“The Quest for Trilingualism:
A Case Study of Kenyan Communication Forms“

Paper for the Seminar II:
“First and Second Language Acquisition”
WS 02/03

written by:
Anja Schmidt

Contents

1. Introduction 2

2. Development of a multilingual Kenyan community 3
2.1. Influences of the colonial era 4
2.2. Language policy after independency 6
2.3. The rise of Kiswahili as lingua franca 7
2.4. World integration factors 8

3. The Kenyan system of trilingualism 9
3.1. English 10
3.2. Kiswahili 12
3.3. Ethnic languages 12
3.4. Other means of communication 14

4. The use of different communicative patterns 14
4.1. Preferences 14
4.2. Competence and Connotation 18
4.3. Interaction: Sheng and Engsh 20

5. Consequences 22
5.1. The question of identity 23
5.2. Individual language patterns 23

6. Conclusion 24

7. References 25

1. Introduction

When considering the linguistic situation in Kenya, it becomes quite obvious that it is anything but homogenous. Not only the large variety of different ethnic groups, but also British colonial influences have left their marks on this diverse region. With English as the official language and Kiswahili as the national language, it seems that the language situation in Kenya should be clear cut and well defined. Yet, the search for a national identity, feelings of inferiority towards the “colonial” language English and the strive for a better political and economic life in Kenya confront the population with many challenges and problems (cf. Agoya).

Kenyan society is shaped by 40 to 60 African ethnic languages (estimations vary here), such as Maasai or Dholuo. The main means of communication, i.e. lingua franca, among these different ethnic groups has become Kiswahili. But Kiswahili itself has seven dialects and several sub-dialects. In addition, several European languages were left behind by the colonial era and Arabic and Asian merchants have brought their languages with them too. Thus, the language situation in Kenya is extremely complex and considered to be a 3+ 1 language country. That means that most Kenyan citizens speak three languages (plus or minus one): the mother tongue (in most cases an African ethnic language), Kiswahili – the national language and most often also lingua franca, and English – the official language and therefore used for all educational and governmental purposes (cf. Obondo & Eastman).

But the competence and use of these communication systems varies largely. Like citizens of other imposed multilingual environment situations, Kenyans have developed their very own way to communicate with each other. But language is not only a pure means of communication – it carries different identities depending on social context. It serves to distinguish oneself from others as well as to express one’s membership to a certain group and thus influencing one’s understanding of culture.

However, my aim in this paper is to analyse the current trilingualism in Kenya and explain the different levels of competence. I will put the main emphasis on English and Kiswahili, as they receive official recognition by the Kenyan government. There has still been done little research on the historical and current linguistic environment in Kenya, thus making it hard to make any predictions about the language development in Kenya. But when considering the interaction of the official languages and those inferior to them, I will also refer to some new language forms that might influence the Kenyan society considerably in the future.

2. Delopment of a multilingual Kenyan community

The whole African continent has been the subject of political restlessness, civil wars, whole populations movements. The colonial era has brought the European empires onto the continent and the flourishing trade brought merchants from south to north and vice-versa. Nowadays, this “input” of language forms has gotten an international dimension by the various international companies or individuals engaged in business, travel or development aid in Kenya.

Kenya is still a developing country – a multi-ethnic (cf. table 1 below). Therefore its main aim is economic development and the creation of a national culture. This naturally influenced and still influences the Kenyan language policy. But the Kenyan language system has first and foremost been influenced by the colonial era – setting the standards for a modern Kenyan society.

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