Social injustices and human suffering are topics of the Victorian social problem novel. Following the rapid changes of society due to the industrialisation, the English working class became a victim of its circumstances. In Elisabeth Gaskell's novel "North and South" the character of Bessy Higgins embodies the type of the suffering innocent. In this figure, both social criticism and religious concepts and contemporary ideologies come together to form an understanding of afterlife that makes it possible to live with the Hell on Earth of the industrial period. This text studies the religious teachings of Unitarianism and Universalism of the Victorian period and applies them to the understanding of afterlife depicted by Gaskell.
In this paper, the term universalism is restricted to Christian universalism in the sense of an apocatastasis (i.e. ‘reconstitution’ or ‘restoration’) with focus on the aspect of reconciliation (which is what Bessy repeatedly mentions when she talks of afterlife). The research question is whether the ideas and concepts the character of Bessy Higgins states about life after death are closer to the Unitarian or Universalist belief. This paper will analyse the character’s comments and how Heaven and Hell in Bessy’s understanding work. The statements will be compared to both religious persuasions and thereby draw the close relation between these two beliefs but also point out their differences.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Unitarianism and Afterlife
3. Universalism and Afterlife
4. Analysis of Heaven and Hell in Bessy’s Life
4.1. Hell
4.2. Heaven
4. Conclusion
5. Sources
Research Objectives and Core Themes
This paper examines the religious concepts of afterlife—specifically Heaven and Hell—as presented in Elizabeth Gaskell’s novel North and South, focusing on the character Bessy Higgins. The study investigates whether Bessy's perceptions align more closely with Unitarian or Universalist theology, both of which were significant during the Victorian era and rejected the traditional concept of eternal damnation in favor of reconciliation with God.
- The Victorian social problem novel and its portrayal of "Hell on Earth."
- Unitarian doctrines regarding the nature of God, humanity, and afterlife.
- Christian Universalism and the concept of apocatastasis (universal reconciliation).
- The psychological impact of industrial working conditions on religious belief.
- The role of the Book of Revelation as a source of consolation for the dying.
Excerpt from the Book
4.1. Hell
Although the character of Bessy Higgins almost exclusively talks of Heaven, Hell seems to be more present in her life. It is immanent in the industrial town of Milton, right there where the people live. The only escape from what the poet William BLAKE described as “Satanic mills” already in his hymn in the early 1800s, it is death and hope for Heaven. WHEELER explains the two sides of this ‘Hell on earth’ in Victorian literature: Firstly, there is the downside of the industrial revolution often portrayed in social problem novels (WHEELER 196): Disease, inhumane living and working conditions and general misery are reoccurring motifs in Victorian fiction and apply to GASKELL’s North and South. The second way in which Hell is immanent is the ‘poena damni’, a concept of pain of the soul in contrast to the pain of the body, ‘poena sensus’ (ibid.). While the pain of the body seems to be limited to the working classes in the Victorian novel, the pain of the soul crosses the class borders. It is the pain of loss or lack, e.g. of love or of loved ones which the novel’s main character, Margaret Hale, experiences herself. This, of course, picks up on the concepts of Hell explained before. Hell is where sin is, therefore, Hell is on earth with us. Only by reaching Heaven, humanity can finally escape it.
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: The introduction establishes the research context regarding Victorian social problem novels and introduces the two religious frameworks, Unitarianism and Universalism, through which Bessy Higgins's outlook on death is analyzed.
2. Unitarianism and Afterlife: This chapter details the historical and theological tenets of Unitarianism, emphasizing its rejection of the Trinity and eternal hellfire in favor of a hopeful reconciliation with a merciful God.
3. Universalism and Afterlife: The chapter explores the definitions of Christian Universalism, specifically the belief in the ultimate salvation of all humans and the interpretation of biblical imagery as symbolic rather than literal.
4. Analysis of Heaven and Hell in Bessy’s Life: This section provides a close reading of the novel, analyzing how Bessy's lived experience of industrial misery corresponds to a "Hell on Earth" and how she constructs a hopeful vision of Heaven.
4.1. Hell: This subchapter examines the "industrial Hell" of Milton and the internal suffering (poena damni) experienced by Bessy, linking her physical illness to the socioeconomic realities of the Victorian era.
4.2. Heaven: This subchapter discusses how Bessy utilizes the Book of Revelation and her belief in divine reconciliation to envision an afterlife that offers relief from her earthly struggles.
4. Conclusion: The conclusion synthesizes the findings, noting that while Unitarianism and Universalism are distinct, their shared rejection of eternal punishment provides a consistent framework for understanding Bessy’s hope for peace.
5. Sources: A comprehensive bibliography of primary and secondary sources utilized for the theological and literary analysis.
Keywords
Elizabeth Gaskell, North and South, Bessy Higgins, Unitarianism, Universalism, Afterlife, Victorian Literature, Hell on Earth, Reconciliation, Apocatastasis, Book of Revelation, Industrial Revolution, Theology, Death, Social Problem Novel.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core focus of this academic paper?
The paper explores how religious concepts of the afterlife, particularly those found in Unitarian and Universalist traditions, influence the character Bessy Higgins in Elizabeth Gaskell's novel North and South.
What are the primary religious frameworks discussed?
The study focuses on Unitarianism, characterized by its "optimistic" rejection of the Trinity and eternal punishment, and Universalism, which posits the ultimate salvation and reconciliation of all humanity with God.
What is the main research objective?
The goal is to determine whether Bessy Higgins's statements regarding life after death more closely mirror the theological tenets of Unitarianism or Universalism.
Which scientific or analytical method is employed?
The author uses literary analysis, comparing textual evidence from the novel with historical theological definitions and scholarly critiques of Victorian religious culture.
What does the main body of the text cover?
The main body investigates the dichotomy between the "Hell on Earth" experienced by characters in the industrial town of Milton and the hope for a heavenly afterlife as described in the Book of Revelation.
What key terms characterize the research?
Key terms include Victorian social problem novel, apocatastasis, poena damni, industrialization, and religious reconciliation.
How does Bessy Higgins interpret the Book of Revelation?
Bessy maintains a literal and deeply personal reading of the apocalypse, viewing its descriptions of the "Holy Jerusalem" as a source of comfort for her own impending death.
How is the concept of "Hell" treated in this analysis?
The paper argues that "Hell" is not a post-mortem destination for Bessy, but rather an immanent reality manifesting through the physical suffering and inhumane conditions of the industrial revolution.
- Quote paper
- Almut Amberg (Author), 2015, The Heaven and Hell of Bessy Higgins. Unitarian and Universalist Concepts of Afterlife in Elisabeth Gaskell's "North and South", Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/954644
