Account for differences in the development of physical education in Britain and Germany in the nineteenth century

specific form of physical exercises but also how it also evoked an ideology of community and national spirit.

Britain, in contrast, is regarded as the birthplace of modern sport and athleticism. 4 The moral climate of the Victorian Era as well as the increasing predominance of commercial competition underlies this development. Public schools played a crucial role in the shaping and disemination of concepts of modern sport. Thererfore, I focus on the influence of public schools in particular.

The development of Turnen in Germany

At the end of the eighteenth century concepts for physical education developed above all from the Philanthropists, who provided the German elite education in the eighteenth century. 5 The Philanthropists shared ROUSSEAU’s concept of educating the ‘whole indivi- dual’ (den ganzen Menschen) through physical, sensual and intellectual experiences. Their aim was to ‘create’ healthy, capable, virtuous citizens. 6

The scholar Johann Christoph Friedrich GUTSMUTHS (1759 – 1839) in particular marked the roots of German physical education. In his book Gymnastik für die Jugend (1793) he compiled the contemporary knowledge on physical education and advanced the theory and practice of gymnastics. His compilation contains not only a large collection of exercises including climbing, running, jumping and swimming, but also games and play. Moreover, he underpinned the need for physical activities with the humanistic ideas. Henceforth, he became the most important mentor for both in following generations.

GUTSMUTHS` concept had a great influence on Friedrich Ludwig JAHN (1778 – 1852). The Berlin teacher is generally regarded as the ‘father of Turnen’ (Turnvater Jahn). ‘Jahn invented the term Turnen in order to place these exercises within the Germanistic tradition and also to create a technical term for a new form of physical culture.’ 7 In the book Die deutsche Turnkunst (1816) Jahn and his co-author Eiselen refer to the ideals of the pilanthropistic education:

‘Die Turnkunst soll die verlorengegangene Gleichmäßigkeit der menschlichen Bildung wieder herstellen,

der bloß einseitigen Vergeistigung die wahre Leibhaftigkeit zuordnen, der Überfeinerung in der

4 I use both terms without distinction between both.

5 Allen Guttmann, Games and Empire. Modern Sports and Cultural Imperialism. New York, 1994.

6 Krüger ibid. 34

7 Pfister, ibid., p. 65.

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wiedergewonnenen Männlichkeit das notwendigen Gegengewicht geben und im jugendlichen

Zusammenleben den ganzen Menschen umfassen und ergreifen.’ 8

Balance between body and mind was the key in JAHN’s education concept, whose romantic ideals applied to the prevailing beliefs in Germany at this time.

In addition, Turnen was set up ‘as part of a drive toward a ‘nationalist’ education’. 9 There is not enough space to give a detailed account of the social, economic and political circumstances that had an influence on the ideology of the Turner Movement. But the following has to be borne in mind: at the beginning of the nineteenth century Germany was fragmented into separate kingdoms and duchies. While in other nations like Britain or France a new social order was established by citizens, the feudal regime still remained in Germany. Moreover, Germany was occupied by the French army under NAPOLEON I. Hence, many nationalistic forces fought to liberate the nation from French hegemony and to overthrow the feudal order in order to create a liberal nation governed by citizens. Related to this circumstances is the fact that the focus of Turnen firstly was on military exercises. In fact, JAHN’s training included different kinds of ‘war games’ to prepare the pupil for the potential combat for the liberation of the nation. Therefore PFISTER notes: ‘The body was not supposed to be exercised for its own sake or because of some abstract achievement but in the view of its military usefulness’ 10 This assumption fundamentally differs from other physical education concepts at this time. Certainly, adherents of sport in Britain also underpin their attitude by certain ideas about manliness and ‘struggle of life’ but the explicit military orientation of the German Turner was unique. 11

At the beginning the concept of Turnen arose from very practical ideas. JAHN considered games as the best ways to keeping discipline and to strengthen pupils at the same time. But his system was not geared comparing performance but rather to join a community and subordinate in a group of like-minded people. 12 In more recent studies in sport history JAHN’s concept is regarded as ‘boisterous’ and less structured. 13

9 Pfister, ibid., p.65.

10 ibid., p 66

11 ibid.

12 see Krüger ibid.

13 i.a. Guttmann, ibid. 142, Krüger ibid.

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JAHN’s quotation above also points out that Turnen evolved as a ‘contribution to forming ideals of masculinity’. 14 It appealed to boys in particular. Hence, it reinforced the assumption of a dichotomy between genders, underpinned by the myth of male strength and female weakness.

Turnen consisted not only of physical exercise, but also included patriotic speeches, traditional songs, lessons about German history and excursions as well as other conjoint activities like hiking tours and festivals. Thus, Turnen had very strong political implications. It was aimed for widespread public education and reinforcing patriotic spirit. Terms like Volk and Volkstum played a significant role in the concept of Turnen at first. 15 It is apparent that those terms as well as JAHN’s heritage and the tribute to the Turnen flourished under the National Socialist regime. 16 Also in the GDR JAHN’s approach appealed to the ideology of the regime. Hence, what arose as a nationalistic liberation movement became coopted by totalitarian regimes to buttress its ideologies. Thus, the ideals which underlie Turnen at the beginning seem to be compatible to totalitarian ideals according to its focusing on nationalistic and authoritarian values.

Due to subversive activities 17 Turnen was banned in 1819. But when Friedrich

WILHELM IV. claimed power in Prussia in 1842 the ban was lifted and within short time

Turnen was implemented in education curriculum in schools. In 1846 Turnunterricht became compulsory in secondary schools in Saxony. Other German areas followed Saxony in 1862. According to KRÜGER, medical aspects underpinned the importance of Turnunterricht. 18

To this date, two specific institutions mainly provide physical education and training in Germany: the school and associations (Vereine). The roots of both traces back to the circumstances in the mid-nineteenth century.

The development of Turnvereine began in the Restoration Era. At first, Turnen was strongly connected with revolutionary forces. The liberal Turner movement was borne by Männerturnvereinen, which consist mainly of middle class men. They created a specific Turn- Kultur including specific rituals, symbols and festivals. 19 Turnvereine considered themselves as institution of education (‘Bildungseinrichtungen’). A great importance had had the nationwide

14 Pfister, ibid., p.71.

15 See Krüger ibid., Pfister, ibid. p 65.

16 See Michael Krüger, Einführung in die Geschichte der Leibeserziehung und des Sports Band 10, Schorndorf 1993. 17 In March 1819 the poet August von Kotzebue was killed by Karl Ludwig Sand, a keen adherent of the Turner Movement. This assassination was taken as an inducement to implement the Karlsbader Beschlüsse, which included inter alia the ban on the Turner movement.

18 Krüger ibid., p. 75.

19 ibid., p. 96.

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Turnfest in Heilbronn in 1846. More than 1200 participants from 35 Turnvereinen came to together to celebrate, play and share national spirit. 20 But at this time the creation of a German Turner association failed. Instead, the Turner movement split, because of a clash between divergent groups of Turner. Because of this clash, and in connection with the abortive revolution in 1848, the Turner movement experienced a harsh set-back in the middle of the century. But in 1860 Turnen turned up confidently. In this year the Erste Deutsche Turnerschaft (DT) was founded in Berlin. In the same year the first Turnfest after the revolution in 1848 was held in Coburg. Henceforth, Turnfeste were celebrated at irregular intervals in different places in Germany - and abroad. Turnen spread out by means of travelling businessmen and German emigrants all over the world – to the United States in particular. 21

The development of Turnvereine led broad institutional patterns of physical culture - a culture that evolved in accordance to social developments e.g. the implementation of leisure time in contrast to working shifts, the creation of worker’s Turnvereinen connected to certain companies or political parties, as well as women clubs in accordance with the growing emancipation movement. Moreover, in the second half of the nineteenth century the government encouraged the culture of Turnvereine. 22 There is not enough space go further in detail. But indeed, the development of Turnvereine itself offers a comprehensive field of research.

Regarding the implementation of Turnen as a school subject, Adolf SPIEß (1810-1858) played a significant role. He took on Jahn’s model of physical education and merged it with PESTALOZZI’s approach to education to create a comprehensive concept of physical educa- tion. Hence, SPIEß promoted a broad system of exercises, which were compatible to the re- quirements of the educational curriculum at this time. His training was characterized by body control, discipline and order. In contrast to JAHN, for SPIEß physical education mainly was a matter of health. Thus, he recognised the need to teach boys and girls in physical exercises.

JAHN’s follower Hans Ferdinand MAßMANN (1791-1874) offered an alternative to SPIEß’s system. He pleaded for public Turnplätze. Maßmann’s approach was exclusively

20 See Krüger ibid., p. 125.

21 Guttmann ibid., p 142.

22 e.g. public authorities provided and maintained training fields, facilities, and equipment und so on for public utilisation.

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