A BST R A C T

This dissertation was written to investigate the significance, impact and future development of the trophy hunting industry in Namibia, one of the least populated countries in the world. Secondary research identified trophy hunting, a micro-tourism niche, as a highly controlled consumptive form of wildlife utilisation, successfully applied for species protection and conservation of game in Namibia. The economic income of the industry has increased over the years partly due to the establishment of conservancies. Moreover a questionnaire with quantitative quality questions was developed and sent out to individual experts (hunting guides, farmers and game farmers) operating in the trophy hunting industry in Namibia. Findings of the primary research were grouped, compared and contrasted with the findings of the secondary research and represented as percentages, graphs, cross tabulations and the Likert scale. Results showed that trophy hunting contributes towards education, job creation, species protection and conservation of the natural habitat. It was also identified that trespassing, illegal activities, foreign hunting guides and lack of human recourses pose a threat to the industry. The trophy hunting industry of Namibia in the opinion of individual experts and the minister of environment and tourism of Namibia has great potential for a sustainable future development.

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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N TS

This dissertation could not have been realized without the support of a few people whom I want to thank. I want to acknowledge my tutor Mr. Theodore Benetatos for his great guidance, advice and expertise throughout the dissertation writing process. I also would like to thank Dr. Michael Vieregge for his professional opinion on the design of my questionnaire and the analysis of my findings. My appreciation also goes out to Mrs. Almut Kronsbein who assisted me during my primary research. Then I would like to thank all the participants of the survey for their effort, additional comments and for the time they took to fill out the questionnaire. Last but definitely not least I want to extend special thanks to my parents who supported me throughout my education. Without them I would not have had the possibility to study at IMI and write this dissertation.

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T  A B L E O F C O N T E N TS  

Abstract   i

Acknowledgements   ii

Table of  contents  iii

List  of figures  iv

List  of appendices  v

Chapter 1:  INTRODUCTION  1

INTRODUCTION   1

BACKGROUND   1

AIM   3

OBJECTIVES   3

STRUCTURE  OF DISSERTATION  3

Chapter 2:  LITERATURE REVIEW  4

INTRODUCTION   4

SUSTAINABLE  DEVELOPMENT  4

Sustainability  in Tourism  5

WILDLIFE  TOURISM  6

Trophy  Hunting  7

Trophy  Hunting in Namibia  8

Conservancies  in Namibia  9

Conservancies  Association of Namibia  10

RELEVANCE  OF TROPHY HUNTING IN NAMIBIAN TOURISM  11

Trophy  Hunting and Social Aspects  11

Economic  Arguments of Trophy Hunting  12

Trophy  Hunting and the Environment  13

ORGANISATION  FOR TROPHY HUNTING IN NAMIBIA  15

Namibian  Professional Hunting Association  15

Classifications  for Trophy Hunting Guides  16

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Chapter 3: METHODOLOGY 19

Books 19

Statistical Reports, Magazines and Governmental Publications 20 Online Resources 20 PRIMARY RESEARCH 21

Data collection tool development 21 Questionnaire Design 22 Sampling 22 Ethics 23 Analysing Methods 23

Chapter 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 24

Trophy Hunting as Conservation Tool 24 Forms of Trophy Hunting 26

Trophy Hunting and Species Protection 26 Trophy Hunting and Tourism 29

Trophy Hunting and other Organizations 30

Trophy Hunting and Conservancies 30

Trophy Hunting Industry in Namibia 31

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 33

References 38 Appendices 42

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L IST O F F I G UR ES Figure 4.1: Is trophy hunting negatively affecting wildlife populations? 25 Figure 4.2: Does trophy hunting stand in conflict with species protection? 27 Figure 4.3: Ways to remove problem animals 28 Figure 4.4: Does trophy hunting stand in conflict with normal tourism (e.g. photo safaris)? 29 Figure 4.5: The trophy hunting industry in Namibia 32

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L IST O F A PPE N DI C ES Appendix 2.1: Game Species that can be hunted in Namibia 42 Appendix 2.2: Regular trophy hunters year/country 44 Appendix 2.3: The area covered by registered Communal Conservancies/ number of people that live in the Conservancies 45 Appendix 2.4: Income (N$) generated by Conservancies through different activities including Community-based Tourism (1999-2007) 46 Appendix 2.5: Income (N$) generated by trophy hunting in (1999-2007) 47 Appendix 3.1: Questionnaire 48 Appendix 3.2: Email cover letter 54

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C H APT E R O N E : IN T R O DU C T I O N IN T R O DU C T I O N

In this chapter the author is aiming to introduce the overall topic of his research from different perspectives on trophy hunting in the tourism industry. Furthermore the different issues the author is planning to address during his study and showing the aims and objectives that are to be examined. B A C K G R O UND

According to Blain (2005) hunting can be seen as one of the oldest activity practised by man. From pre civilisation where humans hunted for pure survival up to the present day were it takes on the form of a sport, conservation tool or mere commercial income. Sport hunting, due to high tourist spending involved, has a substantial impact on rural communities and therefore may positively enhance their development (http://www.gunmuse.com). One example which can be referred to is the CAMPFIRE (Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources) program of Zimbabwe that was launched when local citizens had problems with elephants destroying their crops. In this case licences, for these animals to be shot, were issued in order to control population. It is argued that, 'by 1993 eight districts had earned around 35000 Pounds from safari hunting, mostly catering for Americans wanting an elephant trophy' (Shackley, 1996:93, 94). Nature conservationists have always practised hunting as one of the cheapest and most effective ways to control exploding animal populations. In recent years the economic value of certain animal species has increased to a great extent, so that in our modern times, there is an ever growing demand for hunting destinations (Shackley, 1996). Due to the rapid development of infrastructure in Namibia less accessible areas have become more accessible to the tourist or the hunter. According to Mendelsohn (2007) many commercial and communal conservancies and hunting lodges have been built in recent years. These hunting lodges buy exotic game ranging from antelopes to elephants. More wild game means more income through hunting for the county, but it also means more food for predators such as cheetah and leopard. Therefore the numbers of carnivores have increased in recent years in Namibia. This increase in

numbers results in conflicts between game lodges and livestock farms. The more carnivores there are the more likely it will be that they will prey on livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. As the areas in which these predators live are vast, it is most of the time not possible to catch these problem animals and hunting becomes the only option (Ministry of Environment and Tourism, 2004).

A publication in the Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy (2005) reported that the sustainable use of a species is promoted by the protection of Biological Variety in being one of the main three pillars. It was this sustainable usage that helped white southern rhinos recover after they were legalised for trophy hunting and live sales only by CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) (http:/www.cites.org).

Referring to the Black Rhino, its numbers have dwindled in the past, but according to Leader-Williams, Milledge, Adcock, Brooks, Conway, Knight, Mainka, Martin and Teferi (2005) it recently had made a strong comeback. Due to an over surplus of male animals the African Rhino Specialist Group is expecting propositions on the hunt of black rhinos. If this species should not be legalised for hunting it would immediately lose its economic value and therefore the necessity to be protected. Organisations like CITES, which consists of agreements between governments that proclaim the trade of plants and animals across international borders does not threaten the survival of a particular species (http://www.cites.org). NAPHA (Namibia Professional Hunting Association) improves and upholds, through effective management, an organisational infrastructure and moral behaviour towards a sustainable utilization to preserve the industry for present and future generations (http://www.natron.net). SCI (Safari Club International) is defending the liberty to hunt and encouraging wildlife protection worldwide (http://www.scifirstforhunters.org). Also MET (Ministry of Environment and Tourism of Namibia), which has the function of preserving the environment and at the same time promoting tourism. All the above mentioned organisations have contributed towards the protection of species. Through this study the author aims to show that there still is a great problem arising from vulnerable game species praying on livestock of commercial and communal farmers despite the organisations input.

A I M

This study highlights the importance of resolving the conflict between the tourist demand for trophy hunting and sustainable game management. It also aims to underline the significance of a sustainable utilisation of endangered and vulnerable game species for local communities and whether hunting tourism contributes towards the protection of endangered game species and sustainable tourism development. O BJE C T I V ES

To review secondary literature about wildlife tourism, trophy hunting and species protection.

To investigate diverse forms of sustainable utilisation of trophy hunting in Namibia.

To provide an overview on different individual expert views, approaches, similarities and contradictions in managing trophy hunting. To recommend to the individual experts and the trophy hunting industry how to improve problems regarding trophy hunting and to provide recommendations for future research. ST R U C T U R E O F D ISSE R T A T I O N

This study consists of five chapters dividing the author work into a controllable and reasonable structure. In chapter two the author presents a critical review on the secondary literature regarding the main ideas of wildlife tourism, trophy hunting and species protection. Moreover the author assesses the sustainable exploitation of trophy hunting in Namibia and the different organisations involved. Also the importance of trophy hunting for the tourism industry will be underlined. In chapter three the proper research methods are selected, the appropriate research tool is chosen and the methodology is vindicated to carry out the primary research. Chapter four analyses the assembled data collected through primary research. The findings are presented in a coherent order and displayed by graphs and diagrams. In the final fifth chapter the results of the primary research are brought into relation with the findings of the secondary research. The veracity of the hypothesis is assessed and recommendations are brought forward for the industry and future studies.

C H APT E R T W O : L I T E R A T UR E R E V I E W IN T R O DU C T I O N

To fully understand the tourism niche market of trophy hunting the following chapter discusses, by making use of secondary research analysis, the concept of sustainable development, sustainability in tourism as well as wildlife tourism. A definition for trophy hunting is also provided. Furthermore trophy hunting and conservancies in Namibia are assessed. The chapter also elaborates on the relevance of hunting in the Namibian tourism industry by having a closer look at the social, economic and environmental aspects of trophy hunting. Organisations that are concerned with trophy hunting in Namibia and the classification for trophy hunting guides are discussed. Furthermore permits and other regulations are assessed. SUST A IN A B L E D E V E L OPM E N T

The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987: 8 cited in Connell and Page, 2006: 390) argues that eeds of the present

without compromising the needs of future generations is sustainable development. This is a relatively precise definition of sustainable development but the application of the theory is more challenging. This is especially true for trophy hunting within the tourism sector in Namibia.

A balance between first and third world countries should exist and the basic desires of persons should be given. Furthermore all persons specifically in the first world should adapt their mind-sets and way of life to support a sustainable economically modified development. It can be said that development is a procedure that can be guided in the direction of sustainability (Hägerhäll, 1988: 22-23 cited in Aronsson, 2000: 32).

Griffin, Harris and Williams (2002:

development is that economic growth and environmental conservation are not only compatible, they are necessary partners. One cannot exist without the other. The concept of sustainability can only work over a longer period if it incorporates the capability of upholding a high environmental class amid a comprehension of the

environmental collisions and a cautiously reputable tourism carrying capability Shackley (1996).

Aronsson (2000) comments, that the expression sustainable development has two major aspects. One is the resource aspect that can be used in combination with the enduring utilization and advancement of the local way of life and the local rural area. The other aspect involves the magnitude concurrent with workplaces and material incentives. These rewards can be adequate to give a foundation for setting up family businesses and generation movements. The concept of sustainability plays an ever increasing role in most areas but especially in the tourism industry.

Sustainability in Tourism

Connell and Page (2006) argue that the idea of sustainable tourism emerged due to the awareness of the impacts of tourism. It is moreover a hard to define concept with a wide range of definitions. The WTO (World Tourism Organisation) established that sustainability aspects should relate to financially viable, socio cultural and ecological principals of tourism. There should be an appropriate balance between these principals in order to assure a lasting sustainability of tourism. According to Swarbrooke (1999) sustainable tourism could be defined as different tourism forms which assemble the wants of tourist, the host communities and the tourism industry without jeopardizing the aptitude of further generations to rally their needs.

environmental resources, Connell and Page (2006: 395), (whilst upholding the necessary environmental developments while serving to protect the natural tradition cultural authenticity of host communities

(helping to conserve the cultural heritage and traditional values as well as seeking to engender intercultural understanding and tolerance) and to ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socioeconomic benefits to all stakeholders Connell and Page (2006: 395).