This comparative study aims to analyse the issue of the underrepresentation of women in the national parliament and local government in Australia and Bangladesh. The empirical analysis consists mainly of data derived from semi-structured interviews with the elected female representatives from the parliament and local government in the two countries.
This thesis finds that with few exceptions, women in Australia and Bangladesh have to overcome similar hurdles to their participation in elected office.
Many proponents of modernization theory assert that economic growth leads inevitably to social development. Ronald Inglehart, Pippa Norris and Christian Welzel, in their revised modernization theory, claim that along with socio-economic development, modernization fosters cultural change that in the long run leads to greater gender equality in all sectors including politics. However, they have identified structural, institutional and cultural barriers to the political participation of women; cultural being the strongest force that sometimes resists gender equality despite economic development.
Women are now participating in all sectors of politics. However, globally they are marginal in politics as candidates, elected representatives, ministers, the prime minister, political leaders, mayors and so on, regardless of the level of socio-economic development within countries. There is no country either developed or developing that has ensured equal participation of women in politics.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Women in Politics -An Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem 2
1.3 Importance of the Book 4
1.4 Methodological Issues 7
1.4.1 Unit of Comparison 8
1.4.2 Why Australia and Bangladesh? 9
1.4.3 Data Collection 11
1.4.4 Problems of Data Collection 12
1.5. Organization of the Book 12
1.6. References 14
Chapter 2 Women in Politics –Historical Overview 17
2.1. Introduction 17
2.2. History of Achieving Political Rights 17
2.3 Women as Head of State, Head of Government and Minister 22
2.4 Women in Local Government: Current Status 24
2.5 Conclusion 25
2.6 References 25
Chapter 3 The Theoretical Framework 28
3.1 Introduction 28
3.2 Defining the Key Terms 28
3.2.1 Politics 28
3.2.2 Political Participation 30
3.3 Modernization Theory 32
3.3.1 Controversy over Modernization Theory 34
3.4 Modernization Theory: A Revised Version 36
3.4.1 The Two Value Dimensions 37
3.4.2 Types of Societies 39
3.5 Modernization and Women 40
3.6 Inglehart on Modernization and Gender Equality 43
3.7 Criticisms of Inglehart 47
3.8 Position of Australia and Bangladesh according to the World Value Survey (WVS) and Inglehart 48
3.8.1 Value Set on Gender Equality: Australia and Bangladesh 49
3.9 Conclusion 52
3.10 References 53
Chapter 4 Political Participation of Women in Australia 58
4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Political System in Australia 58
4.3 International and National Strategies to Promote Gender Equality 61
4.4 Current Status of Women in Australia 63
4.5 Political Participation of Women in Federal Parliaments 64
4.5.1 Extension of Political Rights to Women 64
4.5.2 Women’s Participation as Candidates in Federal Parliament 65
4.5.3 Women’s Participation as Elected Representatives at Federal Parliament 68
4.5.4 Women as Candidates and Elected Representatives at State Parliament 69
4.5.5 The Role of Political Parties 72
4.5.6 Women in Political Leadership Positions 74
4.6 Women in Local Government 78
4.7 Conclusion 80
4.8 References 80
Chapter 5 Political Participation of Women in Bangladesh 87
5.1 Introduction 87
5.2 Political System in Bangladesh 87
5.3 International and National Strategies to Promote Gender Equality 90
5.4 Current Status of Women in Bangladesh 93
5.5 Women’s Participation in Bangladesh Parliament 94
5.5.1 Extension of Political Rights to Women 94
5.5.2 Women’s Participation as Candidates in National Parliament 96
5.5.3 Women’s Participation as Elected Representatives in National Parliament 97
5.5.4 The Role of Political Parties 99
5.5.5 Women in Political Leadership Positions 101
5.6 Women in Local Government 102
5.7 Conclusion 106
5.8 References 107
Chapter 6 Socio-Economic and Political Backgrounds of the Participants 112
6.1 Introduction 112
6.2 Socio-Economic Background Information of the Women Participants 112
6.2.1 Age of the Women Participants 112
6.2.2 Education of the Women Participants 114
6.2.3 Marital Status of the Women Participants 117
6.2.4 Number of Children with Age of the Women Participants 119
6.2.5 Occupation of the Women Participants before becoming Elected Representatives 122
6.3 Political Backgrounds of the Women Participants 123
6.3.1 Reasons of the Women Participants for Entering Politics 124
6.3.2 Involvement of Family Members in Politics 126
6.3.3 Type of Seats Contested 130
6.3.4 Length of Experience as Elected Representatives 130
6.3.5 Position in the Political Party Occupied by the Women Participants 133
6.3.6 Future Political Ambition of the Women Participants 133
6.4 Conclusion 134
6.5 References 135
Chapter 7 Barriers to the Political Participation of Women 140
7.1 Introduction 140
7.2 Socio-Economic Barriers 141
7.2.1 Family Responsibility 141
7.2.2 Lack of Education 148
7.2.3 Lack of Finance 150
7.2.4 Violence, Harassment, Safety and Security 153
7.3 Political and Institutional Barriers 156
7.3.1 The Nature of Politics 156
7.3.2 Role of Political Party 159
7.3.3 Lack of Quota in the Legislature and Political Party 163
7.4 Socio-Cultural and Ideological Barriers 167
7.4.1 Traditional Gender Roles 167
7.4.2 Socialization 170
7.4.3 Self-Confidence 173
7.4.4 The Role of the Mass Media 174
7.5 Conclusion 175
7.8 References 176
Chapter 8 Exploring the Reasons for Resemblances -Is it Patriarchy? 184
8.1 Introduction 184
8.2 Defining Patriarchy 185
8.3 Is Australia a Patriarchal Society? 186
8.4 Is Bangladesh a Patriarchal Society? 189
8.5 Summary 193
8.6 Conclusion 193
8.7 References 195
Chapter 9 Conclusion and Recommendations 199
9.1 Introduction 199
9.2 The Effect of Modernization 201
9.3 The Hidden Force 203
9.4 Recommendations 205
9.5 Concluding Remarks 206
9.6 References 207
Research Objectives and Themes
This book investigates the barriers to women's participation in formal representational politics in Australia and Bangladesh, specifically analyzing whether modernization processes and socio-economic factors effectively promote gender equality. The central research question explores whether these countries face identical obstacles despite their vastly different development levels, and if a common underlying force, such as patriarchy, transcends national boundaries to impede women's political engagement.
- Comparative analysis of political participation of women in national and local government in Australia and Bangladesh.
- Evaluation of modernization theory regarding its impact on gender equality in the political sphere.
- Identification of socio-economic, cultural, and political barriers faced by female politicians.
- Investigation of the role of family, education, finance, and party politics as determinants for women's political advancement.
- Examination of the potential for a universal "hidden force" (patriarchy) in restricting female political representation.
Excerpt from the Book
1.1 Introduction
As society transitions from rural to industrial to postindustrial, modernization theories propose that all individuals, including women, benefit from socioeconomic progress. Furthermore, Inglehart contends in his revised modernization theory that modernization results in greater gender equality in politics through bringing socioeconomic and cultural transformation. As a result, the bigger the percentage of women in politics, the better developed the country. Global gender statistics, on the other hand, contradict this assertion. Women are marginalized in politics around the world, regardless of their country's level of socioeconomic development.
Women account for little more than half of the world's population. Their participation in official political organizations and procedures is modest, despite their significant contributions to society's social and economic advancement (Bari, 2005). As of 1 January 2021, women account for 25.5% of seats in national legislatures (Inter-Parliamentary Union [IPU], 2021). There is no developed or developing country where women are represented in politics in proportion to their numbers. The world's most powerful economy, the United States of America (USA), has just had its first female presidential candidate in its 240-year history. However, for the first time, a female vice president was elected in January 2021. This is also a country that has, since its independence, emphasized the liberty of all citizens.
Because it is closest to the people, local government is an important component of national government. Many people use it as a stepping stone to higher-level political positions. Men and women who succeed in local government become a significant component of the pool of candidates who will serve as state and federal leaders in the future, according to research (Tobin, 2016). However, just like national governments, local governments around the world have a low female representation (United Cities and Local Governments [UCLG], 2015).
Summary of Chapters
Chapter 1 Women in Politics -An Introduction: This chapter introduces the core research problem, examining the underrepresentation of women in politics and the limitations of modernization theory in ensuring gender parity in national and local governments.
Chapter 2 Women in Politics –Historical Overview: This chapter provides a global historical context of women achieving political rights and their current status as leaders in various governance positions worldwide.
Chapter 3 The Theoretical Framework: This chapter outlines the academic framework of the book, focusing on the revised modernization theory, key definitions of politics and participation, and the specific positions of Australia and Bangladesh in global indices.
Chapter 4 Political Participation of Women in Australia: This chapter examines the historical, political, and institutional landscape of Australia, detailing the challenges women face in federal and local governance.
Chapter 5 Political Participation of Women in Bangladesh: This chapter focuses on the political system and history of Bangladesh, analyzing the strategies implemented for gender equality and the status of women in parliament and local government.
Chapter 6 Socio-Economic and Political Backgrounds of the Participants: This chapter compares the profiles of interviewed female politicians, including their education, occupation, and family influence, to determine if modernization impacts their political backgrounds.
Chapter 7 Barriers to the Political Participation of Women: This chapter presents primary research findings on the socio-economic, institutional, and cultural barriers, such as family responsibilities and political party structures, that hinder women's political careers.
Chapter 8 Exploring the Reasons for Resemblances -Is it Patriarchy?: This chapter investigates the common factors causing similar barriers for women in both countries, specifically focusing on the persistence of patriarchal structures.
Chapter 9 Conclusion and Recommendations: This final chapter synthesizes the findings, discusses the implications for modernization theory, and offers recommendations for policy and further research to improve gender equality in politics.
Keywords
Modernization theory, gender equality, political participation, national parliament, local government, Australia, Bangladesh, women in politics, patriarchy, socio-economic barriers, institutional constraints, political parties, gender quotas, electoral politics, representation.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary focus of this book?
The work investigates the persistent underrepresentation of women in national and local political offices in Australia and Bangladesh, analyzing how modernization and socio-economic factors influence their participation.
What are the central thematic fields discussed?
The central themes include the modernization theory, gender disparities in political leadership, the impact of patriarchal structures, the influence of political parties on female candidacy, and the role of family and cultural norms in shaping women’s political careers.
What is the primary research question?
The book asks if the process of modernization and its socio-economic factors truly increase gender equality in politics, or if there is a universal force, like patriarchy, that continues to impede women's participation regardless of a country's development level.
Which scientific methodology is applied?
The author employs a qualitative comparative case study method, utilizing semi-structured interviews with 42 female politicians across Australia and Bangladesh, supplemented by extensive secondary data and literature analysis.
What topics are covered in the main body?
The main body covers a historical overview of women’s political rights, a theoretical framework centered on revised modernization theory, a comparative analysis of the political systems in Australia and Bangladesh, an investigation into the socio-economic backgrounds of female politicians, and a detailed examination of the specific barriers women face in these political landscapes.
Which keywords characterize this work?
The core keywords include Modernization theory, gender equality, political participation, Australia, Bangladesh, women in politics, and patriarchy.
How do the findings concerning Australia and Bangladesh compare?
Despite their vast socio-economic differences, the findings reveal that women in both countries face remarkably similar barriers to political participation, suggesting that cultural tendencies and patriarchal structures are more persistent than economic modernization alone can overcome.
What is the role of political parties according to the research?
The research finds that political parties act as significant gatekeepers. In both countries, parties tend to be male-dominated and often allocate female candidates to "marginal" or unwinnable seats, though the ALP in Australia and some party structures in Bangladesh have adopted specific quota systems to attempt to increase representation.
Does the book conclude that modernization is a success for gender equality?
The book concludes that modernization is not a "panacea." While it provides some improvements in education and labor force participation, traditional gender norms, patriarchal social structures, and party politics continue to create significant hurdles for women, meaning political progress remains sluggish even in highly developed nations.
- Citar trabajo
- Fardaus Ara (Autor), 2017, Women in Electoral Politics. Does Development Matter?, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1041386
