Hochschule Fulda

University of Applied Sciences

Department of Social and Cultural Sciences

Postgraduate Degree Program

Intercultural Communication & European Studies (ICEUS)

"Mögen Sie eigentlich die Amerikaner?"

The historical development of anti - Americanism

in Germany

Thesis to obtain the academic degree ,,Master of Arts"

in "Intercultural Communication and European Studies" (ICEUS)

presented by

Nicola Weinert

Fulda, August 2008

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Table of contents

1. Introduction

1

1.1 Relevance of the topic

1

1.2 Structure and central research questions

5

1.3 Literary sources

9

2. Anti-Americanism ­ a theoretical approach

11

2.1 Theories and definitions

11

2.2 Motives and functions

17

2.3 Anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism

22

3. The development of anti-Americanism in the context of German history

25

3.1 Anti-American perceptions in the 18th and 19th century

27

3.2 Anti-American images at the beginning of the 20th century until the Second

World War

32

3.3 The Third Reich

34

3.4 The Post-War and Cold War period (1945-1990)

37

3.5 From the German Reunification to the war in Iraq

43

3.6 The presidency of George W. Bush

48

4. The future of German-American relations ­ change with a new president?

58

5. Conclusion

63

Appendix

72

Table of figures

73

List of references

74

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1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Relevance of the topic

The idea to write about the development of anti-American1 resentment in

Germany derived mainly from the growing negative attitudes toward the USA that

emerged in Germany2 during the years of the George W. Bush administration and

the war in Iraq. It seems that never before had there been an American president

that caused so much criticism and opposition among politicians and the public in

Germany. The widespread antipathy seems unprecedented in history so far and the

politicial discrepancies and disputes put the longstanding partnership to the test.

Although anti-American resentment is not a specific German phenomenon the

recent tensions in Germany have been particularly strong and were displayed

more obvious compared to other European countries. One important reason for

this is certainly the historical connection between the two countries. Germany lost

two wars against America and was occupied by U.S. military forces for about

forty years. This has fundamentally shaped German opinions and attitudes.

Generally, it can be stated that Germany and the United States are bound together

culturally, historically, politically and economically in many ways. About 46

million Americans claim a German ancestry and about 16 million American

soldiers who have lived in Germany since the end of the Second World War have

profoundly influenced German society. Today, the USA is the most important

trading partner of Germany outside the European Union and American companies

are the second largest investors in Germany. The official relationship between the

two is described by the German government as "bound by a robust friendship

founded on shared experience, values and interests" (Auswärtiges Amt: March

2008).

1 To simplify matters - and because they are widely accepted in practical use - the terms

`American′, `United States of America′, `USA′ or `U.S.′ will be applied synonymously in this

thesis. However, the author of this paper is conscious about the fact that this use is in many cases

not politically or geographically correct.

2 When necessary there will be an indication whether the term Germany refers to all of Germany

or inclusive/ exclusive the GDR. In all other cases Germany always means the state (or

agglomeration of states) as it was defined in each particular historical epoch.

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As the relationship of the two countries has thus always been of great importance

on many levels and will continue to play a decisive role in the future, it is crucial

to examine this development of the past and present anti-American resentment

among Germans in more detail. This way, predictions for the future relationship

can be made as well as possible solutions for a better understanding be suggested

in order to avoid such strong fallouts that were to be found in recent years.

Above all, it will be analyzed and proved in this thesis that this wave of anti-

American sentiments of the past years described-above has not just emerged

during the time of the Bush administration. The development of the negative

views Germans hold of the United States can be traced back by analyzing the

historical process of the relationship between the two countries. Anti-

Americanism had varying meanings in the different historical eras, always

depending on the social and political context and by which group in society it was

pronounced (cf. Lösche and Loeffelholz 2004: XVI). Starting in the 15th century

but mainly in the 18th and above all the 19th century, a large number of negative

stereotypes of the United States developed ­ images that can still be found in anti-

American expressions today. Ever since Columbus `discovered′ America and

Europeans started settling the country, many expectations were placed upon it but

never met. Hence, the initial positive opinions of many people mingled with a

more negative and critical perception.

One of the main aspects of this thesis will be to examine this growing mixture of

negative and positive attitudes. It will be outlined that the German resentment

toward America has historically always been ambivalent. Anti-American attitudes

have often been accompagnied by feelings of fascination and admiration at the

same time. Negative and positive opinions about the United States have frequently

gone hand-in-hand in Germany, approval and despise closely interwoven. On the

one hand, large parts of German society traditionally had a lot of approval for

America, as it was considered the land of golden and new opportunities and a

symbol for modernism. On the other hand, it is exactly these phenomenons that

have caused the development of many negative attitudes toward the United States

in the course of history:

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,,Amerika war stets eine ambivalente Konstruktion (...) ­ Utopie und

Dystopie in einem (...). Es gibt einen Fundus von Stereotypen, die sich bis

ins [15. und ]16. Jahrhundert zurückverfolgen lassen; und es zeichnet sich

eine deutliche soziale Polarisierung der Amerikabilder ab, die im 19.

Jahrhundert entscheidend geformt und verankert wurden" (Maase in

Lüdtke, Marßolek and Saldern 1996: 297-298).

A form of love-hate relationship evolved that still seems to exist today. "Die

Aufmerksamkeit für alles Amerikanische ist in Deutschland riesig (...). Die

Deutschen essen, trinken und sehen fern fast wie die Amerikaner, aber sie lassen

keine Gelegenheit aus, sich gegenseitig zu versichern, wie sehr sie den

Verwandten aus Übersee überlegen seien" (Beste et al. 2008: 34).

This ambivalence is also reflected by the results of a 2004 poll by the Pew

Research Center. Only 14% of Germans think that people who move to the United

States can expect a better life compared to their old living conditions (cf. The Pew

Research Center 2004: 5)

.

This clearly contradicts the fact that America has

traditionally been and still is one of the most popular emigration countries for

Germans themselves as shown, for instance, by the 2006 emigration statistics of

the German Census Bureau (cf. German Census Bureau: 2006).

This paradox view is furthermore supported by the results of an annual survey

conducted by the renowned

Allensbach Institute.

Since 1957 it has been asking

the German people a question of which a short version can also be found in the

title of this thesis: "Mögen Sie eigentlich die Amerikaner oder mögen Sie sie

nicht?" (Allensbach survey in FAZ: July 23, 2003). The graphic (see appendix),

that illustrates the results of the survey, shows clearly the constantly flactuating

perception of Germans toward Americans. It also shows that after every period of

negative resentment the athmosphere has usually turned more positive again.

It will hence be argued and pointed out in this thesis that the tensions between

Germany and America and the strong anti-American resentment that was to be

found in Germany in recent years, are simply one of many phases in the ever-

changing relationship of the two countries. Misunderstandings and different

perceptions are nothing new in the German-American relationship and do not

come as a surprise ­ it is only the extent of the recent anti-American

demonstrations and proclamations that might differ from the past (cf. Diner 2002:

38). Hanna Arendt agrees: "Das Unverständnis der Deutschen (...) für

angelsächsische Traditionen und amerikanische Wirklichkeit ist eine alte

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Geschichte" (ibid: 6). Germans have often considered the American claim for

leadership in world politics, world peace and the `correct behavior′ of other

countries strange and elevated (cf. Spillmann in Kreis 2007: 37). Nonetheless, this

has never completely damaged the overall positive connections between the two

countries and should thus not be valued as the end of the strong relationship

between Germany and America, but should be recognized as one of many tense

times that the two countries have faced in their historical development.

The recent deterioration of the German-American relationship is thus not simply

to be seen as a short-lived reaction and rejection of the politics and the behavior of

U.S. President George W. Bush, but in fact as a resentment that can be traced

back as early as to the first contact of Europeans and the North American territory

(cf. Diner 2002: 13-15). Many negative opinions of America in Germany can be

referred to deep-seated associations going back hundreds of years ago which

proves that anti-Americanism is a historically grown, theoretical construct with

ideology-like tendencies that simply gained new attention and importance during

the Bush administration and the war in Iraq.

The following chapters and sections will now examine the historical development

of anti-American resentment in German society and politics in more detail. In this

context it will be analyzed by what the German perception of America, Americans

and American politics have traditionally been influenced and how this can be put

in relation to the blatant anti-American sentiments of the past few years. The

question will be whether the damaged relationship will improve with the election

of a new president in the United States in November 2008 - be it Barrack Obama

or John McCain - and if the two countries will remain "partners in leadership"

(George Bush: 1990), or if the process of separation will continue. The vivid

discussions in Germany about the upcoming American presidential elections show

at least the profound interest Germans have in the United States and thus the hope

for a change with regards to the damaged relations. It will not be possible, of

course, to make a precise prediction for the future. Nonetheless, suggestions can

be made by analyzing the roots and causes of the anti-American resentment that

became so obvious during the presidency of George W. Bush.

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1.2

Structure and central research questions

To gain a thorough understanding of the development of anti-Americanism in

Germany and its influence on the German-American relationship, it is first of all

important to find out what exactly is to be understood by the term and theory of

anti-Americanism and how it is recognizable. The notion could recently be found

in almost every transatlantic discussion. It circulated in Europe, especially

Germany, and has caused a lot of discussion among authors, politicians and

intellectuals. Especially in the political context the term has gained some

prominence.

The most important and comprehensive attempts of definitions and theories will

be presented and analyzed in chapter 2 of this thesis. It then needs to be clarified

where exactly anti-American sentiments come from and where the boundary is to

be drawn between legitimate criticism and anti-Americanism. In this context it

will be explained that anti-Americanism has always been a controversial term and

that a satisfying definition is still under debate and discussion among experts.

What experts seem to agree upon is the fact that it is seen as the neglection of

something `typical′ American. This neglection is not an objective point of

criticism but turns into the habitual negative stereotypification of anything

American.

Section 2.1 will furthermore provide an overview of the numorous definitions the

term anti-Americanism has evoked and present the most important ones. Section

2.2 will then focus on the motives and functions of anti-Americanism as a concept

or ideological theory.

In this respect it is important to note that it would go beyond the scope of this

thesis to explain both the American and the German point of view. Only the

German perspective with regards to its attitude toward Americans will be

examined in more detail, as the focus of this paper is solely to analyze the anti-

American resentment in Germany and not describe German-American relations in

its entity with a comparison of negative and positive opinions about each other.

This presumably one-dimensional approach of the topic can also be justified with

the fact that compared to the longstanding, vivid anti-American sentiments in

Europe and Germany in particular, a strong rejection of Europe in American

society can hardly be found in such a wide-spread manner. "Die lächerlichen

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freedom fries stehen außerhalb eines historischen Kontextes" (Behrends, von

Klimó and Poutrus 2005: 324). There is also no equivalent to the term anti-

Americanism with regards to Europe ­ `Anti-Europäismus′ does not exist in any

dictionary. The emotional distance that many European countries ­ in particular

Germany ­ have developed in the course of history has never reached the same

extent in America with regards to anti-European sentiments (cf. ibid: 324).

This one-sided approach of the thesis might, furhtermore, naturally leave the

impression that Germans are presented in a very negative way with regards to

their attitudes toward Americans. This, however, is only to be seen in context of

the research question on-hand. The main topic is the development of anti-

American resentment in Germany and this will, of course, leave out the positive

sides of the German-American relations. This narrowed point of view should thus

be kept in mind when reading this thesis.

In section 2.3 possible similarities between anti-Americanism and anti-Semitism

will be discussed as several authors see a connection of the two theoretical

concepts (cf. Markovits 2008, Nitz 2006). In this context it will also be analyzed

if there is a specific German anti-Americanism and what makes it distinguishable

from other countries′ negative opinions about the United States. Furthermore, it

will be examined if the anti-American resentment is simply a "response to

American actions, or [if it] is a quest for national identity [as some have

suggested]" (Weigandt 2003: 1).

Following the theoretical framework, chapter 3 will then outline where the

historical roots and causes for the negative views of America in Germany can be

found. It will become clear that anti-Americanism as such is not a new sentiment

in Germany at all, but can be traced back until the very beginning of German-

American relations. It should be noted, however, that due to the predetermined

length of this thesis the explanations and analyis of this aspect will have to focus

on chosen historical events and epochs and thus only exemplify the development.

Section 3.1 will concentrate in detail on German attitudes toward America in the

18th and 19th century. The first half of the 18th century was still a period of mostly

positive opinions about America. However, in those days many peoples′ and

politicans′ opinions were heavily influenced by the writings of well-known

intellectuals such as Nikolaus Lenau, Heinrich Heine or Ferdinand Kürnberger.

Their overall negative view of the United States, often criticising the idea of

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modernity and progress as well as the influence of civil society in America, had a

profound and lasting impact on the German people′s perception of the United

States. Examples of their opinions will be provided below.

Section 3.2 will focus on the beginning of the 20th century, the events of World

War I and the Weimar Republic with regards to the development of anti-

Americanism in Germany. At the end of the First World War and the Treaty of

Versailles the attitude toward America reached an all-time low so far. Especially

the political right whose influence grew substantially in those days put forward

the opinion that U.S. President Wilson was to be held responsible for the

disreputable situation Germany found itself in after the war. Wilson was perceived

as a betrayer with regards to the reparation costs Germany had to pay and seen as

the personified imperialistic capitalist that only wanted to exploit Germany. This

attitude would generally remain strong among many until the outbreak of World

War II. The era of the Weimar Republic (1919-1933) was a time of ambivalent

feelings for Germans toward America. A growing fear of an increasing American

economic and military influence was mixed with a fascination for cultural goods

and values that were transported over the Atlantic. Accordingly to this

comparatively positive attitude, there were hardly any anti-American writings

published in those days.

Section 3.3 will discuss the period of the Third Reich in relation to anti-American

resentment in Germany. This era was characterized by the National Socialist′s3

propaganda of already existing anti-American sentiments with a now very strong

anti-Semitic touch to it. The Nazis established a picture of America of as a

country that was ruled by Jews they considered greedy, selfish and capitalistic ­

the predominant stereotypes and prejudices used in connection with Jewish

people. Adolf Hitler himself had an ambivalent relationship with America. On the

one hand, he considered America being able to convert into a world superpower.

On the other hand, he saw the country as a threat and a place where Jewish people

and other cultures he disliked could mingle and build a population he despised.

Section 3.4 furthermore focuses on the post-war period and the context of the

Cold War until the events of September 11, 2001. After the Second World War

the relationship generally seemed to become more positive as many Germas

3 In the following, both the longer term `National Socialists′or the shorter form `Nazis′ will be

used interchangeably.

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