Modal:

the modal expresses

analogous form

must

an obligation (Verpflichtung) have to + inf.

must

a necessity (Notwendigkeit) have to + inf.

must not

a prohibition (Verbot)

be not allowed to + inf.

can

an ability (Fähigkeit)

be able to + inf.

can/may

a permission (Erlaubnis)

be allowed + inf.

infinitive

simple present

simple past

present perfekt

will - future

must

have to + inf.

have/has to + inf.

had to + inf.

have/has had to + inf.

will have to + inf.

must

have to + inf.

have/has to + inf.

had to + inf.

have/has had to + inf.

will have to + inf.

must not

be not allowed to + inf. am/is/are not allowed to + inf. was/were not allowed to + inf. have/has been not allowed to + inf. will be not allowed to + inf.

can

could

be able to + inf.

am/is/are able to + inf.

was/were able to + inf.

have/has been able to + inf.

will be able to + inf.

can/may

could/ might

be allowed to + inf.

am/is/are allowed to + inf.

was/were allowed to + inf.

have/has been allowed to + inf.

will be allowed to + inf.

---

Zeitformen

simple present

I, you, we, they + basic form of the verb

he, she, it + verb + -s/ -es

simple past

the simple past form of the verb

verb + -ed

2nd form

present progressive

a form of be + verb + -ing

past progressive

was /were + verb + ing

simple past perfect

had + past participle

v + ed 3rd form

past perfect progressive

had + been + v + ing

simple present perfect

have/has + past participle

v + ed 3rd form

present perfect progressive

have/has + been + v + ing

will - future

will + infinitive

be going to - future

be going to + inf.

future progressive

will + be + verb + ing

---

Englischgrammatik

simple present

With I, you, we and they we use the basic form of the verb.

In the third person singular (he, she, it) the verb ends in -s or -es.

We use the simple present to talk about

1. things that happen again and again.

2. facts or things that stay the same for a long time.

present progressive

a form of be + verb + -ing

We use the present progressive to talk about things that are happening

at the moment

past tense (Vergangenheit)

We use the simple past to say or ask when something happend in the past.

the simple past form of "be"

I was

-

I wasn′t (I was not)

you were

-

you weren′t (you were not)

he was

-

he wasn′t (he was not)

she was

-

she wasn′t (she was not)

it was

-

it wasn′t (it was not)

we were

-

we weren′t (we were not)

you were

-

you weren′t (you were not)

they were

-

they weren′t (they were not)

Bildung des simple past

We form the simple past tense of most verbs with -ed.

(basic form + -ed)

basic form

simple past

to clean

+

-ed

he cleaned

[ d ]

to help

+

-ed

she helped

[ t ]

to collect

+

-ed

I collected

[ id ]

Aussprache der Endung -ed

a: nach stimmhaften Konsonanten und Vokalen sprich

[ d ]

b: nach stimmlosen Konsonanten sprich

[ t ]

c: nach -t/-d sprich

[ id ]

---

Becareful

to arrive + ed

I arrived

(stummes End -e entfällt beim Anhängen der Endung -ed)

to stop + ed

I stopped

( Das Verb endet auf einen Konsonanten. Vor diesem Konsonanten steht

ein kurzer betonter Vokal. Beim Anhängen der Endung -ed wird deshalb der

Endkonsonant verdoppelt.)

to try + ed

I tried

( Das Verb endet auf ein -y, davor steht ein Konsonant deshalb

I tried

irregular verbs

Im Englischen gibt es neben den regelmäßigen Verben auch unregelmäßige

Verben. Diese unregelmäßigen Verben haben eigenständige simple past form.

Wir finden diese simple past form in der 2. Spalte der Übersicht über

unregelmäßige Verben am Ende eines jeden Lehrbuches.

be going to + inf.

Merke:

Mit "be going to + inf." wird eine zukünftige Handlung ausgedrückt

(going to - future). Das "going to - future" wird mit "am, are, is going to + inf.

gebildet. Es wird verwendet, wenn man sagt oder fragt was jemand vorhat bzw.

beabsichtigt zu tun.

simple present perfect

Bildung

have/has + past participle

v + ed 3rd form

Verwendung

a. Wir verwenden das present perfect um auszudrücken das eine Handlung in

der Vergangenheit begann, in der Gegenwart noch nicht beendet ist,

sondern noch andauert. ( We use the present perfect to say that something

began in the past and is not finished yet.)

Example

How long has Anne lived here? She has been here since April.

b. Ich verwende das present perfect auch dann, wenn ich mitteilen will, dass

jemand etwas getan hat oder das geschehen ist ohne zu sagen wann.

Example

I have phoned Liz. The Conners have arrived in London.

c. Wir verwenden das present perfect auch dann, wenn eine Handlung im

unmittelbaren Redemoment abgeschlossen wurde, das Ergebnis jedoch noch

sichtbar ist.

---

Example

I have cleaned my bike.(The bike is clean now.)

That′s why my hands all dirty.

Die Struktur englischer Fragen

yes-/no- question:

Hv - S - Vv

w- question:

Fw - Hv - S - Vv

Wir benötigen zur Fragebildung immer ein Hilfsverb (do, does, must,

forms of be, may, can, have, has)

Merke:

Enthält der gedachte Aussagesatz ein Hilfsverb, so verwenden wir zur

Fragebildung das gleiche Hilfsverb.

Example

Sandra can play hockey. Can Sandra play hockey?

Enthält der gedachte Aussagesatz kein Hilfsverb, so verwenden wir zur

Fragebildung do oder does das Vollverb steht dann im Infinitiv.

Example

Sandra likes hockey. What does she like?

yes-/no- question in the simple past

question

short answers

Were you in London?

Yes, I was.

No, I wasn′t.

Were they in London?

Yes, they were.

No, they weren′t.

Verneinung im simple past

We form the negative with didn′t (did not) and the basic form of the verb.

Merke:

Enthält der Aussagesatz bereits ein Hilfsverb, so verwenden wir dieses Hv zur

Verneinung.

Questions in the simple past

We form questions with did and the basic form of the verb.

---

subject questions (Subjektfragen)

Who/What - P - O ?

Subjektfragen sind Fragen nach dem Subjekt eines Satzes. Wir fragen Who?

nach Personen mit What? nach Dingen. Eine englische Subjektfrage hat den

gleichen Aufbau wie ein Aussagesatz.

Beachte

Das Verb in englischen Subjektfragen steht immer in der 3. Person Singular.

some and any

some

any

verwenden wir in bejahten

verwenden wir in verneinten Aussage-

Aussagesätzen

sätzen und in Fragen

Merke:

Entsprechend dem Gebrauch von some und any werden die Zusammen-

setzungen mit some (somebody, something, somewhere) und die

Zusammensetzungen mit any ( anybody, anything, anywhere) gebraucht.

The possessive pronouns

my

your

his

hers

+ noun

our

your

their

Die Possessivpronomen im nominalen Gebrauch

mine

Diese Possessivpronomen beziehen sich auf ein vorangegangenes

yours

Substantiv das man nicht noch einmal wiederholen will. Sie stehen

his

anstelle von my, your, his, hers, our, your, their + Substantiv.

hers

ours

yours

theirs

The question word "whose"

Mit "whose" fragt man danach, (zu) wem etwas oder jemand gehört.

Example

Whose bike is this? Whose bikes are these? (wessen Fahrrad/Fahrräder)

---

both

bedeutet alle beide (der eine wie der andere). Beachte die Stellung vor den

bestimmten Artikel the oder einem anderen Bestimmungswort.

Example

Both boys play the piano. Both the boys play the piano.

die beiden Jungen

Both these girls.

diese beiden Mädchen

Both her children.

ihre beiden Kinder

Beachte

both of them

-

sie beide

both of us

-

uns beide

all of us

-

wir alle

The prop - word "one" (Das Stützword "one")

Das Stützwort "one" muß verwendet werden, wenn man ein schon genanntes

Substantiv nicht noch einmal wiederholen will. Anstelle eines Substantives im

Singular steht one im Plural steht ones.

Im deutschen bleibt das Stützwort "one" meist unübersetzt.

mustn′t/needn′t

mustn′t

drückt im Englischen ein strenges Verbot (= etwas nicht tun dürfen) aus.

needn′t

drückt im Englischen aus, das man etwas nicht zu tun braucht.

Der Genitiv im Plural

(The possessive form in plural)

′s

zeigt bei einem Substantiv im Singular an, daß etwas oder jemand einer einzelnen

Person gehört.

Example

Dave likes his sister′s records.

Wenn etwas oder jemand mehreren Personen gehört (gleich Genitiv, Plural),

dann steht ein Apostroph nach dem Plural -s

s′

Example

Kevin hates his sisters′ records.

---

Adverbien der Art und Weise (The adverbs of manner)

Adjektive

beschreiben ein Substantiv näher. Sie sagen etwas über die

Eigenschaften einer Person oder Sache aus. Wir benutzen Adjektive oft

nach "be" oder vor einem Substantiv.

Example

Mr Conner is always careful. He is a careful driver.

Adverbien

der Art und Weise beschreiben ein Verb näher. Sie sagen aus wie oder auf

welche Art und Weise jemand etwas tut.

Example

Mr Conner drives carfully. (Mr Conner fährt vorsichtig. Wie fährt er?)

How

Bildung von Adverbien

Ein Adverb wird gewöhnlich durch anfügen von -ly an das Adjektiv gebildet.

Beachte folgende Schreibbesonderheiten

easy

-

easily

happy

-

happier

terrible

-

terribly

Merke:

Einige Adjektive haben eine besondere Adverbform.

Example

good

-

well

fast

-

fast

hard

-

hard

---

The comparison of English adverbs

Adverbien die mit Hilfe der Endung -ly gebildet werden, werden mit more und

most gesteigert.

Example

slowly

-

more slowly

-

most slowly

Aber beachte

slow

-

slower

-

the slowest

Die Adverbien well (good) und badly (bad) haben besondere Steigerungsformen.

Example

well

-

better

-

the best

badly

-

worse

-

the worst

Einsilbige Adverbien wie "fast" und "hard" werden mit -er und -est gesteigert.

Example

fast

-

faster

-

the fastest

hard

-

harder

-

the hardest

The comparison of English adjektives

Im Englischen gibt es 2 Arten der Steigerung

1. Durch Anfügen der Endung -er bilden wir den comparative, durch Anfügen

von -est an das Adjektiv bilden wir den superlative einsilbiger englischer

Adjektive und zweisilbiger Adjektive welche auf -y enden.

Example

positive

comparative

superlative

fast

faster

the fastest

happy

happier

the happiest

big

bigger

the biggest

nice

nicer

the nicest

2. Durch voranstellen von "more" vor das Adjektiv bilden wir den "comparative",

durch voranstellen von "most" vor mehrsilbige Adjektive und zweisilbiger

Adjektive die nicht auf -y enden bilden wir den "superlative".

Example

positive

comparative

superlative

exciting

more exciting

most exciting

3. Im Englischen gibt es einige Adjektive die unregelmäßig gesteigert werden

dazu gehören:

Example

positive

comparative

superlative

good

better

the best

bad

worse

the worst

many

more

most

much

more

most

---

Sentences with comparison (Sätze mit Vergleichen)

1. Ungleichheit: a.

comparative + than

Example

I′m taller than...

b. not as + positive + as

Example

I′m not as tall as...

2. Gleichheit:

as + positive + as

Example

I′m as tall as...

The will - future

will + infinitive

past

present

future

forms:

I will do it.

=

I′ll do it.

You will do it.

=

You′ll do it.

He will do it.

=

He′ll do it.

She will do it.

=

She′ll do it.

It will do it.

=

It′ll do it.

We will do it.

=

We′ll do it.

You will do it.

=

You′ll do it.

They will do it.

=

They′ll do it.

I will not do it.

=

I won′t do it.

You will not do it.

=

You won′t do it.

He will not do it.

=

He won′t do it.

She will not do it.

=

She won′t do it.

It will not do it.

=

It won′t do it.

We will not do it.

=

We won′t do it.

You will not do it.

=

You won′t do it.

They will not do it.

=

They won′t do it.

The will - future is used:

a. to talk about future events which we cannot influence or control.

Example

Next July I will be 13.

b. to predict future events or to express hopes, expectations, etc.

In such sentenceswe often use, I′m sure, I believe, I expect, I hope, I suppose,

I think, I guess; or perhaps, possibly, probably, surely.

Example

I expect Tom will get the job.

---

Modal auxiliaries (modale Hilfsverben)

Modal auxiliaries are can, must, must not, cannot, may, need

1. grammar:

a. Modal auxiliaries have no -s in the third person singular.

Example

He can read.

b. Questions are made without do.

Example

Can I read the book.

c. Modal auxiliaries are followed by the basic form of the main verb.

Example

I must do my homework.

d. Modal auxiliaries do not have infinitives or participles.

The past progressive tense

We form the past progressive tense with:

was /were + verb + ing

We use the past progressive to say that something was in progress (going on)

around a particular past time.

Example

What were you doing at eight o′clock yesterday evening?

I was watching TV.

Another use of the past progressive is to stress that on activity was progress

at every moment during a period of time.

Example

I was painting all day yesterday.

conditional clause - if-clause ( Bedingungssätze)

... Bestehen aus einem Nebensatz (eingeleitet durch if) und einem Hauptsatz. Im if - satz wird

eine Bedingung zum Ausdruck gebracht, im Hauptsatz wird die Folge aus dieser Bedingung

zum Ausdruck gebracht.

... Consist of a subordinate clause (if - clause) and a main clause. The if - clause expresses a

condition.The main clause expresses a consequence.

Example

Wenn es regnet, bleibe ich zu Hause.

If it rains, I will stay at home.

---

conditional clause

type 1

Conditionale Satzgefüge von Type 1 bringen im if - Satz eine erfüllbare Bedingung zum

Ausdruck. Im if - Satz steht das simple present, im Hauptsatz will + inf. (will kann ersetzt

werden durch can/must/may).

Example

If it rains, I will stay at home.

Wenn es regnet, bleibe ich zu Hause.

conditional clause

type 1

The if - clause expresses a condition that can be fulfilled. We use the simple present in the

if - clause and will + inf. in the main clause (will can be replaced by can/must/may).

conditional clause

type 2

Conditionale Satzgefüge von Type 2 drücken im if - Satz eine Annahme aus (unrealistische

Bedingungen). Im if - Satz verwenden wir das simple past, im Hauptsatz would, could,

should + inf.

Example

If it rained, I would stay at home.

Wenn es regnen würde, würde ich zu Hause bleiben.

conditional clause

type 2

An unreal condition is expressed in the if - clause of conditional clauses 2. We use the simple

past in the if - clause and would, could, should + inf. in the main clause.

conditional clause

type 3

In conditionalen Satzgefügen von Type 3 wird im if - Satz eine unrealistische Bedingung

(Annahme) bezogen auf die Vergangenheit zum Ausdruck gebracht. Im if - Satz stehet das

simple past perfect (had + past participle), im Hauptsatz verwenden wir would, could,

should + have + past participle.

Example

If it had rained, I would have stayed at home.

Wenn es geregnet hätte, wäre ich zu Hause geblieben.

conditional clause

type 3

An unreal condition refering to the past is expressed in the if - clause of conditional clauses

type 3. We use the simple past perfect in the if - clause and would, could, should + have +

past participle in the main clause.

---

Reported speech
(indirekte Rede)

In der indirekten Rede berichtet eine Person einer anderen Person, was eine dritte Person gesagt

hat. Die indirekte Rede wird durch einen Einleitungssatz, der ein einleitendes Verb enthält

eingeleitet.

Wichtig

für die Umformung eines Satzes von der direkten in die indirekte Rede ist die

Zeitform des Redeeinleitenden Verbes zu beachten. Steht das Redeeinleitende Verb

in einer Zeitform der Gegenwart, so werden bei der Umformung eines Satzes von

der direkten in die indirekte Rede,die gleichen Zeitformen verwandt wie in der

direkten Rede.

Beachte folgende Veränderung bei der Umformung eines Satzes von der

direkten, in die indirekte Rede.

Steht in der direkten Rede yesterday, so steht in der indirekten Rede the day before. Steht in der

direkten Rede tomorrow, so steht in der indirekten Rede the following day. Verändert werden

Pronomen. Steht das Redeeinleitende Verb in einer Zeitform der Vergangenheit, so kommt es

zur Zeitenverschiebung.(backshift of tenses)

direct speech

reported speech

simple present

simple past

present progressive

past progressive

simple past

simple past perfect

past progressive

past perfect progressive

simple present perfect

simple past perfect

(have/has + past participle)

(had + past participle)

present perfect progressive

past perfect progressive

(have/has + been + v + ing)

(had + been + v + ing)

will + inf.

would + inf.

can + inf.

could + inf.

shall + inf.

should + inf.

simple past perfect

simple past perfect

would/could/should + inf.

would/could/should + inf.

Reported question
(indirekte Fragen)

Merke dir gut das indirekte Fragen die Satzgliedfolge eines Aussagesatzes aufweisen.

Example

d. "Where do you live ?"

ind. He asks where I live.

d. "Have you ever been to New York ?"

ind. Tom wants to know, if I have ever been to New York.

---

The passive voice

active voice

We say

who does something

who did something

who will do something.

passive voice We say

what is done

what was done

what will be done.

be + past participle

We form the passive voice by using tenses of "be" followed by the past participle.

Example

The house was built.

Das Haus wurde gebaut.

The book is read.

Das Buch wird gelesen.

The rivers have been polluted.

Die Flüsse werden verunreinigt.

Merke:

Der Handlungsträger ist in einem Passivsatz eigentlich nicht wichtig. Soll er erwähnt

werden, so fügen wir ihn mit by an.

Example

The house is built by my parents.

Merke:

Bei der Umformung eines Satzes vom Aktiv ins Passiv wird das Objekt des

Aktivsatzes, zum Subjekt des Passivsatzes.

Defining relative clauses
(Bestimmte Relativsätze)

...

- are introduced by relative pronouns.

- come after nouns.

- modify nouns - give more information about nouns.

- can refer to persons or things.

Merke:

Entsprechend der Funktion des Relativpronomens im Relativsatz unterscheiden wir

drei Formen von Relativsätzen.

Die 3 Formen sind:

die Subjektform (subject form)

- das Relativpronomen ist Subjekt des Relativsatzes.

---

die Objektform (object form)

- das Relativpronomen ist Objekt des Relativsatzes.

die Possessivform (possessive form)

- durch den Relativsatz wird ein Besitzverhältnis zum Ausdruck gebracht.

persons

things

subject form

who

which / that

object form

who / whom

which / that

contact clause

contact clause

possessive

form

whose

whose

The present progressive with a future meaning

(Das present progressive mit futurischer Bedeutung)

present progressive

am/are/is + verb + -ing

Wir können das present progressive verwenden, um eine Zukünftige Handlung auszudrücken,

die fest geplant oder mit jemandem abgesprochen wurde. Durch eine Zeitbestimmung oder durch

den Zusammenhang muß klar werden, das dies erst in der Zukunft geschieht.

Example

We are flying to Spain next week.

The Walkers are driving to the Lake District next month.

Modal auxiliaries (modale Hilfsverben)

Example

will, could, would, should, must, may, can, might, ought to, shall

characteristics: - have no infinitive

- have no -s/-es in the third person singular (present tense)

- followed by the infinitive of a main verb without "to"

- have no -ed form

- have no -ing form

- questions are made without "do", "does"

Modal auxiliaries to express an ability are can or could.

The analogous form is

be able to + inf.

Example

I can swim.

We can speak English.

We use may, might, can, could to talk about permission.

The analogous form is

be allowed to + inf.

---

We use must to talk about necessity.

The analogous form is

have to + inf.

---

We use needn′t when there is no necessity.

We use mustn′t when we are not allowed to do something.(strenges Verbot)

adjectives

An adjective has the same form in the singular and in the plural.

Example

That′s a nice book. - Yes, I have got some nice books.

An adjective comes before a noun or after be.

Example

Is it a good story? - Yes, I think it′s very good.

An adjective describes (tells us something about) a noun.

adverbs

We use an adverb to say how something happens.

Example

The children walked home quickly.

They ate their supper hungrily.

---

adjective or adverb?

Example

I feel hungry.

I am hungry.

This dinner looks nice.

This dinner is nice.

It smells lovely.

It is lovely.

It tastes delicious.

It is delicious.

We use an adjective (not an adverb) when we can use "be" instead of the verb.

We use an adjective after fell, look, smell, taste, sound, seem, appear, become and

stay ...

question tags

(Frageanhängsel)

Question tags consist of an auxiliary and a personal pronoun. If the main clause has an auxiliary,

you use the negative form of this auxiliary in the question tag.

Example

Andrew has invited Ashraf, hasn′t he?

If the main clause does not have an auxiliary, "do", "does" or "did" is used in the question tag.

Example

Andrew met Ashraf last week, didn′t he?

If the main clause is a positive statement, the question tag is negative. If the main clause is a

negative statement, the question tag is positive.

Reflexive pronouns (self - pronouns)

Example

She has taught herself to play the guitar.

(Sie hat sich selbst beigebracht Gitarre zu spielen.)

Merke

"She" is the subject and the pronoun "herself" is the object in this sentence.

The self - pronoun shows that subject and object are the same person.

I

myself

you

yourself

he

himself

she

herself

it

itself

we

ourselves

you

yourselves

they

themselves

---

each other:

means "sich gegenseitig"

Example

They have taught each other to play the guitar.

Merke

There are some verbs that are reflexive in German but not reflexive in English.

Example

remember

=

sich erinnern

feel

=

sich fühlen

move

=

sich bewegen

imagine

=

sich (etwas) vorstellen

The simple past perfect

had + past participle

v + ed 3rd form

1

2

simple past perfect

past

simple past

present

When we talk about the past, we sometimes talk about one thing that had happened before

the past perfect tense for the thing that had happened first and the simple past tense for what

happened later.

Example

I didn′t go and see the film last night, because I had seen it before.

After we had looked round the museum, we went to a restaurant.

The comparison of adjectives

...

one - syllable adjectives normally have comparatives ond superlatives ending in -er

and -est. Some two - syllable adjectives are similar ( adjektives with "y", "er", "or",

"ow" at the end) Longer adjectives are compared with the help of more and most.

Revision of the present perfect tense

1. have/has + past participle

v + ed 3rd form

2. We negate a sentence by using have not ( haven′t) or has not ( hasn′t) + past participle.

3. We ask questions by putting have/has in front of the subject.

4. Short answer are: Yes, I have./No, I haven′t.

Usage:

- the present result of a past action.

- something that happened during a time that is not yet finished.

---

Verbs with two objects

S P O O

Cindy showed her friends some photos.

(refers to a person)

(refers to a thing)

indirect object

direct object

sentence structure:

S - P - indirect object - direct object.

Verbs that are usually followed by two objects:

bring

make

show

give

buy

offer

teach

sell

fetch

pay

tell

lend

get (holen)

read

write

send

You can change the sentence structure in the following way:

S - P - direct object - to/for - indirect object.

Cindy showed some photos to her friends.

We use this sentence structure:

- when we want to emphasize the indirect object

- when the indirect object is very long

Cindy showed some photos to all her friends in the class.

She showed them to her classmates.

- when both objects are pronouns

She showed them to them.

- after verbs like:

describe

explain

report

say

suggest

The use of the definite article

No article is used before abstract nouns (for example: life, society, happiness...) and uncountable

nouns (for example: water, paper, slat...) when refering to things generally, even if an adjective is

used (modern life).

Example

Pollution is a problem all over the world.

Life is not always fun.

The definite article is used when these nouns are defined more closely (for example by an

of-phrase or a relative clause) or with uncountable nouns when a particular case or example is

meant.

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Example

The pollution of the Hudson is getting worse.

The life of a bus driver is not always easy.

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No definite article is used before institutions when refering to their function. And before means

of transport (go by car).

Example

I missed school for two weeks when I was in hospital.

The definite article is used when refering to a particular institution (usually the building itself) or

a particular vehicle.

The indefinite article (a /an)

The indefinite article is used when refering to a person as a member of a certain group for example:

1.- a proffession

Henry Ford was an engineer.

2.- a nationality

Carl Benz was a German.

3.- a religion

Peter is a Catholic.

It is used after "as" (als) and in the meaning of "pro".

Even as a boy Ford wanted to become an engineer.

In 1914 Ford workers earned $5 a day.

Participles

present participle

past participle

v + -ing

v + -ed / 3rd form

- can be used before a noun

- can be used before a noun

- can go together with another word

- can go together with another word

to form a compound

to form a compound

- is used to form progressive form

- is used to form the present perfect tense

and the past perfect tense

Participles can be used before a noun.(They can be use lije adjective.)

Example

a moving car

by a used car

Participles can go together with another word to form a new word.(a compound)

Example

the biggest car-producing companies

built a petrol-driven engine

Participle constructions can be used instead of relative clauses.

The present participle replaces

The past participle replaces

the relative pronoun in the subjectform

the relative pronoun in the subjectform

and the verb in the active.

and the verb in the passive.

Passive voice

Verbs like bring and give which can have two objects, can have two passive forms.

active:

Tom gave me a pen.

passive:

I was given a pen by Tom.

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A pen was given (to) me by Tom.

Because we are often more interested in people than in things, personal subjects tend to be more

common than impersonal ones.

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Reported speech (indirect speech)

We use reported speech when we are telling someone what another person says or said.

Reported sentences are introduced by reporting verb (introductory verbs).

Reporting verbs can be in the present or in the past tense. If the reported speech is introduced

by a verb in the present tense, there is no backshift of tenses.

Example

"I

come

from Frankfurt" direct speech

Ruth

tells

Mrs Wells that she

comes

from Frankfurt. Reported speech

direct speech

reported speech

past perfect progressive

past perfect progressive

future progressive

would + be + verb + ing

(will + be + verb + ing)

If the introductory verb is in the past tense, there is a backshift of tenses.

Example

direct speech:I

have

never

been

to the States before.

reported speech:

Ruth

mentioned

that she

had

never

been

to the States before.

Expressios like

next week, next month, next year are changed into the following week, month, year.

Yesterday is changed into the day before. Tomorrow is changed into the following day.

Last yesr, last month is changed into the year before.

now

then

today

that day

tonight

that night

last night

the night before

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Reporting questions have the same word order as positive sentences. Question words like

when′, ′what′, etc. are the in indirect and direct questions. If there is no question word in the

direct question, you use "if" or "whether".

Example

"Where are you going?"

He asked me where I was going.

"Are you ready?"

He asked if I was ready.

Pay attention to the backshift of tenses!!!

Reported commands

We report commands with

tell, order, command or instruct

. The reporting verb is followed by

an infinitive with to

or

a that-clause with should/ shouldn′t

.

Example

"Check your bike before your tour."

Mr Clark told his daughter to check her bike.

that she should check her bike

Reported requests and pieces of advice:

We report requests and pieces of advice with

ask, advise or tell

.

The reportung verb is followed by

an infinitive with to

or a

that-clause with should/ shouldn′t

.

only requests [or a

subornite clause introduced by if (pay attention to the backshift of tenses

)]

Example

"Can you lend me your repair kit, please?"

Susan asked her father to lend her his repair kit.

that he should lend her

if he could lend her

Reported suggestions

We report suggestiions with suggest. The reporting verb is followed by a

that-clause
with should/ shouldn′t

or the

-ing form of the verb

.

Don′t use the infinitive with to.

Example

"Let′s start early, Ann."

Susan suggested that they should start early.

starting early.

The infinitive without "to"

The infinitive is the basicform of the verb. We use it with or without to.

We use the

infinitive without "to"

after

verbs of perception (see, smell, hear, taste...)
that are followed by an object.

Example

The home crowd were shocked when they heard the referee blow his wistle

and then saw him point to the penalty spot.

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The basic meaning of

let

is

allow

, and in this sense it is a full verb, always followed by

an

object

and

the infinitive without "to"

.

let + object + infinitive wothout "to"

Example

Don′t let the children annoy you.

I won′t let you ride my bicycle.

The verb

make

can be followed by an

object

and an

infinitive without "to"

.

make + object + infinitive without "to"

It means "compel" or "cause".

Example

Mr Leupolt made the girls stay in after school.

That beard makes you look much older than you are.

The infinitive with "to"

Some verbs can be followed by an object + infinitive with "to".

Those verbs are:

ask, tell, want, expect, would like, believe, consider, declare, discover,

imageine, suppose, think

Example

I consider

him

to be

aone of the best pupils at our school.

The teacher wants

the pupils

to write

an essay.

!!!

You mustn′t use a that-clause after "want" and "would like".

The to-infinitive can be used after nouns and words used in place of

nouns, such as something, someone, a lot, anything, anybody or things

Example

Maureen needs somebody to help her.

The things to be loaded first are in the hall.

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Participle constructions instead of subordinate clauses

of time

′- can be introduced by when, after, while, before

′- we can replace a subordinate clause of time by a participle

construction if the subject of the main clause and the subject

of a subordinate clause of time are the same.

active

Example

When they

left

their home countries, they were full of hope.

(When) leaving their home countries, they were full of hope.

The present participle replaces the verb in the active and the subject.

The past participle replaces the verb inthe passive, the form of be

and the subject.

of reason

Participle construction instead of subordinate clauses of reason are

not

introduced by

because

or

as

.

Example

Because they were Commonwealth citizens, they all had British passports.

Being Commonwealth citizens, they all had British passports.

As they

were convinces

that the immigrants were taking away their jobs,

some whites protested.

passive

Convinced that immigrants were taking away their jobs, some whites

protested.

of concession

Subordinate clause of concession are introduced by although or though.

Subordinate clause of concession can be replaced by a participle

construction.

The participle construction must be introduced by although or though.

Example

Although they knew that they were no longer welcome, more immigrants arrived.

Although knowing that they were no longer welcome, more immigrants arrived.

Although they were protected by the law, immigrants were often discriminated against.

Although protected by the law, immigrants were often discriminated against.

The present participle after verbs of perception

verb of perception + object + present participle

Example

A neighbour saw a man throwing a stone.

The Patels heard people shouting.

He watched somebody hiding behind a car.

Rita felt her heart beating.

infinitive

dass

wie

We can use the present participle after verbs of perception like hear, listen to, look at,

watch, see, notice, feel, smell when these verbs are followed by an object. We translate

those sentences into German with an infinitive or a subordinate clause introduced by

"dass" or "wie".

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The present participle after verbs of rest and movement

remain, stand, sit and lie are verbs of rest

come, move and go are verbs of movement

We use the present participle after verbs of rest and movement.

We translate those sentences into German with the conjunction "und" or the " Partizip II"

Example

The Patels remained sitting in the darkness.

infinitive

A neighbour stood watching the gang.

und

A stone came flying through the window.

Partizip II

!!!

find + object + presetn participle

leave + object + present participle

catch + object + present participle

Example

Dexter found the carpet burning.

The Patels left the phon ringing.

The police caught a man breaking into a shop.

non - defining relative clause

person

things

subject form

who

which

object form

who/whom

which

possessive form

whose

whose

defining relative clause

non - definig relative clause

- add essential information - add information that is not necessary to

- not separated by commas understand the sentence

- separated by commas

Nouns

proper nouns

common nouns

countable nouns

uncountable nouns

- you can use them

- you cannot use them

with numbers,

with numbers, the

quantifiers (some,

indefinite article and the

a few, many, every,

plural form

each...) and the

- have only a singular form

indefinite article

- are followed by the

(a /an)

singular form of the verb

- have a singular

quantifiers: much, lots of,

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and a plural form

some, (a) little,

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