinian Arab friends living in occupied East Jerusalem, who so generously
opened their doors to me - both ordinary citizens and professionals, doctors,
lawyers, researchers and technicians. Although they have all permitted me to publish
their names, I have decided not to do so.
To Professor Dr. Alexander Somek of Vienna University for his positive supports
and encouragements to undertake this study.
Last but not least I am particularly grateful to Professor Dr. Gerhard Luf and
Professor Dr. Peter Pieler for giving me absolute freedom in my scientific work.
Seite 19
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
II
ABBREVIATIONS
AAD
Appeal of Administrative Detention
ACRI
Association for Civil Rights in Israel
Add.
Addendum
AHC
Arab
Higher
Committee
A.J.C.L.
American Journal of Comparative Law
ALA
Arab Liberation Army; 5000 volunteers from Iraq, Syria
and Lebanon reached by March 1948 Palestine and were
organized as the ALA under Fawzi al Qawuqji.
A.L.R.
Annotated Law Reports; published in Palestine 1943-
1947
BLccc/No. Military
Court
of
Bethlehem
B'Tselem
The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the
Occupied Territories
C.A.
Civil
Appeal
CAT
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or
Degrading Treatment or Punishment
C.O.J.
Collection
of
Judgements
C.P.O.A.
Collection of Proclamations, Orders and Appointments;
it constitutes the body of legislation made by the Israeli
military commander
Cr.A.
Criminal
Appeal
DIP
Department for the Investigation of Police
D.M.I.
Dinei Medinat Israel (Nusach Hadash); revised, updated
and binding Hebrew text of pre-State legislation
promulgated by the Knesset in a New Version; published
in two volumes. See L.S.I. (N.V.)
D.K.
Divrei Ha Knesset; are the Protocols of Knesset
Proceedings and Knesset Speeches
D.P.
Deputy
President
D.R.
Divorce Reports of the Rabbinical Courts
GA
General
Assembly
GH/No.
Military Court of the Golan Heights
GSS
General Security Service; Hebrew terms are Shin Bet or
Shabaq; Israeli Secret Service operating inside the State
of Israel and the Occupied Territories
Harv.L.Rev. Harvard
Law
Review
H.C.
High
Court
H.H.
Hatza'ot Hok; Section of Reshumot containing the
Seite 20
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
III
Legislative Bills (including the Explanatory Notes)
presented to the Knesset
HTA
Hostile
Terrorist
Activities
IAF
Israel
Air
Force
ICCPR
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
ICERD
International Convention on the Elimination of All
Forms of Racial Discrimination
ICESCR
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights
ICRC
International
Committee of the Red Cross
IDF
Israel Defense Force
ILA
Israel Lands Administration
I.L.M.
International
Legal
Materials
I.R. (Iton Rishmi)
Official Gazette during the term of the Provisional
Council of State
Isr.L.Rev.
Israel Law Review; published by the Hebrew University
I.Y.H.R.
Israel Yearbook on Human Rights
IZL (Etzel)
Irgun Zva'i Leumi (National Military Organization)
J.
Justice
JA
Jewish
Agency;
JNF
Jewish National Fund; see KKL
K.A.
Kitvei Amana; Israeli Treaty Documents
KKL
Keren Kayemet Le'Israel
K.T.
Kovetz HaTakanot; Section of Reshumot containing the
Subsidiary Legislation (i.e. Regulations) issued by
Ministries of the Israeli Government -
LHI (Lehi)
Lohamei Herut Yisrael (Freedom Fighters of Israel)
L.P.
Laws
of
Palestine
L.S.I.
Laws of the State of Israel; authorized English translation
of Israeli legislation (S.H.); published by the Ministry of
Justice
L.S.I. (N.V.)
Laws of the State of Israel (New Version); authorized
English translation of the revised text of pre-state
legislation
L. & Soc'y Rev.
Law & Society Review
MK
Member of the Knesset
Misc. App.
Miscellaneous Application
O.G.
Official Gazette; see the explanations given to I.R. (Iton
Rishmi)
P. President
para. Paragraph
P.D.
Piskei Din (Judgements); official publication of the
Seite 21
©, Mag. Dr. Yvonne Schmidt, 2001
Foundations of Civil and Political Rights in Israel and the Occupied Territories
IV
judgements of the Israeli Supreme Court since 1948
P.E.
Pesakim Elyon; is an unofficial publication of
judgements of the Supreme Court and of the District
Courts ("Pesakim Mehoziim").
PFLP
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine
P.G.
Palestine Gazette; the Official Gazette of the British
Mandatory Government in Palestine
PICA
Palestine Jewish Colonisation Association
PLO
Palestinian Liberation Organization
PLP
Progressive List for Peace
P.L.R.
Palestine Law Reports; published in Palestine 1920-1947
P.M.
Pesakim Mehoziim; Law Reports of the District Courts
since 1949
R/No.
Military Court of Ramallah
SAO
State Attorney's Office
SC Security
Council
S.C.D.C. Selected
Cases
of the District Court
S.C.J.
Supreme Court Judgements
S.H.
Sefer Ha Hukim; is a Section of Reshumot containing the
Principal Legislation promulgated by the Knesset
Sh/No.
Military Court of Shechem (Nablus)
S.J.
Selected Judgements of the Supreme Court of Israel;
official English translation of the judgments of the
Supreme Court
S.J.M.C.
Selected Judgements of Military Courts
SLA
South Lebanese Army; Lebanese armed militia allied to
Israel
SMC
Supreme Muslim Council
S.T. Special
Tribunal
T.A.Univ.Stud.i.L.
Tel Aviv University Studies in Law
UN United
Nations
UNCC
United Nations Compensation Commission
UNCCP
United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine
UNCP
United Nations Commission on Palestine
UNDRP
United Nations Disaster Relief Project
UNHCR
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNIFIL
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
UNRPR
United Nations Relief for Palestine Refugees
UNRWA
United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine
Refugees in the Middle East
UNSCOP
United Nations Special Committee on Palestine
WZO World
Zionist
Organization
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