Account for differences in the development of physical education in Britain and

Germany in the nineteenth century

by Berit Bethke

`If your wish is to increase the intelligence of your pupil,

then you must strengthen the forces which rule it. Train his body constantly;

make him robust and healthy so that he will be wise and sensible′

[Jean-Jacques Rousseau,

Emile oder über die Erziehung,

Stuttgart: Reclam, 1970] 1

According to Michael KRÜGER, ROUSSEAU′s novel

Emile

, which was published 1762,

had a considerable impact on the development of physical education in the nineteenth

century ­ particularly in Germany.2 But, regarding the quotation above, it does certainly

mirror the mind of education prevailing in many European nations in the nineteenth

century. In accordance with the maxim `

Mens sana in corpore sana′

evolved a new ethic of

physical culture in Europe. Thus, the education of the body and the training of the senses

became indispensable elements of educational concepts at this time. Which ideas and

circumstances shaped the increasing importance of physical education? How did physical

education concepts implemented in different countries?

Comparing the physical educational concepts of Germany and Britain, this paper

examines the development of physical culture in the nineteenth century. The compatibility

of ROUSSEAU′s quotation to both notions assumes that there might be a common ground

for each physical education approach. Enormous social, economical and political

development affected whole Europe according to the Enlightment and influenced the

physical culture ­ but in different nations to a different extent. Hence, I focus on the

differences in the development of physical education.

Due to political circumstances

Turnen3

became predominant in Germany. In accordance

to physical education in schools and associations (Vereine) I refer to the influence of the

Turner

-Movement in particular. Therefore, I argue how the

Turner

not only asserted a

1

Translation of the quotation found in: Gertrud Pfister,

Cultural

Confrontations: German Turnen,

Swedish Gymnastics and

English Sport,

in

Culture, Sport, Society,

Vol.6 (2003).

2 Michael Krüger,

Einführung in die Geschichte der Leibeserziehung und des Sports, Leibeserziehung im 19. Jahrhundert : Turnen fürs

Vaterland

(Band II) 1993, p. 25.

3 Because of the difficulty find a adequate English term for Turnen, I keep the German term and its derivative forms up

in the following text.

1

---

specific form of physical exercises but also how it also evoked an ideology of community

and national spirit.

Britain, in contrast, is regarded as the birthplace of modern sport and athleticism.4 The

moral climate of the Victorian Era as well as the increasing predominance of commercial

competition underlies this development. Public schools played a crucial role in the shaping

and disemination of concepts of modern sport. Thererfore, I focus on the influence of

public schools in particular.

The development of Turnen in Germany

At the end of the eighteenth century concepts for physical education developed above

all from the Philanthropists, who provided the German elite education in the eighteenth

century.5 The Philanthropists shared ROUSSEAU′s concept of educating the `whole indivi-

dual′ (

den ganzen Menschen

) through physical, sensual and intellectual experiences. Their aim

was to

`create′

healthy, capable, virtuous citizens. 6

The scholar Johann Christoph Friedrich GUTSMUTHS (1759 ­ 1839) in particular

marked the roots of German physical education. In his book

Gymnastik für die Jugend

(1793)

he compiled the contemporary knowledge on physical education and advanced the theory

and practice of gymnastics. His compilation contains not only a large collection of exercises

including climbing, running, jumping and swimming, but also games and play. Moreover,

he underpinned the need for physical activities with the humanistic ideas. Henceforth, he

became the most important mentor for both in following generations.

GUTSMUTHS` concept had a great influence on Friedrich Ludwig JAHN (1778 ­ 1852).

The Berlin teacher is generally regarded as the `father of

Turnen′

(Turnvater Jahn

). `Jahn
invented the term Turnen in order to place these exercises within the Germanistic tradition and also to

create a technical term for a new form of physical culture.′7

In the book

Die deutsche Turnkunst

(1816)

Jahn and his co-author Eiselen refer to the ideals of the pilanthropistic education:

`Die Turnkunst soll die verlorengegangene Gleichmäßigkeit der menschlichen Bildung wieder herstellen,

der bloß einseitigen Vergeistigung die wahre Leibhaftigkeit zuordnen, der Überfeinerung in der

4 I use both terms without distinction between both.

5 Allen Guttmann,

Games and Empire. Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism.

New York, 1994.

6 Krüger ibid. 34

7Pfister, ibid., p. 65.

2

---

wiedergewonnenen Männlichkeit das notwendigen Gegengewicht geben und im jugendlichen

Zusammenleben den ganzen Menschen umfassen und ergreifen.′

8

Balance between body and mind was the key in JAHN′s education concept, whose

romantic ideals applied to the prevailing beliefs in Germany at this time.

In addition,

Turnen

was set up `as part of a drive toward a `nationalist′ education′.9

There is not enough space to give a detailed account of the social, economic and political

circumstances that had an influence on the ideology of the

Turner

Movement. But the

following has to be borne in mind: at the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany

was fragmented into separate kingdoms and duchies. While in other nations like Britain or

France a new social order was established by citizens, the feudal regime still remained in

Germany. Moreover, Germany was occupied by the French army under NAPOLEON I.

Hence, many nationalistic forces fought to liberate the nation from French hegemony and

to overthrow the feudal order in order to create a liberal nation governed by citizens.

Related to this circumstances is the fact that the focus of

Turnen

firstly was on military

exercises. In fact, JAHN′s training included different kinds of `war games′ to prepare the

pupil for the potential combat for the liberation of the nation. Therefore PFISTER notes:

`The body was not supposed to be exercised for its own sake or because of some abstract achievement but in
the view of its military usefulness′10

This assumption fundamentally differs from other physical

education concepts at this time. Certainly, adherents of sport in Britain also underpin their

attitude by certain ideas about manliness and `struggle of life′ but the explicit military

orientation of the German Turner was unique.11

At the beginning the concept of Turnen arose from very practical ideas. JAHN

considered games as the best ways to keeping discipline and to strengthen pupils at the

same time. But his system was not geared comparing performance but rather to join a

community and subordinate in a group of like-minded people.12 In more recent studies in

sport history JAHN′s concept is regarded as `boisterous′ and less structured.13

8quoted in Hansgeorg Kling, Traditionen und Symbole: http://www.saarl-turnerbund.de/dtbkultur/vkutrad.htm

9 Pfister, ibid., p.65.

10 ibid., p 66

11 ibid.

12 see Krüger ibid.

13 i.a. Guttmann, ibid. 142, Krüger ibid.

3

---

JAHN′s quotation above also points out that

Turnen

evolved as a `contribution to

forming ideals of masculinity′.14 It appealed to boys in particular. Hence, it reinforced the

assumption of a dichotomy between genders, underpinned by the myth of male strength

and female weakness.

Turnen

consisted not only of physical exercise, but also included patriotic speeches,

traditional songs, lessons about German history and excursions as well as other conjoint

activities like hiking tours and festivals. Thus, Turnen had very strong political implications.

It was aimed for widespread public education and reinforcing patriotic spirit. Terms like

Volk

and

Volkstum

played a significant role in the concept of Turnen at first.15 It is

apparent that those terms as well as JAHN′s heritage and the tribute to the

Turnen

flourished

under the National Socialist regime.16 Also in the GDR JAHN′s approach appealed to the

ideology of the regime. Hence, what arose as a nationalistic liberation movement became

coopted by totalitarian regimes to buttress its ideologies. Thus, the ideals which underlie

Turnen at the beginning seem to be compatible to totalitarian ideals according to its

focusing on nationalistic and authoritarian values.

Due to subversive activities17 Turnen was banned in 1819. But when Friedrich

WILHELM IV. claimed power in Prussia in 1842 the ban was lifted and within short time

Turnen

was implemented in education curriculum in schools. In 1846

Turnunterricht

became

compulsory in secondary schools in Saxony. Other German areas followed Saxony in 1862.

According to KRÜGER, medical aspects underpinned the importance of Turnunterricht.18

To this date, two specific institutions mainly provide physical education and training in

Germany: the school and associations (Vereine). The roots of both traces back to the

circumstances in the mid-nineteenth century.

The development of

Turnvereine

began in the Restoration Era. At first,

Turnen

was

strongly connected with revolutionary forces. The liberal

Turner

movement was borne by

Männerturnvereinen

, which consist mainly of middle class men. They created a specific

Turn-

Kultur

including specific rituals, symbols and festivals.19

Turnvereine

considered themselves as

institution of education (`

Bildungseinrichtungen′

). A great importance had had the nationwide

14 Pfister, ibid., p.71.

15 See Krüger ibid., Pfister, ibid. p 65.

16 See Michael Krüger,

Einführung in die Geschichte der Leibeserziehung und des Sports Band 10,

Schorndorf 1993.

17 In March 1819 the poet August von Kotzebue was killed by Karl Ludwig Sand, a keen adherent of the Turner

Movement. This assassination was taken as an inducement to implement the Karlsbader Beschlüsse, which included

inter alia the ban on the Turner movement.

18 Krüger ibid., p. 75.

19 ibid., p. 96.

4

---