Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz
FASK IAAA
Kulturwissenschaftliches Hauptseminar
SS 2005-2006

Metaphors and Symbols

by

Ina-Eleftheria Sachariadis

Contents

Introduction  1
Structure of this paper   1

1 Metaphor  2
1.1 Definitions   2
1.1.1. Dictionaries   2
1.1.2. Specialists’ definitions  2
1.1.3. Etymology  3
1.2 Theories on metaphor   3
1.2.1. Linguistic interest   4
1.2.1.1. The rhetorical tradition   4
1.2.1.2. The “substitution theory”  5
1.2.1.3. The “interactional theory”  5
1.2.1.4. Similes  6
1.2.2. Cognitive interest   7
1.2.2.1. The contemporary theory of metaphor  7
1.2.3. Classical vs. contemporary   8
1.3 Types of metaphor   8
1.3.1. The “dead” metaphor   8
1.3.2. The “active” metaphor  9
1.3.3. The cliché  9

2 Symbol   9
2.1 Definitions  . 9
2.1.1. Dictionaries   9
2.1.2. Specialists’ definitions  10
2.1.3. Etymology  10
2.2 Types of symbol   10
2.2.1. Arbitrary conventional symbols  11
2.2.2. Symbols motivated via analogy or synecdoche   11
2.2.2.1. Literary symbols  12

Conclusion  13

Introduction

Metaphor and symbol are both central terms in literature. They are inner elements of literary texts (unlike allegories for example) and are considered means of figurative language, as the literal, conventional meaning of the word or thing used as a metaphor or a symbol "is exceeded or negated by a nonliteral meaning" (Doty).

"A metaphor is a statement that means something different, or more, than its literal meaning. A symbol has complex meaning; it has not only literal, but also additional meaning(s) beyond the literal. Sometimes the literal meaning of a symbol is absurd, so that the symbolic meaning over-rides and cancels out the literal meaning" (Doty).

However there are big differences between the two terms. Therefore a systematic distinction between them is required in order to avoid mistaking the one for the other. The main differences are the following two:

First of all "a symbol is used more consistently and widely than a metaphor". Secondly "a metaphor is a statement (even if implied), whereas a symbol need not be a statement" (Doty). Note also that metaphors become "dead" (see paragraph 1.3.1) with repetition, while symbols gain in power and meaning with repetition.

Structure of this paper

This paper firstly treats the issue of metaphor and then proceeds with the discussion of the term symbol. To ensure consistency, the presentation of both terms follows the same structure:

First of all the definition and etymology of each term is given; their principal characteristics are mentioned and explicated. Additionally the related concept of "similes" is defined and compared to metaphors. Due to the fact that the definitions of the term "metaphor" vary depending on the theories they are based on, a supplementary outline of these theories is required.

Subsequently the terms are classified into categories in order to allow a more detailed analysis; examples are cited.

The paper ends with a comparison of the two concepts. ¹

1 Metaphor

1.1 Definitions

1.1.1 Dictionaries

The definitions of metaphor given in dictionaries and by specialists do not have much in common at first glance. Loosely speaking, common definitions in dictionaries represent what laymen think of metaphors. Some examples:

The OALD defines metaphor in the following way:
"(example of) the use of words to indicate something different from the literal meaning, as in "I′ll make him eat his words" or "He has a heart of stone”.

The COD speaks of
"1a the application of a name or descriptive term or phrase to an object or action to which it is imaginatively but not literally applicable (e.g. a glaring error) b an instance of this. 2 (often foll. by of or for) a symbol of a usu. abstract thing (the lark was a metaphor for release)"

The OED describes metaphor in the following way:
“The figure of speech in which a name or descriptive term is transferred to some object different from, but analogous to, that to which it is properly applicable; an instance of this, a metaphorical expression.” (Witting)

[....]

1 Note: this paper is based on German bibliography, translated into English. For this reason linguistic terms (like "interactional theory", see paragraph 1.2.1.3) might not correspond to the English terminology on the field.