Universität Bayreuth
Fakultät für Sprach- und Literaturwissenschaften
HS “Dress Codes – Reading Fashion Cultures”
4. Fachsemester

Tatoos: Fashion trend vs. social symbol of communication

von: Kerstin Müller

Table of contents

1. Introduction 3

2. Cultural Tattoo History 4

3. Tattoos regarding Fashion and its role in society 7

4. Social symbols in human interaction  10

5. The meaning and function of tattoos  14

5.1 Signs of affiliation and initiation 15

5.1.1 Tattoos as a requirement for admittance 15
5.1.2 Tattoos as a voluntary aspect of group admittance  18

5.2 Distinction and exclusiveness 19

6. Conclusion  20

7. Works Cited 22

1. Introduction

In 1997, the Hartford Courant published the research results of the American Economic Information Service concerning those economic branches which have shown the highest rates of expansion in 1996. Among expected high-tech branches such as the Internet, for example, one branch, which had up to that point not even been regarded as an economic branch, appeared among first six ranks: the tattoo- industry (Stirn 285). This example clearly shows that tattooing has intensely increased in popularity towards the end of the 20th century. Tattooing is no longer a rarity, but is present in everyday life. Tattoos can be detected on various kinds of parts on the human body, and the motives appear in uncountable varieties of shape and design, with colours ranging from plain black to gaudy. Tattoos are especially popular among younger people between the age of 15 and 25. In general, the numbers range from seven to twenty million tattooed individuals for the United States, and state about two million for Germany (Stirn 285). These numbers are generally only rough estimations, because there is no reliable method of counting, and the results mainly rely upon accounts of recently developing tattoo associations. The focus of this paper shall lie on the function of the tattoo, namely whether or not the tattoo is just an ephemeral fashion trend or a lasting constituent of the human culture. It shall be analysed in what way tattooing can be regarded as fashion and to what degree it can be considered to be a social symbol in human interaction. First, a general history of tattooing shall be given, because the development is important for the comparison. In order to avoid obscurities concerning the term tattoo or tattooing a short definition shall be given here.

According to Finke, several authors differ in their definition of tattoos. Some sources use tattooing as a general topic including all kinds of body modification, such as branding, scarification and body painting (Finke 15-17). In the course of this paper, the term tattoo shall only be used to describe the pemanent embedding of pigments into the skin, excluding scarification, body painting and branding.a The given definition excludes all other forms of body alteration but raises the need to differentiate further. There are tattoos which have not been obtained voluntarily, so-called compulsive tattoos which have been put on prisoners or soldiers throughout history. These compulsive tattoos will be mentioned in the historical outline, but shall not be included in the later analysis. a It shall be mentioned beforehand that scarification is often combined with tattooing (in the above defined sense) as it is practised by the Maori people of New Zealand (Gilbert 67). In addition to this an embedding of pigments into the skin can also occur in an accident during which soot and dirt are brought into the skin by scraping over asphalt, for example. These tattoos shall not be included in the later analysis as well. The given definition therefore only covers what is often called the decorative tattoo, which is acquired voluntarily and serves a decorative purpose as the name suggests.

2. Cultural Tattoo History

As already indicated above, tattooing is only one of many forms of body alteration, but it is probably the oldest one. In order to analyse tattooing in Europe and America, it is necessary to describe the history of the tattoo itself, because leaving out the historical roots of such an art form would simply deny its cultural constituents. The tattoo, respectively its precursor body painting, is probably as old as mankind itself (Finke 30). Prehistorical findings in Europe of 8000 year old needles with remains of pigment lead to the conclusion that tattooing has already existed at this age. In Egypt, physical evidence in the form of the mummies of two tattooed girls has survived from around 2000 BC. The mummy called Ötzi, found in the Swiss Alps, showed several ornamental tattoos in the form of parallel lines and dates back to about 3000 BC (Friederich 16-18).1 Younger traces of tattooing can be found in virtually all parts of the world. However, according to Caplan, the history of European tattooing in terms of cultural anthropology has been barely researched (xi). Finke agrees with this statement (11). In general, the tattoo made an appearance in Europe in the archaeological and written record between prehistoric times until some point in the early Middle Ages. After that it almost completely vanished for several centuries, but reappeared in the 18th century (Caplan xv). Finke doubts the reliability of accounts which claim that the origin of tattooing is either Southwest Asia or the South-Pacific region. He claims that tattooing actually originates from Europe, because it was there that the oldest evidence has been found up to today (34). During the classic antiquity several Roman and Greek authors, such as Herodot, Caesar and Ovid, reported tattoos of barbarian people.4 The Romans and Greeks themselves tattooed only slaves, deserters and prisoners of war. This practice was modified over time in the form 4 Friederich also notes that it did not become clear whether a distinction between tattoos, body painting and scarification was made in those reports (Friederich 18).

that, later, facial tattoos were forbidden due to religious reasons. The early Christians practised the technique, and it was quite common among the Crusaders, even though Pope Hadrian had prohibited tattoos in the year 787. The spread of Christianity virtually wiped out the tattoo in Europe for several centuries. After this, the first tattooed people arriving had been shipped from Pacific islands by travellers and often served as circus or market-place attractions. Thomas Cook’s voyages are among the most well-known and are often considered to be the ones who brought tattooing to Europe. It was Cook who brought the Tahitian prince Omai to Britain, who was gaped at by the British upper class. Even though Cook’s return from his voyages to the Pacific islands marked the European tattoo boom, the first tattooed islander from the Pacific region had already set foot on European land in 1691(Friederich 19). 2 It has not become clear who brought the term tattoo to the European world, therefore the origin of the word itself is quite controversial.3

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1 However, Gilbert notes that the mummy’s tattoos were probably done for therapeutic reasons (Gilbert 11).

2 Friederich notes here that other tattooed people which had been discovered earlier, such as the Inuit, did not evoke any paradisean associations, and did therefore not contribute to the tattoo boom (Friederich 20).

3 Finke indicates that he does not agree with the common assumption (which Friederich suggests) that Cook also brought the term „tattoo“(tattaw or tatou) to Europe. He claims that the French traveller Antoine de Bougainsville mentioned the word “tatou” for the first time in his work Voyages autour du Monde 1766-69, which was before Cook’s first voyage (Finke 25).