Groundwater Resource Assessment for Town Water Supply in South Africa. The Case of Steynsrus in the Free State Province

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
II NTRODUCTION
1.1 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
1.2 WATER SUPPLY BACKGROUND
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
1.4 METHODOLOGY
1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
1.6 STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATION

CHAPTER 2
L ITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 OVERVIEW OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT
2.3 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CONCEPTS
2.3.1 Groundwater Occurrence
2.3.2 Groundwater Flow and Storage
2.3.2.1 Borehole sustainability and aquifer parameters
2.3.3 Groundwater Recharge
2.3.3.1 The Chloride Mass Balance Method (CMB)
2.3.3.2 Qualified guesses
2.3.4 Borehole Sustainable Yields
2.3.5 Groundwater Quality
2.3.5.1 Interpretation of chemical data
2.3.5.1.1 Piper and Durov diagrams
2.3.5.1.2 Schoeller diagram
2.3.5.1.3 Groundwater salinity
2.3.5.2 Statistical analysis
2.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2.5 GROUNDWATER ASSESSMENT CASE STUDIES
2.6 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 3
S ITE DESCRIPTION
3.1 OVERVIEW AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
3.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE
3.3 RAINFALL AND CLIMATE
3.4 VEGETATION AND LAND USE
3.5 WATER RESOURCES
3.5.1 Surface Water
3.5.2 Local Groundwater
3.5.3 Groundwater Potential
3.5.4 Water Use in the Moqhaka Local Municipality
3.6 GEOLOGY AND GEOHYDROLOGY
3.6.1 General Geology
3.6.2 Geohydrology
3.7 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 4
D ESKTOP STUDY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.2 REMOTE SENSING AND MAP ANALYSIS
4.2.1 Borehole Siting
4.3 BOREHOLE INFORMATION
4.4 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 5
G EOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
5.2 MAGNETIC SURVEY
5.2.1 Results and Discussion
Additional Discussion
5.3 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 6
D RILLING AND GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 PERCUSSION DRILLING
6.2.1 Lithology
6.2.2 Unsuccessfully Drilled Boreholes
6.3 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 7
P UMP TESTING AND AQUIFER PARAMETERS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.2 AQUIFER TESTING
7.2.1 Blow Yields
7.2.2 Step Discharge Test
7.2.3 Constant Discharge Test
7.2.3.1 Diagnostic plots
7.2.4 Recovery Test
7.2.5 Aquifer Parameters
7.2.5.1 Cooper-Jacob method
7.2.5.1.1 Validity of Assumptions of Cooper-Jacob method
7.2.5.1.2 Estimation of Transmissivity using Cooper-Jacob method
7.2.5.2 RPTSOLV program
7.3 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 8
E XPLOITABLE GROUNDWATER RESOURCE
8.1 INTRODUCTION
8.2 RECHARGE ESTIMATION
8.2.1 Chloride Mass Balance Method
8.2.2 Qualified Guesses
8.3 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE SUSTAINABLE YIELD ESTIMATES
8.3.1 Borehole Recommended Yields
8.3.2 Water Balance
8.4 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 9
H YDROCHEMISTRY
9.1 INTRODUCTION
9.2 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
9.2.1 Univariate Statistics
9.2.2 Quality of Inorganic Chemistry Data
9.3 GROUNDWATER QUALITY
9.3.1 Irrigation Suitability
9.4 HYDROGEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
9.5 SUMMARY

CHAPTER 10
C ONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
10.1.1 Geophysics Survey
10.1.2 Geology and Geohydrology
10.1.3 Aquifer Parameters
10.1.4 Groundwater Quality
10.1.5 Groundwater Sustainable Use
10.1.6 Additional Findings
10.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

REFERENCES

ABSTRACT

OPSOMMING

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: Type Curves for Magnetic Anomalies over Dipping Dolerite Dykes in South Africa

APPENDIX 2: Calculations for dolerite intrusions parameters

APPENDIX 3: Geological logs for the unsuccessful boreholes

APPENDIX 4: Step Discharge Test Data

APPENDIX 5: Qualified Guess Recharge Estimation

APPENDIX 6: Chemical Data with Estimated Ionic Balance, %Na and SAR

APPENDIX 7: Drinking Water Quality Standards by DWAF (1996b) and WHO (2011)

APPENDIX 8: Water Quality Classes Description for Drinking according to SANS241:2006

APPENDIX 9: Calculation for Water Balance

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Typical groundwater flow towards a borehole in a Karoo aquifer

Figure 2: Typical Hydrological cycle, showing rainwater infiltration into the groundwater, evaporation and transpiration

Figure 3: Confined and unconfined aquifers

Figure 4: Cross-section of a confined aquifer, showing change of water levels in a piezometer at constant discharge pumping rate

Figure 5: Illustration of a typical representation of water quality on a Piper diagram, also showing different types of water

Figure 6: Illustration of plotting of macro ions on an Expanded Durov diagram, also showing different water types

Figure 7: Geological map of Marquard (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 1 )

Figure 8: Map showing study area in Quaternary Catchment C60E (Map produced using Arc GIS 2012)

Figure 9: Study area mean monthly rainfall; showing rainfall trend

Figure 10: Mean annual precipitation for the study area

Figure 11: Typical grassland in the study area

Figure 12: Typical alien vegetation in the study area

Figure 13: Wind pump used primarily for live stock watering

Figure 14: Graph showing mean monthly Vals River flow rate peaks at the Lindley C6H009 station (DWA, 2014)

Figure 15: Mean annual flow rate along the Vals River at Station C6H009 in Lindley (DWA, 20 1 4)

Figure 16: Simplified geological map of South Africa indicating the distribution of the Karoo Supergroup

Figure 17: Cross-section of the Main Karoo B a s i n

Figure 18: Geological Map of Steynsrus (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 2 b)

Figure 19: Locality map from the aerial photo (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 2 b)

Figure 20: Aeromagnetic data contour map for Steynsrus (Hough and Rudolf, 20 1 2b)

Figure 21: Location of the geophysical traverses in the study area (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 3)

Figure 22: Finding the centre of a thick or thin dyke using Logochev method (Logochev, 1 96 1 )

Figure 23: Determining depth of the dyke using Horizontal Slope Distance (“HSD”) (Roux, 1980)

Figure 24: Traverse profile for S-TV01, field magnetic data

Figure 25: Traverse profile for S-TV01, showing the regional intensity removed data

Figure 26: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV01, showing field data

Figure 27: New Magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV01, showing field data and man-made anomalies after regional removal

Figure 28: Traverse profile for S-TV02, field magnetic data

Figure 29: Traverse profile for S-TV02, showing regional intensity removed data

Figure 30: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse profile for S-TV02, showing field data

Figure 31: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse profile for S-TV02, showing man-made anomalies after removal of regional intensity

Figure 32: Traverse profile for S-TV03, showing field data

Figure 33: Traverse profile for S-TV03, showing regional intensity removed data

Figure 34: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV03, showing field data

Figure 35: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV03, showing man-made anomalies after removal of regional

Figure 36: Traverse profile for S-TV04, showing field data

Figure 37: Traverse profile for S-TV04, showing regional intensity removed data

Figure 38: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV04, showing field data

Figure 39: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV04, showing man-made anomalies after regional removal

Figure 40: Traverse profile S-TV05, showing the field data

Figure 41: Traverse profile for S-TV05, showing regional intensity removed data

Figure 42: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV05, showing field data

Figure 43: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse S-TV05, showing man-made anomalies after regional removal

Figure 44: Traverse profile S-TV05, showing field data

Figure 45: Traverse profile for S-TV06, showing regional intensity removed data

Figure 46: Traverse profile for S-TV07, showing field data

Figure 47: Traverse profile for S-TV07, showing the regional intensity removed data

Figure 48: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse Profile S-TV07, showing field data

Figure 49: New magnetic survey profile for Traverse Profile S-TV07, showing man-made anomalies after regional removal

Figure 50: Traverse profile for S-TV08, showing field data

Figure 51: Traverse profile for S-TV08, showing the regional intensity removed data 69 Figure 52: Map showing drilling targets sited and existing boreholes in the study area, (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 3)

Figure 53: Descriptive borehole geological logs for Target DT-03 shown in depth below ground level and the respective blow yields in L/s

Figure 54: Descriptive borehole geological logs for target DT-06 shown in depth below ground level and the respective blow yields in L/s

Figure 55: Descriptive borehole geological logs for target DT-07 shown in depth below ground level and the respective blow yields in L/s

Figure 56: Descriptive borehole geological logs for target DT-14 shown in depth below ground level and the respective blow yields in L/s

Figure 57: Descriptive borehole geological logs for target DT-17 shown in depth below ground level and the respective blow yields in L/s

Figure 58: Graph showing drawdown behaviour through step discharge tests for borehole DT-06

Figure 59: Location of boreholes in Steynsrus evaluated by constant discharge test (Hough and Rudolf, 2 0 1 3)

Figure 60: Typical derivative graph for various boundary conditions

Figure 61: Log-log and semi-log drawdown and time plots for DT-06

Figure 62: Log-log of derivative and time plot for DT-06

Figure 63: Log-log and semi-log drawdown and time plots for DT-07

Figure 64: Log-log of derivative and time plot for ST-PBH

Figure 65: Log-log and semi-log drawdown and time plots for DT-14

Figure 66: Log-log derivative and time plot for DT-14

Figure 67: Log-log and semi-log drawdown and time plots for DT-32

Figure 68: Log-log derivative and time plot for DT-14

Figure 69: Cooper-Jacob fit for ST-PBH15 pumping borehole

Figure 70: Cooper-Jacob fit for DT-14 pumping borehole

Figure 71: Cooper-Jacob fit for ST-BH07 pumping borehole

Figure 72: Graph fitted by the RPTSOLV program for observation borehole BH 2011

Figure 73: Graph fitted by RPTSOLV program for observation borehole ST-PBH06

Figure 74: SAR diagram showing the classes of water in the study area

Figure 75: Expanded Durov diagram for characterising major ions for samples collected in June-July 2012

Figure 76: Piper diagram showing the major ions for samples collected in March-April 2012

Figure 77: Schoeller diagram showing the distribution of ions in the study area

Figure 78: Piper diagram showing the major ions for samples collected in June-July 2013

Figure 79: Expanded Durov diagram for characterising major ions for samples collected in June-July 2012

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Population datasets used in the study

Table 2: GRAII entries for quaternary catchment C60E

Table 3: Water use license information for Steynsrus

Table 4: Water allocation information for Steynsrus Town Area

Table 5: List of the sited drilling targets based on the geology

Table 6: List of the existing boreholes and basic information

Table 7: Summary of geophysics data and selected sites

Table 8: Drilled unsuccessful boreholes in the study area

Table 9: List of boreholes with blow yields above 1.0 L/s and the respective depth of the main water strikes

Table 10: Constant discharge test information for 20 boreholes tested

Table 11: Range of interval between water-level measurements in the pumping well

Table 12: Characteristics of a derivative drawdown plot (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002)

Table 13: Characteristics of a log-log plot of drawdown (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002)

Table 14: Characteristics of a semi-log plot of drawdown (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002)

Table 15: Recovery test informaiton; including duration of test, initial static water level, and recovery percentage

Table 16: Information of the aquifer parameters (Transmissivity values) estimated using Cooper-Jacob method

Table 17: Aquifer parameters estimated using the RPTSOLV program and Cooper-Jacob method from the FC program

Table 18: Estimated recharge values using Chloride Mass Balance Method

Table 19: Recharge estimation using qualified guesses

Table 20: List of the variables in estimating sustainable yield of a borehole on FC program

Table 21: Estimated sustainable yields using the FC Method, and other FC Method parameters

Table 22: Summary of water balance in Steynsrus study area

Table 23: Univariate statistical overview of the groundwater chemistry data set

Table 24: Water quality classes according to SANS241:2011 123 Table 25: Classification of water quality based on total dissolved solids for samples collected in March-April 2012

Table 26: Classification of water quality based on total dissolved solids for samples collected in June-July 2012

Table 27: Total hardness classification of water quality based on DWAF (1998) for all samples collected

LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation (1): Groundwater Recharge equation

Equation (2): Cooper-Jacob equation for estimating storativity

Equation (3): Derived and rewritten Cooper-Jacob equation for estimating storativity

Equation (4): Sustainable yield calculation

Equation (5): Available drawdown in a pumped well

Equation (6): Extrapolation of pumping drawdown

Equation (7): Water balance calculation

Equation (8): Percentage sodium calculation

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 RESEARCH FRAMEWORK

The water scarcity of the Moqhaka Local Municipality and its respective towns, especially Steynsrus, make the efficient use of available water resources a necessity. This groundwater project was initiated through a national intervention by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA). The purpose of the groundwater (project) investigations was to find alternate sources to supplement the existing water resources but only if the revision of the current and projected future water demands confirms the need for augmentation (DWA, 2011a). Improving living standards, social development needs, increased population and increased irrigation have been the main factors contributing to increased water demands in Steynsrus. The efficient use of water resources on municipal level is necessary for sustainable use.

Groundwater Resources Assessment (GRA) project was completed in 2003 after the publication of a series of 21 hydrologeological maps (at a scale of 1:500 000) were compiled during the project dealing with the classification of South African aquifers. The main objective of the Groundwater Resources Assessment Phase I project (GRAI) that was initiated in 2003 was to quantify South Africa's groundwater resources (DWAF, 2006). The project included the quantification of the aquifer storage, recharge, groundwater use, and aquifer classification in order to estimate the amount of groundwater that can be abstracted on a quaternary catchment scale.

Steynsrus was selected as the study area for the project; this decision was based on feasibility in terms of the logistics and size, as well as the availability of funds for the project and the need for water. DWA has a long record (the oldest is 19 years) of hydrological data through its gauging stations along the Vals River that feeds the town, and there are also geohydrological and geochemical data that have been produced through various water supply projects.

In recent times, i.e. from year 2005 to date, Steynsrus has relied on groundwater for its water supply, with surface water supplementing this resource. In the past, groundwater was used to supplement the surface water resource; however, the reliance on surface water as a primary water supply source has decreased due to low rainfall and inadequate river flow. The dissertation is therefore aimed at assessing groundwater resources for water supply to the town of Steynsrus. In doing so, the study seeks to improve understanding of the factors controlling groundwater occurrence, aquifer yield potential, hydraulics and storage parameters, recharge characteristics and groundwater quality of the aquifer.

1.2 WATER SUPPLY BACKGROUND

The town of Steynsrus obtains water from both surface water and groundwater. The surface water source is the Vals River situated approximately 20 km out of the town. Groundwater sources are boreholes located in the town and in its vicinity. The reliability and sustainability of both water resources have been evaluated directly and indirectly. The direct evaluation has been through observation of the water shortages the town has had, causing major services such as schools to be closed (City Press, 2010). The indirect evaluation of the water resources in Steynsrus, especially groundwater, has been done through exploration studies and hydrological assessments by Geo-Hydro Technologies (GHT) on behalf of Moqhaka Local Municipality.

Shortages of water to meet the water demands in the town have been a major challenge. Water demand is defined as the volume of water needed by users to satisfy their needs (Wallingford, 2003). An investigation was conducted by Geo Hydro Technologies (GHT) on behalf of Moqhaka Local Municipality on the groundwater resources to find out whether the current and available groundwater resources are sufficient to meet the current and future water demands of Steynsrus. The water demands were determined via the Development of the reconciliation strategy for all towns in the central region study prepared by Pula Consulting on behalf of DWA (DWA, 2011a). The all-towns study considered different population databases in order to determine the current and projected water demands in 2030; these include the sources listed in Table 1. The growth trends established from the historical information (1996 and 2001) were assessed in the context of projected population growth of the town, obtained from the Stats SA (2007) population projections (quoted by DWA, 2011a).

A groundwater project by Hough and Rudolf (2012a) of Geo-Hydro Technologies funded by DWA was intended to make clean, safe and sustainable water accessible to certain rural communities (Steynsrus being one of these communities), with the goal of improving their health and livelihoods. This geohydrological assessment project provided valuable geohydrological information and revealed that urgent attention to exploration of the water resources in and around the town is required. The main results of the latter project are that the current and projected future water demands in Steynsrus are and will constitute a major challenge to meet due to the limited yields of the available water resources (DWA, 2011a).

T able 1: Population datasets used in the study

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

1Sub-place: locations determined by Statistics South Africa, which generally correspond to suburbs, villages, or localities

Source: DWA (2011a).

In the GHT report (project RVN645.1/1352), Hough and Rudolf (2012b) generated findings concerning the groundwater potential of the town. Knowledge generated by Hough and Rudolf (2012b) provided information about the geological features and structures in the study area, which may act as preferential pathways for groundwater flow and which are the target areas for groundwater exploration for water supply purposes. This study will therefore seek to investigate the activities conducted to assess the groundwater potential as a sustainable resource in order to meet the projected 2030 water demands. The study will also estimate the groundwater balance for the town of Steynsrus and seek to determine whether groundwater as a sole source of water supply is sufficient to meet the 2030 water demands.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Water is a limiting resource for development in Southern Africa and a change in water supply could have major implications in most sectors of the economy (SADC, 2001). Water systems in Southern Africa in general are classified as vulnerable (SADC, 2001). Factors that contribute to vulnerability in water systems in Southern Africa include seasonal and inter-annual variations in rainfall and high evaporation rates (Mukheibir and Sparks, 2003). Countries that are affected by water scarcity are mainly located in arid and semi-arid regions, and these include South Africa. The natural availability of water across South Africa is variable, and rainfall displays strong seasonality variation. Stream flow in South African rivers is at a relatively low level for most of the year. This feature limits the proportion of stream flow that can be relied upon for use. An estimated 9% of the rainfall reaches the rivers in South Africa, compared to a world average of 31% (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry [DWAF], 1996a). The sustainability of groundwater resources depends, amongst other things, on the amount of rainfall and the extent of the aquifer boundaries. The main problem the study seeks to investigate is to ascertain how much groundwater is available in the study area and how suitable the quality of the groundwater is for human consumption.

1.4 METHODOLOGY

In order to obtain the necessary data and information for the completion of the study, many different tools and applications used in geohydrology had to be implemented and employed. The study had to consider the use of information from previous projects. The data generated in the project for water supply consisted of the desktop studies, field investigation which includes the hydrocensus whereby the existing boreholes within the 20 Km of the town were determined, remote sensing information such as aeromagnetic data and geological maps. Geophysics was conducted during field investigations by using a Magnetometer instrument. Drilling was also conducted upon the identified targets from geophysics and geological observation. Aquifer testing was conducted on the boreholes identified to have blow yield above 1.5 L/s, in order to determine flow regimes and estimate aquifer parameters. Water samples for chemical analysis were collected during aquifer pump testing, by taking a pumped sample from the borehole at the end of the tests.

Recharge for the study area was estimated using the Chloride Mass Balance method and Guess estimate method; the estimations indicated low recharge in accordance with maps constructed by Vegter (1995). All the parameters estimated and calculated would later be used for estimating sustainable yields and groundwater balance for Steynsrus.

1.5 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of the project is to investigate the potential of the groundwater resources, and to determine if the resources will be sufficient for the current and future water demands. Effectively, the study will assess the sustainable yield, aquifer parameters and groundwater quality, and estimate the groundwater balance of the study area. The sub­aims of this research study and their respective objectives are as follows:

- Assessment of groundwater occurrence

- Identify geological structures favourable to groundwater flow.
- Use magnetic surface geophysics methods to identify drilling targets.

- Geological characterisation of aquifer

- Collect and interpret data from the drilling logs.
- Identify characteristics of the aquifer systems based on analysis of lithology.
- Develop a conceptual understanding of aquifer geology.

- Characterisation of aquifer hydraulic and storage properties

- Conduct aquifer pump testing.
- Interpret the pump test data.

- Determination of the exploitable groundwater resource

- Determine the sustainable yields of the boreholes.
- Estimate groundwater recharge.
- Determine the groundwater balance for the study area.

- Assessment of groundwater quality

- Collect groundwater samples and submit these samples to a recognised laboratory for analysis.
- Identify the hydro-geochemical processes controlling the groundwater chemistry.
- Classify the water quality in terms of suitability use.

1.6 STRUCTURE OF DISSERTATION

This dissertation comprises nine chapters, and the various chapters are planned as follows:

Chapter 1 gives an introduction to the background of the research, problem statement, methodology, and aims and objectives of the study.

Chapter 2 provides a literature review, discussing the concepts and methods used to in groundwater assessment and development.

Chapter 3 provides a description of the study area in terms its location, surface and drainage, climate, geology and geohydrological aspects.

Chapter 4 deals with the desktop studies conducted, including the geological maps, map interpretation and the hydrocensus conducted to collect borehole information.

Chapter 5 deals with the geophysical surveys, results obtained from the magnetic method, and the quality of the magnetic data is also discussed critically.

Chapter 6 deals with the exploration drilling, the percussion geological logs description and bedding plane fractures encountered during the drilling exercise.

Chapter 7 discusses the aquifer pump testing results and characterises the hydraulic characteristics of the aquifers.

Chapter 8 provides the estimation of the groundwater recharge and the sustainable yields of the boreholes in the study area. The groundwater balance is discussed with an emphasis on the current and future water demands.

Chapter 9 deals with the groundwater chemistry of the study area and the results obtained of the inorganic chemistry analysis received from the laboratory of the Institute for Groundwater Studies (IGS).

Chapter 10 presents the conclusions of the study and the recommendations that have been made.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The literature review was aimed at understanding the general methods and basic concepts when a groundwater assessment is conducted for water supply to a town. Understanding of these methods and basic concepts is important in estimating the sustainability of the groundwater resources, thus ensuring effective use of groundwater and preservation of groundwater quality that is suitable, particularly for domestic use.

Groundwater occurrence, groundwater flow and groundwater storage are some of the basic concepts which should be understood for planning of groundwater development and will be discussed in this chapter. The ultimate goal in understanding and using the above concepts and methods for groundwater resource assessment is to ensure sustainable development is reached. Since sustainable development of a community is dependent on the local population and the projected population in the future, it is often difficult to compute in a semi-arid country such as South Africa (SADC, 2001). In later sections, sustainable development is unpacked to understand how important it is for future water use.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT

Groundwater Resource Assessment in South Africa has been described as a model used to estimate groundwater allocation scenarios. It has been used to provide an introduction to the world of groundwater quantification on local and regional levels (DWAF, 2006).

GRAII was initiated to model a distinct geohydrological or hydro-lithological unit (such as a groundwater flow basin), and to provide a rough, desk-top estimate of the status of the groundwater resource and what volume might be abstracted without damaging local surface aquatic ecosystems over the long term. The project came about as a result of a need for a tool to regulate groundwater and surface water use by DWA. The project utilised the available data to make conclusions on a large scale (quaternary catchment scale). The idea was to use the geohydrological data (aquifer thickness, saturated thickness, hydraulic conductivity, and other aquifer parameters) and recharge data as the inputs. A series of algorithms were used to quantify the groundwater potential; the methodology generated water balance data for each cell (i.e. quaternary catchment), including the groundwater use and surface water flow data.

Alley et al. (1999) conducted a groundwater resource assessment study in the United States of America following concerns about the sustainability of the groundwater resources. In their study, the authors highlighted the depleting groundwater storage, reductions in stream flow, and changes in groundwater quality. The study highlighted the importance of understanding the basic hydraulic concepts when conducting a groundwater resource assessment. It makes it even more important in South African context for the complex nature of the Karoo fractured rocks. In a recent project, Monokofala (2010) conducted a groundwater assessment study for a town supply in the Mamusa Local Municipality. The study highlighted the need to understand and characterise the local aquifers.

To succeed in a groundwater assessment study, there is a need to understand the groundwater occurrence and types of aquifers in the area, describe the geological structures where the groundwater flows favourably, characterise the regional flow regime, estimate the aquifer parameters, estimate the sustainable yields of the local boreholes, analyse the water quality of the groundwater and estimate the water balance. The ultimate goal is to determine the water balance that presents an overview of the groundwater resource locally.

2.3 GROUNDWATER RESOURCE ASSESSMENT CONCEPTS

2.3.1 Groundwater Occurrence

Scientific methods have been used to determine groundwater occurrence, namely remote sensing, magnetic method, aeromagnetic imagery, electrical and electromagnetic methods, and the gravity method (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002).

Remote sensing has been mainly used as method to locate mapped dolerite intrusions and faults (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). Remote sensing is ideally suited for Karoo conditions due to the relatively simple geology which mainly consists of undeformed sediments intruded by dolerite dykes and sills, the well-known relationship between the groundwater occurrence and dolerite intrusions, and the association of areas of dense vegetation with the shallow groundwater (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). However, remote sensing is better used in conjunction with a geophysical method to explore for drilling high-yielding boreholes. Some of the commonly used methods are ground magnetic surveys, which measure the variations of the earth's magnetic field, electrical and electromagnetic methods, which determine the resistivity of various rock types with depth and lateral extent, and gravity methods, which involves measuring natural variations in the force of gravity.

T he magnetic method is one of the oldest methods of geophysical exploration. Magnetic anomalies in the earth's field are caused by two types of magnetism: induced and remnant magnetism. The induced magnetism of a body is in the same direction as the earth's present field (Roux, 1980). The modern magnetometers record the total magnetic field, while the earlier instruments measured either the horizontal or vertical components of the earth's magnetic field. Groundwater exploration in the Karoo Basin has been carried out using magnetic method measuring the vertical component of the earth's field, to trace the position and orientation of dolerite intrusions (Enslin, 1950).

Aeromagnetic imagery is also a method that is often used to trace large structural features, and especially dolerite intrusions into Karoo sediments. The aeromagnetic imagery, also known as the airborne magnetic surveys, covers a large area in a relatively short period of time, using helicopter or low-flying aircraft trailing a magnetometer. The Council of Geoscience has carried out aeromagnetic surveys for the entire Karoo Basin and these images are available in digital format or as printed maps (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002).

Electrical and electromagnetic methods are the second most commonly used method in groundwater exploration in the Karoo. The electrical method is used to determine the resistivity of various rock types and resistivity variations with depth and lateral extent. Generally, the Karoo sediments have lower resistivities than the crystalline rocks; and therefore seldom have resistivities greater than a thousand ohm metres (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). Shale and mudstone successions are more conductive (less resistive) than sandstone units. Dolerite intrusions are highly resistive, with a high contrast between these rocks and the surrounding host rocks. Electromagnetic methods primarily involve placing a transmitter coil on the ground surface and energising it with alternating current at audio frequency. This generates a secondary magnetic field, which together with the primary field are sensed by the receiver coil, usually placed a short distance away (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). Though the electromagnetic methods have been found to be successful in exploration (Botha et al., 1992), their application in Karoo environments is often restricted because of the general conductive nature of the formations in the Karoo Basin; limiting the depth penetration unless relatively large transmitter coils are employed.

The gravity method involves measuring the natural variations in the force of gravity. These variations are primarily caused by density differences within different formations. Gravity prospecting is mainly used for locating zones of karst development, fractured dolomite or determination of the bedrock geometry beneath extensive alluvial-filled basins, where large density contrasts often exist between the unconsolidated sediments and the basement rocks (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). The application of gravity method on Karoo geology has been found to be limited (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002).

Groundwater in the Karoo is most often associated with the contact zones between the dolerite intrusions and the sedimentary host rocks (which are the main targets for drilling), but successes have also been achieved in drilling into the centre of the dyke. Due to the fractures which act as conduits for groundwater, the dolerite intrusions become the primary geological formation target. The aperture and areal extent of these water-yielding fractures are limited, unable to store large quantities of water. Botha et al. (1998) pointed out that the formations and not the fractures act as the main storage units of water in Karoo aquifers. This is a contradicting assessment view as the formations in the Karoo are dense and relatively impermeable when compared to the unconsolidated sands and dolomite. This assessment of the Karoo aquifer systems has indicated that the flow in the formations resembles flow in porous medium and obeys Darcy's Law, and that the formations may contain large quantities of water, but may not be able to release it readily over small areas such as the circumference of a borehole (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). The groundwater flow of the typical Karoo aquifer system is depicted below in Figure 1.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Source: Woodford and Chevallier (2002).

Figure 1: Typical groundwater flow towards a borehole in a Karoo aquifer

From the above depiction (Figure 1), the borehole in a dense Karoo formation will receive most of its water from the water-yielding fracture during pumping. This creates a drop in piezometric pressure within the fracture, and consequently water flows into the large water­yielding fractures from the rock matrix.

2.3.2 Groundwater Flow and Storage

The simplest approach to assess the physical behaviour of an aquifer is to perform a hydraulic test on the borehole drilled into the aquifer in question. There are other tests that can be performed to assess the aquifer (Botha et al., 1998, Kruseman and De Ridder, 1994), but this study will be limited to the hydraulic testing as the method of assessing the aquifers. The physical behaviour of an aquifer system is determined by the interactions between the water and the rock matrix in which the aquifer occurs. Although there are other interactions that contribute to the behaviour of the aquifer, the adhesive force between the water molecules and the boundaries of the voids is the most basic interaction (Bear, 1972).

Groundwater systems consist of the mass of water flowing through pores and pathways below earth's surface, and water continuously flows from a point of recharge to a point of discharge (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). Recharge is the mechanical way water is added into the groundwater system either through rainfall or inflow from another groundwater system. Discharge is the mechanical way water leaves the groundwater system to the surface. Figure 2 illustrates how water is infiltrated into the groundwater system.

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Source: European Environment Agency (EEA, 2003).

Figure 2: Typical Hydrological cycle, showing rainwater infiltration into the groundwater, evaporation and transpiration.

The above Figure 2 also shows how water leaves the system through natural processes such as evapotranspiration and evaporation and how some rain water can flow into lakes, rivers and the sea as part of runoff or baseflow. This can occur when the groundwater system is directly connected to a surface water system. It must be mentioned that groundwater also does leave the system by discharge initiated by man through a borehole or a well.

2.3.2.1 Borehole sustainability and aquifer parameters

Woodford and Chevallier (2002) highlighted the importance of understanding the basic hydraulic concepts when conducting groundwater assessments in fractured rock aquifers. In understanding the hydraulic concepts one needs to understand the types of aquifers, whether they are confined, semi-confined or unconfined, and also the location of these aquifers, see Figure 3.

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Source: Heath (1983).

Figure 3: Confined and unconfined aquifers.

Different aquifers - confined and unconfined aquifers - have different characteristics and thus behave different to pumping, the same volume of water abstracted from the unconfined and confined aquifers, however, the water released from the aquifer storage is not the same, see Figure 3. Most of the aquifer parameters (such as transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity) of both the confined and unconfined aquifers in the same area can be more or less the same, with an exception of Storage Coefficient, also known as Storativity (S). The Groundwater Dictionary (DWA, 2011b) defines Storage Coefficient as “the volume of water an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head”. It is important to note that the volume of water stored and released in an aquifer and storativity (S) can be used to quantify the sustainable yield of a borehole and its hydraulics limits for sustainable use. Van Tonder et al. (2002) noted that to obtain accurate storativity values, an observation borehole is required during pump testing. For the purpose of the study - where it was feasible and practical - observation boreholes were located and monitored during pump testing of an adjacent borehole. Where there were no observation boreholes, theoretical S-values were used for reference guideline.

Murray et al. (2012) highlighted the importance of understanding basic concepts such as groundwater occurrence, groundwater flow and groundwater storage in planning for town/municipality water supply. One of the major parameters that are of importance in order to determine sustainable yield of the borehole is transmissivity (T). Transmissivity is defined by the Groundwater Dictionary (DWA, 2011b) as “the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of an aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. It is expressed as the product of the average hydraulic conductivity and thickness of the saturated portion of an aquifer”.

Transmissivity provides an indication of the strength and limits (i.e. yield) of the borehole; it can be supplemented with the storativity (S) to estimate the sustainable yield. This is not to conclude that transmissivity and storativity are the only important parameters in estimating sustainable yield, however, both parameters are important in determining the flow regimes and estimating sustainable yield.

There are external factors that may influence the estimation of sustainable yield; some of these factors are precipitation, and rate of evapotranspiration. These make each groundwater system unique, with different possible factors which affect the sustainable yield. One of the major parameters or factors in sustainable yield estimation is recharge, which will be further discussed in the following section.

2.3.3 Groundwater Recharge

Recharge estimation provides the basis for efficient groundwater resource management. This is particularly important in regions with large demands for groundwater supplies, where such resources are the key to social and economic development. Estimating the rate of aquifer recharge is the most difficult of all measures in the evaluation of groundwater resources (Sun, 2005). Estimates of this kind are normally and almost inevitably subject to large errors. There is no single comprehensive estimation technique available for use and which does not give suspect results (Simmers, 1988). Aquifer recharge estimation can be done through many methods. Each of the methods has its own limitations in terms of applicability and accuracy. The techniques used to determine groundwater recharge in this study are the chloride mass balance and qualified guesses approaches.

Rainfall is the principal means for replenishment of moisture in the soil water system and recharge to groundwater. Moisture movement in the unsaturated zone is controlled by capillary pressure and hydraulic conductivity (Sun, 2005). As defined by the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (Jones et al., 1981) as well as Lloyd (1986), there are two principal types of recharge: direct and indirect. D irect recharge is described as water added to the groundwater reservoir in excess of soil moisture deficits and evapotranspiration, through a direct vertical percolation of precipitation through the unsaturated zone (Lloyd, 1986). I ndirect recharge results from percolation of rainfall to the water table following runoff and localisation in joints, as ponding in low lying areas and lakes, or through the beds of surface water (Lerner, Issar and Simmers, 1990). Indirect recharge includes surface water recharge, and a localised form of water from surface concentration of water in the absence of well-defined surface drainage is also defined as a type of recharge. In other publications this is known as localised recharge. Two distinct categories of indirect recharge are thus evident, i.e. that associated with surface water, and a second localised form resulting from surface concentration of water in the absence of well-defined surface drainage.

According to Kirchner et al. (1991), the main factors that affect the replenishment of the aquifer or the aquifer recharge are the following:

- Rainfall: magnitude, intensity, duration, spatial distribution.
- Geological environment: boundaries, hydraulic conductivity and storativity of formation.
- Evapotranspiration: the vegetation system, meteorological parameters.
- Hydrology: run-off, rivers.
- Unsaturated zone: thickness, hydraulic properties of the different soils, soil physical parameters, crust formation.
- Flow mechanism: soil matrix, flow along preferred pathways.

Further, Bredenkamp et al. (1995) stated that recharge is governed by the intricate balance between several components of the hydrologic cycle, each of which is a function of several controlling factors:

- Rainfall: intensity, frequency, variability, spatial distribution.
- Evapotranspirative losses: temperature, wind, humidity.
- Discharge losses: interflow, springs, base-flow, lateral flow and artificial discharge.
- Catchment: soil type, thickness, spatial distribution, topographical features, vegetation.
- Geology: rock types, structural geology and igneous intrusions.

Variations in geomorphology reflect differences in topography, vegetation, and soil type, which can affect recharge. Tóth (1963) demonstrated the impact of topography on local and regional groundwater flow paths. Recharge usually occurs in topographic highs, and discharge in topographic lows in humid regions, whereas in arid regions recharge is generally focused in topographic lows, such as valleys. Vegetation cover is important in assessing the recharge potential in any area. Recharge is generally greater in non­vegetated than in vegetated regions (Gee et al., 1994), and greater in areas of annual crops and grasses than in areas of trees and shrubs (Prych, 1998). In irrigated areas return flow often contributes significant amounts of artificial recharge.

Estimation of recharge in the Karoo is not different from recharge estimation in other geological formations, except that the aquifer is normally only covered by a thin layer of soil, which limits the application of methods relating to the unsaturated zone. Recharge is very difficult to estimate reliably; more than one method is often used (Woodford and Chevallier, 2002). The most reliable and practical methods entail a mass balance approach.

2.3.3.1 The Chloride Mass Balance Method (CMB)

Chloride as an environmental tracer has been extensively used for the estimation of groundwater recharge. The Chloride Mass Balance (CMB) method developed by Eriksson and Khynakasem (1969) is simple to use, inexpensive and common in geohydrological investigations. Chloride is used for recharge estimation because of its conservative nature, it is highly soluble, it cannot be substantially taken up by vegetation (Sharma, 1997), and its relative abundance in rainfall and groundwater. CMB method assumes that the increase in chloride concentration has resulted from evapotranspiration losses and that no additional chloride has been added by contamination from, leaching of rocks, from the overburden, and from pollution. Description of the equation, if the assumption of chloride as a conservative ion is accepted, the groundwater recharge is simply given by Eriksson and Khynakasem (1969) and Houston (1987):

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The chloride method must be used with caution, as an accumulation of chloride near the soil surface due to evapotranspiration may override the assumption of a steady state chloride flux density throughout the unsaturated zone (Allison, Barnes and Leany, 1984).

Unfortunately, chloride concentrations of rainfall have only been measured at a few points in Southern Africa, but could be estimated from measurements of Botswana rainfall because of the good correlation of data. This indicates that the average chloride concentration is a function of the average precipitation. However, chloride concentrations decrease as mean annual rainfall increases, and conform to the concept of a higher percentage recharge for higher rainfall. The chloride method allows point measurements of recharge to be obtained from chloride concentrations of individual boreholes and spatial variability of recharge from monitoring points spread over the recharge area (Xu and Beekman, 2003).

2.3.3.2 Qualified guesses

A ‘qualified guess' is a term used when general estimates are made through projections without sufficient data or information. These estimates are based on the knowledge of the area and its specifics, mathematical theories, and readily available data. The maps provided by Vegter (1995), the groundwater component of river base flow and harvest potential are used to determine the groundwater recharge rate in this study. The maps by Vegter (1995) detail the estimated recharge of the whole of South Africa, for an estimation of a local recharge value; the study area is located on these maps and its recharge value is determined from its position.

The qualified guesses for recharge from the soil/vegetation and geology are from expert opinions and general equations proposed by Bredenkamp et al. (1995) and Kirchner et al. (1991). This method is valuable for comparing with estimated values obtained through an analytical method (such as Chloride Mass Balance), as it will be discussed in this study.

2.3.4 Borehole Sustainable Yields

The manual by van Tonder et al. (2002) emphasises the importance of determining sustainable yield for a borehole to avoid overexploitation and drying of the borehole. This manual provides a detailed summary of pump testing types and the methods used to analyse the data from these tests. The manual will be used as a guideline when analysing and interpreting pump test data of the boreholes in the study area as it gives a guideline for fractured aquifers which are predominant in the study area. The emphasis will be on sustainable yield (Q) and transmissivity (T) and storativity (S) estimates.

Sustainable yield can be defined as “the maximum rate of withdrawal that can be sustained by an aquifer without causing an unacceptable decline in the hydraulic head or deterioration in water quality in the aquifer” (DWA, 2011b). Sustainable yield estimation is of critical importance when dealing with areas such as Steynsrus, where the natural recharge is found to be low due to the lower mean annual precipitation (MAP = 565 mm/a) as estimated during the GRAII (DWAF, 2006). Understanding of abstraction patterns, aquifer characteristics and recharge is important to determining sustainable yields that do not only will lead to depletion of aquifer storage but also do not lead to underestimation of available groundwater.

The sustainable yields were calculated using the guidelines and methods described by Kruseman and De Ridder (1994). The authors emphasise the need to conduct aquifer pump testing to determine the aquifer parameters. In groundwater assessments, aquifer pump testing is one of the most important objectives; it allows characterising of the aquifer parameters and sustainable yields. Kruseman and de Ridder (1994) was referred to for equations such as the Cooper-Jacob, Theis, and other theoretical equations for the determination of the sustainable yields and aquifer parameters.

When interpreting and analysing the pump test data, certain assumptions are made, because the equations used to calculate these parameters are based on ideal conditions. Methods for evaluating pumping tests in confined aquifers are available for both predevelopment conditions (steady-state flow) and dynamic conditions (unsteady-state flow). For the purpose of this study, focus will be on the unsteady-state flow. The assumptions and conditions underlying the Theis, and Cooper-Jacob methods are as follows:

- The aquifer is confined.
- The aquifer has a seemingly infinite areal extent.
- The aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic, and of uniform thickness over the area.
- Prior to pumping, the piezometric surface is horizontal (or nearly so) over the area.
- The aquifer is pumped at a constant discharge rate.
- The well penetrates the entire thickness of the aquifer and the water pumped is influenced by the horizontal flow.
- The water removed from storage is discharged instantaneously with decline of the head (water level).
- The diameter of the well is small, i.e. the storage in the well can be neglected.

When a fully penetrating well pumps a confined aquifer (Figure 4), the influence of the pumping extends radially outwards from the well with time, and the pumped water is withdrawn entirely from the storage within the aquifer. In theory, because the pumped water must come from a reduction of storage within the aquifer, only unsteady-state flow can exist (Kruseman and De Ridder, 1994). In practice, however, the flow to the well is considered to be in a steady state if the change in drawdown has become negligibly small with time.

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Source: Kruseman and De Ridder (1994).

F igure 4: Cross-section of a confined aquifer, showing change of water levels in a piezometer at constant discharge pumping rate.

2.3.5 Groundwater Quality

Guidelines from the South African National Standards for Drinking Water (SANS, 2006) will be used to determine water quality status. The availability of groundwater and suitability of its water quality for different uses are intertwined in a sense that some extreme concentrations in water can be beneficial for other use, and extremely bad for human health. The main focus will be the water quality that is suitable for domestic use such as drinking, cooking, washing, etc.

There are areas in the study area that already have been vulnerable to pollution, and this will be well highlighted. Identifying polluted areas and areas vulnerable to pollution will assist in the management of the water quality for domestic use, and this will also allow the establishment of a water quality management plan aimed at monitoring these sources and mitigate a plan when pollution plume ever migrates to other aquifer compartments. Groundwater quality remediation processes are generally expensive and commonly only partly successful. The main concern is the disposal of waste water in a manner that may be detrimental to the water resources. However, these kinds of disposals can be prevented and controlled.

The chemical composition of groundwater varies mostly due to the natural quality of the aquifer, and to a lesser extent, precipitation, recharge rate, meteorological aspects, saline water and flow patterns (Aastrup and Axelsson, 1984). The natural chemical composition of groundwater is mostly determined by the:

- Reaction velocity between water and minerals in sediment or rock;
- Residence time of water within the aquifer; and
- Contact area between water and minerals (Aastrup and Axelsson, 1984).

Understanding the above processes, and being able to make reliable quantitative statements about them, requires the application of theoretical analysis to develop tentative models and chemical characterisation. These hypotheses are often referred to as conceptual models (Aastrup and Axelsson, 1984). Essential data used in the determination of water quality in this study was obtained by the hydrochemical analysis of water samples in the laboratory.

2.3.5.1 Interpretation of chemical data

2.3.5.1.1 Piper and Durov diagrams

The major ionic species obtained from the hydrochemical analysis can be presented by various methods and diagrams, of which hydrochemical facies, the Piper (1944) trilinear diagram, is the most common and most often used. The Piper diagram is useful in sorting and filtering large volumes of chemical data by grouping ions. On this diagram the milliequivalent percentages of the cations and anions are plotted in left and right triangles as a single point. These points are then projected onto a central diamond-shaped area representing the total ionic distribution, see Figure 5. This makes chemical interpretation easier (Hem, 1985).

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F igure 5: Illustration of a typical representation of water quality on a Piper diagram, also showing different types of water.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure 6: Illustration of plotting of macro ions on an Expanded Durov diagram, also showing different water types.

The Durov or Expanded Durov diagrams are similar to the Piper diagram in that the chemical analyses are plotted on the separate anion and cation triangles. In the expanded Durov diagram the three corners of each triangle are physically separated from one another, see Figure 6. The result is a square plot divided into nine areas, each characteristic of a different water type (Hounslow, 1995; Lloyd and Heathcote, 1985).

2.3.5.1.2 Schoeler diagram

The Schoeller diagram can also be used to present hydrochemical data. The Schoeller diagram is a semi logarithmic diagram which was developed to represent major ion analyses (SO42-, HCO3-, Cl-, Mg2+, Ca2+, Na+/K+) in milliequivalents (meq/L) and demonstrate the different hydrochemical water types on the same diagram (Hem, 1985). The axes on the diagram are displaced vertically so that the concentrations can be read in milliequivalents on the two outer scales (Hem, 1985). The diagram displays the ion ratios between points joined by straight lines, making interpretation easy. This type of graphical representation is advantageous in that, unlike the trilinear diagrams, actual sample concentrations are displayed and compared. The ratios of ions in samples are said to be equal if a line joining two points in a single sample is parallel to another line joining a second set of another sample (Hem, 1985).

2.3.5.1.3 Groundwater salinity

Salinity is used as a measurement to detect how concentrated the water and soils are with dissolved salts, which may be due to the local lithology and anthropogenic processes. The physical and chemical processes responsible for the development of saline soils involve the mineralisation of the groundwater, the physical transport of dissolved salts, the discharge of saline base flow into streams and lakes, and the precipitation of salts within the soil zone. Most of the salt in the groundwater system comes from input loading, which includes air-borne salts, salt dissolved in the water recharging the system, and salt contributed from mineral dissolution within the groundwater flow system (Salama, Otto and Fitzpatrick, 1999). The most important process that adds salt to groundwater is mineral dissolution reactions in the subsurface.

2.3.5.2 Statistical analysis

Geological and hydrogeological processes are generally complex; this can explain the random distributions of many field measurements. Physical and chemical data are prone to mathematical error due to the inability to follow a governing statistical trend, which makes interpretation of raw data difficult (Suk and Lee, 1999). Statistical analysis of chemical data is aimed to interpret and disclose the governing processes through data reduction and classification. Through classification achieved on the data set, interpretation is made easier (Suk and Lee, 1999).

2.4 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable water development and management is a critical component of development for all societies. Often, however, the geographic distribution of water resources does not correspond to the location of the demand population. South Africa, for example, is a semi- arid country (65% of the country) in which the average rainfall of 450 mm/year is well below the world average of about 860 mm/year. As a result, South Africa's water resources are in global terms, scarce and limited in extent (Otiono and Ochieng, 2004).

There are many challenges facing the sustainability of groundwater resource. Amongst others there are issues such as climate change, human errors in data handling, over­abstraction due to increasing water demand, damage of borehole infrastructures in remote areas, poor groundwater management systems and a total lack of groundwater monitoring and management at all.

Several studies (for example those by Edwin and Poyyamoli, 2012) have shown that climate change is likely to have a significant impact on the availability of freshwater resources. Freshwater-rich regions across Africa are projected to face water scarcity if current reserves are not managed effectively.

A groundwater monitoring and management plan constitutes an important part of achieving sustainability of water resources and providing important data that can be useful and optimising the use of the available water resources. Many boreholes often tend to get depleted due to over abstraction and disregard to pumping cycles (if there are any stipulated), and also the absence of groundwater management plan in place. Groundwater scientists often may draw up these groundwater management plans for municipalities for their use, but it has been found that the execution of the management plan is poor or neglected until there is major water level decrease and drying up of boreholes. It is understood that the decreased water levels and drying up of boreholes may be due to increased populations and demand for industries, agriculture and economic development. The need for groundwater scientists to refine the groundwater management plans and to address the obvious problems has never been greater for supporting local municipalities in ensuring that water resources are sustainable.

It is difficult to quantify sustainable use of water resources in an area where the water demands are already exceeding the exploitable water from the available water resources. Development of an integrated water resource strategy to reach sustainable development is necessary. This may include using available water resources other than local groundwater; if applicable, applying intermittent pumping patterns and rates, introduce artificial recharge into the groundwater system if the local geology is suitable, decreasing of unnecessary discharge of groundwater and application of water demand management and conservation measures.

On the other hand, solutions such as crop choice (salt- and drought-resistant crops), crop efficiency, biofertilisers, rainwater harvesting, flood proofing and retention measures, knowledge management, a decision support system and insurance by all involved should be worked upon to comprehensively address the challenges. This should be analysed under areas of physical, social and economic dimensions (Edwin and Poyyamoli, 2012).

2.5 GROUNDWATER ASSESSMENT CASE STUDIES

There have been several projects conducted in Free State that relate to assessment of groundwater. For the purpose of this study, a project in Marquard will be discussed to provide an example of such projects.

The town of Marquard is located in the eastern part of the Free State province, underlain by Adelaide and Tarkastad formations of the Beaufort Group. The project in Marquard included the remote sensing, geophysical surveys, exploration drilling, aquifer pump testing and recommendations of the sustainable yields using the Flow Characterisation program.

From the geological and aeromagnetic data contour maps there were no dolerite intrusions that were identified, except for on the western boundary of the study area, which is denoted by the reddish area on the geological map, see Figure 7. The green area on the aerial magnetic contour map denotes sedimentary rocks (Hough and Rudolf, 2011). Boreholes drilled were based magnetometer surveys which were conducted on potential dolerite intrusions and other structures based on the knowledge of the geology. Thirteen magnetic anomalies were identified from the magnetic data, these were associated with dolerite intrusion (DWA, 2011c). The negative magnetic anomalies detected were associated with the discontinuous magnetic intrusion (such as dolerite intrusion) which may have been caused by weathering, fracturing or faulting which was targeted for drilling of groundwater (DWA, 2011c). The positive magnetic anomalies were associated with the presence of the highly magnetic body such as the dolerite intrusion. Fourteen boreholes were drilled, the geological logs illustrated alternating layers of sandstone and shale formations and also presence of fractured dolerite intrusions in some boreholes. The alternating layers of sandstone and shale formations.

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Blow yields encountered during drilling ranged from 0.1-18.67 L/s, the higher blow yields were associated with fractured dolerite intrusion (Hough and Rudolf, 2011). Sedimentary rocks usually have low permeabilities and storativitity values, thus boreholes drilled into sedimentary rock formations had low yields with the exception where bedding plane fractures were encountered within the sedimentary rocks or fractured baked contacts zones between the sedimentary rocks and magmatic dolerite intrusions such as dykes and sills (Hough and Rudolf, 2011).

From the fourteen newly drilled boreholes, only seven boreholes were considered for 24­48 hours aquifer pump testing and appropriate sustainable yields were estimated, and recommended accordingly.

2.6 SUMMARY

Chapter 2 gives a review of literature of the basic concepts and methods which are important in groundwater resource assessment. A review of groundwater resource assessment study in South African is briefly discussed with the aim of highlighting the concepts and methods that are important in conducting such studies. The sustainable development was also discussed to highlight the importance of groundwater resources to the current and future population. Basic concepts and methods reviewed include the magnetic method, geohydrological and hydrochemical methods, aquifer parameters and sustainable yields. The next chapter provides description of the study area in terms of population, physiography, geology, geohydrology, etc.

CHAPTER 3 SITE DESCRIPTION

3.1 OVERVIEW AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Steynsrus is a small town situated approximately 55 km east of Kroonstad under the Moqhaka Local Municipality. Moqhaka Local Municipality (LM) is located in the Fezile Dabi District Municipality (DM), formerly known as the Northern Free State DM. The Moqhaka LM area stretches from Viljoenskroon in the north to Steynsrus in the south. Besides these towns, the municipality is characterised by farming and rural settlements. Among other farming activities, cattle and maize farming are the most common in the area. According to the reconciliation strategies studies conducted on behalf of DWA (2011a), the population in the town is about 7 518. The study area falls within the Middle Vaal Water Management Area (WMA), specifically in quaternary catchment C60E (Figure 8); the WMA includes the Vals River draining into the Vaal River.

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Figure 8: Map showing study area in Quaternary Catchment C60E (Map produced using Arc GIS 2012)

Some of the water is pumped and purified for domestic consumption along the Vals River course. A purification scheme at the local water treatment plant had been a major source of drinking water in the town of Steynsrus and it is fed by the Morgenzon Dam situated near the Vals River. The Morgenzon Dam is an off-channel storage dam and is owned by the Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and operated by Moqhaka LM. The Morgenzon Dam is approximately 400 m southwest of the Vals River. The dam is of strategic importance to rural and town development in Steynsrus and nearby township, Matlwangtlwang. Decreasing river flow has been recognised by the locals as a serious problem since the 1990s, but has hitherto largely been ascribed to low rainfall.

Steynsrus has a relatively low urban development. The town has a visible central business district, surrounded by urban free-standing houses and extensive low income housing, mainly in Matlwangtlwang. The municipality released statistics in its Integrated Development Plan (IDP) that approximately 90% of the population in Matlwangtlwang and Steynsrus are unemployed (Moqhaka LM, 2012).

Steynsrus is located in an area of agriculture significance and mainly provides services to this regard. Groundwater is used by the town and upstream farmers along the Vals River. The town tends to use both surface water and groundwater and relies more on the groundwater to supplement the surface water supply, and also as the main source when there is no or minimal flow in the river.

3.2 PHYSIOGRAPHY AND DRAINAGE

The topography is characterised by mainly flat areas and gradual elevations varying from 1 200 to 1 500 metres above mean sea level (mamsl). The area forms the south-eastern part of the Highveld region and straddles the Great Drakenberg Escarpment in the east (Schutte, 1983). The landscape is part of an undulating plain with generally few elevated areas, especially in the study area.

The primary river that drains the catchment where Steynsrus is situated is the Vaal River through its tributary, the Vals River. The tributary drains predominantly in north-westerly direction towards the Vaal River. The Vals River is a non-perennial river, which flows more frequently after periods of heavy rainfall. There are small dams built practically in and around the Vals River, mostly for farm water supply purposes. Their existence seriously reduces the surface water runoff of the area. No quantitative information thereof is, however, available. Drainage is topographically and geologically controlled, i.e. influenced by the folding and subsequent faulting of the underlying lithology (DWAF, 2003a).

3.3 RAINFALL AND CLIMATE

The climate is characterised by cold winters and very hot summers; maximum precipitation occurs as a result of thunderstorms in summer and autumn seasons. The temperature has large daily and seasonal variations. The mean surface temperature reaches maximum values during December and January, and minimum values during June and July. The period when frost can be expected lasts approximately 100 days (June to August). The mean annual temperature varies from 15.0 to 17.5 °C. The mean annual evaporation is in the range of 1 500-1 800 mm (DWAF, 2003b). The area experiences rainfall mostly during summer season, with precipitation mainly during December, January and February. Monthly rainfall records plotted in Figure 9 were obtained from the South African Weather Services (SAWS, 2013). The mean monthly rainfall indicates a summer rainfall climate with most of its rainfall patterns (65-117 mm/month) occurring during the months of October to March. As a result, the Vals River represents a non-perennial stream which only flows during the summer to autumn seasons between October and March.

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Source: SAWS (2013).

Figure 9: Study area mean monthly rainfall; showing rainfall trend.

The annual precipitation is erratic with wet and very dry cycles evident (Figure 10). The Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) for the study area is 563-688 mm/annum. The estimated MAP in the GRAII project is a conservative 563 mm/annum. The highest MAP of 1 017 mm was recorded in 1996. Above average precipitation has also been recorded during the years 1974, 1976, 1988, 1994, 2000, 2001, and recently in the year 2010. With an exception of the rainfall recorded in 2010, the last 12 years have been the driest in the area, with as low as 316 and 285 mm/annum recorded in 2003 and 2012, respectively.

The recent low rainfall records do not suggest any major meteorological change, but it is important to note because the town relies on the river that is dependent on the rainfall , thus the lower the rainfall, the less water available for water supply.

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Source: SAWS (2013). Figure 10: Mean annual precipitation for the study area.

3.4 VEGETATION AND LAND USE

Due to the arid climate in Steynsrus, the vegetation over the most of the Middle Vaal WMA is sparse, and consists of mainly grassland (Figure 11), shrubs and some alien vegetation (Figure 12). According to Acocks (1952), vegetation in Steynsrus and other surrounding areas are classified as pure grassland, regarded as the natural vegetation typical of the Highveld.

The study area, however, is covered mostly by very dry grasslands; there is also livestock and some crop farming in the area. The occurrence of shrubs and natural vegetation can be explained by shallow and deeper soil moisture for more extensive root systems. Presence of termite hills and thorn shrubs are normally associated with the presence of rock outcrops, particularly dolerite dykes, which are the primary drilling target for groundwater in the area. Surface water and groundwater (Figure 13) are the source of farming in areas around the study area and along the Vals River.

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Figure 11: Typical grassland in the study area

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Figure 12: Typical alien vegetation in the study area

The irrigation of crops, such as maize, and sunflowers, occurs mainly downstream of the dams and along the Vals River. Livestock farming consists mainly of beef, dairy and sheep farming enterprises, as well as some game farming. There is no mining near the study area. The Voorspoed Diamond mine is located approximately 80 km north of the study area.

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