Community-Based Biodiversity Conservation Management

COMMUNITY-BASED BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION

MANAGEMENT

Reaching the goal of Biodiversity Conservation and Community

Development

The donors are gone but the forests remain that of the villagers and

have to be conserved

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to use this opportunity to express my profound appreciation and gratitude to all those who gave me the possibility and support to complete this thesis.

In this manner I want to first of all thank my colleagues of the Hans Boeckler Stiftung (Foundation) especially Dr. Irmgard Kucharzewski and Dagmar Jans for the wonderful financial and moral support they gave in making my Master Studies possible, especially in the collection of the data for this thesis in Cameroon.

Many thanks and appreciation also goes to Dr Schmidt-Soltau Kai who accepted to advice and supervised me, providing me with primary materials for the collection of my data in the Korup National Park. Furthermore I want to thank Mrs Mary Meboka, the deputy Mayor in Mundemba, Cameron who provided me with inside information about the different villages in the support zone and helped in the selection of the sampled villages.

I am bound and indebted to Chief Adolf Nwese and Prince Cletus Nwese of the KREO/KOGAN indigenous NGO and their families, all in Mundemba, for their sincere and familial assistance which I obtain. This goes especially to Prince Nwese who was with me all through my trip in the 11 villages in and around the National Park. I would not have made it without him. My gratitude also goes to Mr Akwaba alias “Akwa works” for the heart beating experience I had with him during the survey.

Without forgetting the assistance and help of the Chief of Post for Forestry and Wildlife in Idenau, Mr Nemoh George and the technical consultant for natural resource management for the GTZ in Buea, Mr. Okenye Mambo who provided me with much needed secondary data; to them all I extend my deepest and special gratitude.

I am deeply indebted to my supervisors in Goettingen, Germany, Prof. Dr. Max Krott, Dr. Christian Hubo, PD Dr. Olschewski Roland, for granting me the possibility and liberty to work in my own way as well as supervision of this thesis and whose help, stimulating suggestions and encouragement helped me in all the time of research for and writing of this thesis.

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To my present and former colleagues from the George-August-University Goettingen, Germany in the Masters Programme, “Tropical and International Forestry”, I want to thank them for all their help, support, interest and valuable hints. I am especially obliged to Bianca Dunker and Christoph Neitzel who looked closely at the final version of the thesis for English style and grammar, correcting both and offering suggestions for improvement. Many thanks also to Marco Harbusch, Sol Heber, Chistof Jaszczuk and all the others whose names have not been listed here.

I would like to give my special thanks to my most dear girlfriend Mai Zeidani, who was of great help in difficult times and whose patience and love enabled me to complete this work. Spiritual thanks also to my deceased landlady Prof. Dr. Gerda Freise who just passed away. Her continuous political support and encouragements led me through. To all my colleagues, brothers and sisters in the struggle for freedom and justice and against Racism here in Germany and elsewhere in the world, I express my deepest thanks for your support and solidarity.

Last but not least, special thanks to my daughter who might not realise it now, but she was the driving force of my convictions to study and also finish this work. To my family in Cameroon and in Germany, I express my heart-felt gratitude. This work also goes to my deceased parents who would have certainly been proud of my accomplishments and are definitely proud wherever they are now. To them I owe a great deal of knowledge and strength.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  v

TABLE OF  CONTENTS  vii

  LIST OF FIGURES  ix

  ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS  xii

  GLOSSARY  xiv

  ABSTRACT  xvii

  ZUSAMMENFASSUNG  xix

1  INTRODUCTION  1

1.1  Problem setting  2

1.2  Objectives  4

1.3  Importance of the study  5

1.4  Scope and limitations of the study  6

2  COUNTRY AND AREA BACKGROUND  8

2.1  The Government of Cameroon (Go)C  10

2.2  Korup National Park (KNP)  11

2.3  The Korup Project (KP)  12

3  THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK  14

3.1  Theoretical concepts  14

3.2  Hypotheses  17

3.3  Conceptual framework  20

4  LITERATURE REVIEW  24

4.1  Trend towards linking livelihood and conservation  24

4.2  The arguments behind local community involvement  27

4.3  Role of national international environmental NGOs and communities in ICDPs  29

4.4  Biodiversity conservation and rural development  32

4.5  Economic and other incentives  34

5  EMPIRICAL RESEARCH  36

5.1  Research methods  36

5.2  Research design and survey procedure  39

5.3  Field research instruments  40

5.4  Sample Design  41

5.5  Data collection  43

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6  RESULTS PRESENTATION AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS  45

6.1  Research findings  45

6.2  Interpretation of the findings  63

6.2.1  Results to Hypothesis 1  63

6.2.2  Results to Hypothesis 2  65

6.2.3  Results to Hypothesis 3  66

7  DISCUSSION CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS  68

7.1  Discussion  68

7.2  Conclusions  70

7.3  Recommendations  72

  REFERENCES  I

ANNEX I   VI

ANNEX II IX   

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LIST OF FIGURES

  Figure 1 Map of Cameroon also showing neighbouring countries  8

  Figure 2 Protected Area Network in Cameroon  10

  Figure 3 Korup National Park in the South West Province  12

  Figure 4 Villages in and around the KNP  13

  Figure 5 Conceptual Framework to investigate the implementation of CBC in Cameroon with  

  case study of the KNP  21

  Figure 6 No linkage  24

  Figure 7 Indirect linkage  25

  Figure 8 Direct linkage  26

  Figure 9 A general model of conservation projects  26

  Figure 10 Models of three conservation strategies  27

  Figure 11 Four sources of error in social survey research  38

  Figure 12 Fabe Village showing the structure of the houses  41

  Figure 13 Sampled Village circled in KNP and support zone  43

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1  Citizen involvement in Conservation decision-making  16

Table 2  Name of the village and population  45

Table 3  Sex  46

Table 4  Sex How old are you Cross tabulation  46

Table 5  How do you see the forest  47

Table 6  Quantitative: Why  47

Table 7  Is it important for you to have a forest with animals  47

Table 8  Quantitative: Why  47

Table 9  What do you think about conservation of the forest  48

Table 10  Quantitative argument why  48

Table 11  Have you heard about Korup Project  49

Table 12  Is it still existing  49

Table 13  Quantitative: What do you think about KP  50

Table 14  Quantitative: What were the major activities of the KP  50

Table 15  Quantitative: What were ist aims and objectives  51

Table 16  Do you have any traditional methods of conservation  52

Table 17  Quantitative: Which method and how effective is it  52

Table 18  Was your village involved and consulted in the planning and implementation of the  

  KP activities  52

Table 19  Was the creation of the KNP a good or a bad approach  53

Table 20  Quantitative: Why  53

Table 21  Did the KP contribute to the conservation of the forest  54

Table 22  How effective were the methods used  54

Table 23  Are the methods still implemented today  55

Table 24  How often did you see the KP Staff in your village  56

Table 25  Were you satisfied with the interaction of the KP Staff and local population  56

Table 26  Do they still come today  57

Table 27  Have you or your village benefited from the KP NP activities  57

Table 28  How was the end of the KP for you  58

Table 29  Has there been any change in the village due to the activities of the KNP  59

Table 30  What is the importance of the government in the KP  60

Table 31  What is the importance of the WWF in the KP  60

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Table 32  What is the importance of the EU GTZ in the KP  61

Table 33  What is your importance in the KP  62

Table 34  How do you feel now after the KP is no longer working in your village  62

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

“A” Levels Advance Level Certificate

CAP "Certificat d'Aptitude Professionnelle" (CAP)/Vocational Training Qualification

CBC Community-Based Conservation

CBCI Community-based conservation initiative

CBRMP Community Based Resource Management Project CBD Convention on Biological Diversity

CED Centre for Environment and Development

CERD Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination CI Conservation International

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora

CODEV Conservation/Development (NGO)

DED Deutscher Entwicklungs Dienst (German Development Service) DFID Department for International Development

DRC Democratic Republic of Congo

E East

EC European Commission

EU European Union

FCFA Francs of the African Financial Community, Communaute Financiere Africaine

FFI Fauna & Flora International

FPP Forest Peoples Program

FSLC First School Leaving Certificate

Ft feet

GCE General Certificate of Education

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GoC Government of Cameroon

GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit GmbH ha hectare

ICDP Integrated Conservation and Development Project

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IUCN World Conservation Union

km² square kilometre

KP Korup Project

KPA Korup Project Area

KNP Korup National Park

KREO/KOGAN Korup Rainforest Ecotourism Organisation/Korup Guide

Association

m metre

MINEF Ministry of Environment and Forestry

MSc. Master of Sciences

N North

NEMP National Environmental Management Plan

NGO Non-governmental Organisation

NP National Park

NRMC Natural Resource Management Committee

NTFP Non-timber Forest Product

ODA Overseas Development Administration

“O” Levels Ordinary Levels Certificate

PA Project Area

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

UNEP United Nations Environmental Program

USAID United States Agency for International Development

USDoD United States Department of Defence

VA Village Animator

VMC Village Management Committee

Vs Versus

WCS Wildlife Conservation Society

WWF World Wide Fund for Nature

% Percent

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GLOSSARY

Community refers to a heterogeneous group of people who share residence in the same geographic area and access to a set of local natural resources. The degree of social cohesion and differentiation, strength of common beliefs and institutions, cultural diversity and other factors vary widely within and among communities (Schmink 1999)

Community Forest is “That part of Non-permanent forest estate (not more than 5000ha) that is the object of an agreement between government and a community in which communities undertake sustainable forest management for a period of 25 years renewable”. (under Cameroon law of 1994). It is a forest established through an agreement by which the service in charge of forestry allots to a community a portion of national forest, which the community manages, preserves and exploits in its own interest (Manga et al., 2001).

Community participatory policies: Formulation of policies with the objective of involving the local stakeholders or communities in projects which affect them

Conservation refers to the long-term maintenance of ecosystem biodiversity through the management of multiple forms of resource use and preservation. The concept, as defined here, applies to the landscape scale (as opposed to genetic or species-level conservation), and includes the different human groups as well as the natural species that inhabit the ecosystem (Schmink 1999).

A Dependent variable is the value of an outcome, i.e. output. E.g the dummy variable 0 and 1

Devolution of authority is the decentralization of power and responsibilities from state level to local stakeholders and NGOs with operating authority from their institutions following the bottom-up strategy instead of top-down rule

The Dja Reserve is located in the East and South Provinces of Cameroon. It covers an area of 5,260 sq. km and is classified among the largest protected areas of the Guinea-Congolian

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tropical rain forests. The Dja Wildlife Reserve is located at the meeting point of the low Guinean area and the Congolese Basin. The Reserve accommodates a large proportion of the equatorial flora and wildlife species including such endangered species as the forest elephants, the chimpanzees, and the gorillas (Jean Lagarde BETTI).

An independent variable is any of the arguments, i.e. input or a variable on which one has control; e.g. satisfaction of interaction of park staff with local community.

Indicators are performance objectives or targets; i.e. they are concrete, specific descriptions of what one has to measure. E.g., “participatory natural resource management can only be successful if nearly everybody (more than 75%) is satisfied with the benefits, the level of participation, the methods applied and the general interaction (Ghimire and Pimbert, 1997; cited in Schmidt-Soltau, 2000).

Level of integration implies the intensity and stages of interaction of the different stakeholders.

Macro- and Micro levels: Between national institutions and local people, e.g. a forestry department vs shifting Cultivators. (Grimble et al., 1997)

Opportunity Cost is the value of the next best choice that one gives up when making a decision. Any decision that involves a choice between two or more options has an opportunity cost. E.g. forgoing forest activities like hunting to conserve the forest or maintain wildlife.

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a short-cut method of data collection. It is a methodology for action research and utilizes a range of techniques. It involves local people and outsiders from different sectors and disciplines. Outsiders facilitates local people in analyzing information, practicing critical self-awareness, taking responsibility and sharing their knowledge of life and conditions to plan and to act. (Handari 2003).

Stakeholders are different social actors, formal or informal, who can affect, or be affected by, the resource management issues at hand (Schmink 1999).

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Stakeholder analysis involves different levels of analysis and relationships to resources, including organizations, groups and individuals at international, national, regional and local levels, as well as different actors within local communities and domestic groups (Schmink 1999)

Support (buffer) zone: A 3km Peripheral Zone including 23 villages and a population of 2,700. The Peripheral Zone aims to target those people living closest to the Park boundary who necessarily bear the brunt of the costs of KNP and who have most impact on it ( KNP Management Plan 2002-2007). This was created in order to help local people find sustainable economic alternatives to the present hunting, trapping, gathering and deforesting practices in the park.

Traditional and indigenous conservation methods: These are carried out through traditional hunting seasons, NTFPs harvesting practices, establishment of sacred forest by the secret traditional societies, dealing with the problems of the environment through self or transferred experience, with the respect to certain taboos.

Traditional institutions are village or customary councils like the village traditional council e.g., the Ekpe Society for the regulation of traditional norms/customary laws.

With and Without principle: The impacts of a concrete project can be depicted as the difference between the situation with and without project. When this “With and without principle” is applied, it has to be taken into consideration that a situation without project is likely to change over the planning horizon. This holds especially for forestry projects with a long duration. If CBC is not sustainable, project costs or benefits are likely to be over- or underestimated. Additionally, only effects that are actually caused by the project are to be included in the analysis (Bergen et al., 2002; Hanusch, 1994; Olschewski, 2004; cited in Heber et al., 2006).

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ABSTRACT

Community-Based Conservation (CBC) refers to wildlife conservation efforts that involve rural people as an integral part of a wildlife conservation policy. In Africa and specifically in Cameroon, there have been changes in state policies towards natural resources management particularly forest resources. This study deals basically on Cameroon, with national forest cover of over 42% which constitutes one of its major economic resources. Since 1995, a new forest policy act was enacted (proclaimed in 1994) to accommodate two approaches, that is, Community Forestry and sustainable forest management. Conserving and enhancing biodiversity through rural peoples’ involvement was one of the components of the new forest policy act of 1995. The study analyses the conditions under which the CBC policies can be successfully implemented in Cameroon, with the case of the Korup National Park (KNP) and its support zone and the former Korup Project (KP). It also investigates the interest and the relationship of the different stakeholders concerned, especially the local community.

The thesis uses three hypotheses (which are limited to CBC), semi-structured questionnaires and secondary data to test or investigate successful policy implementation in the KNP by analysing, (i) the role the local communities, (ii) the international environmental NGOs and groups played in the former Korup Project (1988-2003) and (iii) the level of biodiversity conservation and rural development in the Korup Project Area (KPA). The study was carried out in the southern sector of the KNP with a simple-random sampling of 78 respondents out of 11 villages of the 32 villages in and around the National Park.

The results indicate: (i) low participation of the local communities in the Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) and later joint participatory biodiversity conservation and rural development approach of the KP, (ii) a difficult relationship between the international stakeholders and the local communities, and (iii) a temporary success in biodiversity conservation and a failure in rural development.

From the results, it is concluded and recommended that though the Government of Cameroon (GoC) has enacted many policies of authority devolution in the forestry and wildlife sector to include the local communities in biodiversity conservation projects, much still has to be done to practically implement these policies. Furthermore, it is recommended that a better interactive relationship be established between future project authorities and the local

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communities. This would then most probably enhance successful joint participatory biodiversity conservation and rural development in the KPA.

Although more research is needed, the study indicates that it is not too late to successfully implement a community-based biodiversity project which will reduce pressure in the KNP and at the same time enhance rural development for the communities in and around the Park.

Keywords: Community-Based Biodiversity Conservation, Integrated Conservation and Development Project, local communities, Korup National Park, Korup Project.

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ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

In Afrika - speziell in Kamerun - gab es in der Vergangenheit bezüglich des Naturressourcenmanagements und dort im speziellen gegenüber der Waldressource bemerkenswerte Veränderungen in der politischen Linie. Diese Studie befasst sich im Wesentlichen mit Kamerun, dessen Waldfläche über 42% umfasst, und somit eines der wertvollsten Ressourcen des Landes darstellt. Seit 1995 greift eine „neue“ Forststrategie, welche zwei Ansätze miteinander verbinden soll: Gemeindewald und nachhaltige Forstverwaltung. Community-Based Conservation (CBC) bezieht sich auf Bemühungen des Wildtierschutzes unter Einbeziehung der ländlichen Bevölkerung als ein integraler Bestandteil von Wildlife Conservation Policy. Erhaltung und Erhöhung der Artvielfalt unter Einbeziehung der ländlichen Bevölkerung ist eine zentrale Komponente der „neuen“ Forststrategie von 1995. Die Studie analysiert die Bedingungen unter denen die politischen Leitlinien des CBC erfolgreich in Kamerun umgesetzt werden konnten bzw. können. Besonderer Bezug wird hierbei genommen auf den Korup National Park (KNP) und das ehemalige Korup Project (KP). Außerdem wird das Interesse und die Beziehung zwischen den verschiedenen stakeholders untersucht – im Speziellen die der lokalen Gemeinde.

Die Arbeit basiert auf drei Hypothesen (begrenzt auf CBC), den Ergebnissen aus einem halbstandardisierten Fragebogen und Sekundärliteratur. Dies dient dazu, zu erfahren, ob und wie erfolgreich der KNP war bzw. ist. Hierzu werden analysiert, (i) die Rolle der lokalen Gemeinden, (ii) die internationalen Umwelt-NGOs und ähnliche Akteure im ehemaligen Korup Projekt (1988-2003), und (iii) der Level von Artenvielfaltschutz und ländlicher Entwicklung in dem Korup Project Gebiet (KPA). Die Studie wurde in dem südlichen Sektor des KNP durchgeführt. Die Interviewpartner wurden durch einfache Zufallsauswahl zur Befragung ermittelt. Insgesamt wurden in 11 von 32 Dörfern in und um den Nationalpark 78 Befragungen durchgeführt.

Die Ergebnisse deuten an: (i) geringe Beteiligung der lokalen Gemeinden im Integrated Conservation and Development Project (ICDP) und späteren gemeinschaftlich mitwirkenden Artvielfaltschutz- und ländlichen Entwicklungsansatz des KP, (ii) eine schwierige Beziehung zwischen internationalen stakeholders und den lokalen Gemeinden, und (iii) einen kurzweiligen Erfolg im Artenvielfaltschutz und ein Scheitern in der ländlichen Entwicklung. Aus den Ergebnissen lässt sich schließen: trotz des Erlasses entsprechender politischer

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Richtlinien zur Dezentralisierung im Bereich Forst und Wildlife (unter Einbeziehung der lokalen Gemeinden in Artvielfaltschutzprojekte) durch die kamerunische Regierung (GoC), fehlt es noch an Erfolgen in der praktischen Umsetzung. Darüber hinaus empfiehlt sich eine bessere interaktive Beziehung zwischen zukünftigen Projektleitungen und den betroffenen lokalen Gemeinden. Das würde sehr wahrscheinlich zu einer Verbesserung des gemeinschaftlich mitwirkenden Artvielfaltschutzes und ländlichen Entwicklung in der KPA führen.

Auch wenn weitere Forschung erforderlich ist, deutet diese Studie darauf hin, dass es nicht zu spät ist, erfolgreich ein CBC-Projekt durchzuführen. Es erscheint plausibel, dass ein solches Projekt den Nutzungsdruck of den KNP reduziert und gleichzeitig zur Verbesserung der ländlichen Entwicklung in Gemeinden in und um den Park beiträgt.

Schlüsselwörter: Community-Based Biodiversity Conservation, Integrated Conservation and Development Project, lokale Gemeinden, Korup National Park, Korup Project.

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1 INTRODUCTION

In Africa and specifically in Cameroon, there has been changes in state policies towards natural resource management; particularly forest resources. Cameroon has a national forest cover of 42% (CERD, 1997) which constitutes one of its major economic resources. Since 1995, a new forest policy act was enacted (proclaimed in 1994) to accommodate two approaches, that is, Community Forestry and Sustainable Forest Management. Conserving and enhancing biodiversity through rural peoples involvement was one of the components of the new forest policy act of 1995. This was done with the aim of protecting the environment and conserving resources and also as a mechanism to alleviate poverty through rural development. And like most other less industrialised countries, which have tried to implement new forest laws or direct participation of the local communities in forest management, Cameroon has had its successes and failures in formulating and implementing such new laws.

The Government of Cameroon (GoC) with its new forest policy of 1994 represented an important step towards addressing sustainable renewable resource management in the context of an overall national development strategy. The new forest law defined the regulatory basis for management of the forest estate. The law provides participation of local communities in the management of certain categories of gazetted forests, and requires the preparation and implementation of government-approved management plans for forests to be re-gazetted under the law as a prerequisite for granting future timber concessions.

The effectiveness of this law has since then been dependent on the government's capacity to develop management plans for sustainable forest exploitation and biodiversity conservation on a participatory basis and to monitor and enforce their implementation, especially in gazetted areas. Though the protected areas management approaches that involve the participation of local communities are now being widely promoted all over in Cameroon, the impacts of such Community-Based Conservation Initiatives on local communities remain poorly defined. This also includes national parks like the Korup National Park (KNP).

Historically, most of Cameroon’s national parks have been established in the more accessible savannah zone, in the North of the country. It was only at the beginning of the fourth quarter of the last century, with the growing interest in biodiversity conservation and concern over

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deforestation that more attention has been paid by western conservationists, with pressure on some West and Central African states, to the conservation of tropical rainforests. It was in this light that in the early 1980s due to “the rising awareness of conservation, and especially the willingness of international donors to support conservation of the tropical rainforest in Cameroon, that resulted in the creation of the KNP by presidential decree No. 86/1283, October 30, 1986, in 1986” (Schmidt-Soltau, 2004) as the first lowland tropical rainforest National Park.

1.1 Problem setting

Community-Based Conservation (CBC) management is gaining grounds year after year in Cameroon propagated by international and national NGOs, the Cameroon government and local communities. Community forests, gazetted areas like forest reserves and national parks have been created with the consultation of local and indigenous populations. International and state financed projects and programmes have been carried out in the last two decades to sustainably manage and conserve biodiversity through the communities involved.

The KNP stands as a model, with conflicts and harmony for the implementation of a variety of biological diversity conservation policies in Cameroon. Since its inception in 1986, the KNP has seen many changes in policy implementation, from state control, through support of environmental NGOs with Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs), sustainable and participatory natural resource management, with local community involvement.

Since the onset of the idea of a national park in Korup, the creation of the KNP itself and the Korup Project (KP, the main interest of the study) that followed, much research and surveys have been carried out to review the formulation, planning and implementation of policies in the Korup Project Area (KPA, which is the KNP and its support zone). This however, has not really led to outstanding results to set an example to other park managements. And as Ruth Malleson (2000:295) in her dissertation described, “the KP’s socio-economic survey provided much important information and sound recommendations; but the project’s failure to make use of it and revise its rural development strategy in the light of the findings meant that the project continued to make poor progress and errors that could have been avoided”. How far this failure contributes to the end results of the KP and influences the continuous management

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of the KNP, with the importance of information flow in rational resource management and planning will be analyzed by this study.

The final phase of the KP in the South West of Cameroon was full of conflicts, distrust and mismanagement. Even though this phase of the project was oriented towards integrated community involvement, its impacts still have to be fully studied. An impact assessment was commissioned, which came out with results in June 2000 and reported to the then project staff. The findings of the research was a problem and as its author puts it, “it was an open secret that a good number of villages had informed the Korup Project that they were not interested in any further cooperation and that the Korup staff were not allowed to enter their villages or traditionally owned forest areas” (Schmidt-Soltau 2004: 111).

Although literally much is known about the stakeholders and the defined roles that they are supposed to play in conservation projects or programmes, the practicality on the field comes out with conflicting results. Officially, the KP which ended in 2003 was supposed to be an ICDP or a CBC with a development component, which implies the full involvement of the locals or indigenous people. Reports from many researches carried out in the area have proven otherwise. Studying the level and effects of conservation and development in the area three years after the end of the KP, will on the one hand confirm or shed more light on some of similar researches that were carried out during the project’s lifespan and on the other hand demonstrate the impacts, benefits or price endured, acquired or paid respectively by the local communities in the KPA after the end of the project.

This research study analysed the conditions under which the CBC concepts can be successfully implemented in Cameroon, investigating the interest and the relationship of the different stakeholders concerned with focus on the local community.

Using the theory on CBC, the successes and failures in the approaches in management, the social effects and how they impact the local community will be analysed in the thesis. In doing this, the research will come up with recommendations for the policy makers and also proposals to the local communities on how to better plan, coordinate and implement CBC policies.

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