The Kyoto Protocol

  The Kyoto Protocol  

Table of contents

Table of  contents  I

Table of  pictures  III

Table of  short cuts  III

1.  Climate Change  1

1.1.  Greenhouse Effect  1

1.2.  CO2  3

2.  The Kyoto Protocol  5

2.1.  Definition of “The Kyoto Protocol  5

2.2.  Definition of “Conference of the Parties  5

2.3.  Background and History of the Kyoto Protocol  6

3.  Framework of the Kyoto Protocol  11

4.  Content of the Kyoto Protocol  12

5.  Commitments and Measures fixed in the KP (Article 2 )  13

6.  Articles of the Kyoto Protocol  14

6.1.  Emission Limitation (Article 3 )  14

6.2  Mechanisms  15

6.2.1  Emission Trading (Article 17 ):  16

6.2.2  Joint Implementation (JI - Article 6 ):  16

6.2.3  Clean Development Mechanism (CDM):  17

7.  Final Provisions of the Kyoto Protocol  18

8.  Participating Countries  19

9.  Benefits / expected results of the Kyoto Protocol  20

10.  Problems and limitations of the Kyoto Protocol  21

11.  Positions of governments  22

11.1  The US and Australia - the Kyoto Protocol’s Opponents  22

11.2  Russia - the rescuer of the Protocol  24

11.3  Canada - the finally convinced  25

11.4  The European Union - the major supporters  25

11.5  developing countries - the members in the background  26

12.  Outlook  27

Table of  literature  14

II

Picture 1-1 Temperature line ................................................................................... 1 Picture 1-2 CO2 concentration ................................................................................ 3 Picture 1-3 Greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 ................................................... 26

Table of short cuts

GWP Global Warming Potential ppmv parts per million by volume UNEP United Nations Enviromental Program IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change CoP Conference of the Parties FCCC Framework Convention on Climate Change CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons US United States SCCF Special Climate Change Fund GHGs Greenhouse Gases CDM Clean Developement Mechanism

III

1. Climate Change

The global climate consists of the atmosphere/earth/ocean/ice/land system. The result of a change in this system is climate change. One sign for climate change is the rise of the temperature. There are natural forces or human activities which can cause climate change. Following I will describe the human activities which are causing the climate change. 1

Source: UNEP (http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/02.htm)

Picture 1-1 Temperature line

1.1. Greenhouse Effect

The Earth has a natural temperature control system. The greenhouse gases belong to this system. Following we can see the main greenhouse gases:

Water vapor:

It is a kind of gaseous water (individual water molecules) in the atmosphere.

Carbon dioxide (CO2):

This gas gets into the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas, and coal), and wood or wood products are burned.

Nitrous oxide (N2O):

It is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.

¹ Newscientist (www.newscientist.com/.../ ^{climate/climatefaq.jsp)} 1 Claudia Körber winter semester 2004/05

Methane (CH4):

CH4 emitted during production and transport of fossil fuels (coal, natural gas, and oil), from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills, and the raising of livestock.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs):

These are man-made chemicals containing chlorine, fluorine, and carbon. CFCs are used for industrial purposes and in the home for refrigeration, air conditioning, aerosols, foam blowing, and chemical solvents. CFCs alter the greenhouse effect by absorbing additional solar radiation. CFCs also destroy the protective ozone layer in the atmosphere that shields the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Ozone (O3):

This is a gaseous molecule that contains three oxygen atoms (O3). Ozone can exist either high in the atmosphere, where it shields the Earth against harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, or close to the ground, where it is the main component of smog. Ground-level ozone is a product of reactions involving hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides in the presence of sunlight. Ozone is a potent irritant that causes lung damage and a variety of respiratory problems. 2

Those gases are very important because they trap the heat in the atmosphere instead of allowing it to radiate back into space, the way glass traps heat in a greenhouse. Except for chlorofluorocarbons, greenhouse gases are natural components of the atmosphere. So the greenhouse effect is a natural process. Without this process, the earth would be about 60 degrees cooler than it is today, and life as we know it would not be possible.

Unfortunately are our activities increasing the levels of the mentioned gases in the atmosphere, which is causing global warming. 3

The six GHGs addressed by the Kyoto Protocol are: Carbon dioxide (C02), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N20), Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) and Sulphur hexafluoride (SF4). I just explaind CO2, CH4 and N2O. Now I will give a definition about the other three gases.

² Lara Jill Rosenblith (http://environment.about.com/od/kyotoprotocol/a/aa090402a.htm)

^{3 Heather E. Lindsay (http://www.csa.com/hottopics/ern/01jul/overview.html)} 2 Claudia Körber winter semester 2004/05

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs):

HFCs are recently developed substitutes for chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). HFCs, because they contain no chlorine, do not damage the ozone layer in the Earth's upper atmosphere

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs):

PFCs are chemicals composed of one or two carbon atoms and four to six fluorine atoms, containing no chlorine. PFCs have no commercial uses and are emitted as a byproduct of aluminum smelting.

Sulphur hexafluoride (SF4):

It is a colorless gas that is soluble in alcohol and ether; a powerful greehouse gas widely used in the electrical utility industry. 4

One of the main greenhouse gases is CO2.

1.2. CO2

A main point for the increasing of the greenhouse effect is the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas). Carbon is kept in those fuels, formed millions of years ago from organic matter. When we are burning them the carbon returns to the atmosphere in form of carbon dioxide (CO2). This is the gas that contributes most to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Source: Sripps Institution of oceanography (SiO), University of California, 1998

Picture 1-2 CO2 concentration

CO 2 concentrations in the atmosphere have been measured at an altitude of about 4,000 meters on the Peak of Mauna Loa Mountain in Hawaii since 1958. The measurements at this location, far away from local sources of pollution, have clearly shown that atmospheric concentrations of CO 2 are increasing.

^{4 www.evomarkets.com/ghg_glossary.html} 3 Claudia Körber winter semester 2004/05

CO2 has increased rapidely since the beginning of the industrialization. ⁵ The main part of carbon dioxide emissions comes from energy production, industrial processes and transport. Most of those activities are practiced in the developed countries. So the rich countries of the world historically have emitted most of the greenhouse gases since the start of the industrial revolution. The non-industrialised countries which started to increase their population's standard of living, thereby also caused an increase of their emissions of greenhouse gases. Thus there is a closely connection between economic development and energy production.

Land use, particularly deforestation, also contributes to the accumulation of greenhouse gases. Other natural processes like plant respiration, sea-surface exchange of gases, and natural decay of residue also give off carbon dioxide, while plant photosynthesis and the oceans absorb it from the atmosphere. Each year, natural processes add and remove about the same amount of carbon from the atmosphere. ⁶ Unfortunately the human beings disturb this natural balance.

⁵ UNEP (http://www.grida.no/climate/vital/02.htm)

^{6 Heather E. Lindsay (http://www.csa.com/hottopics/ern/01jul/overview.html)} 4 Claudia Körber winter semester 2004/05

2. The Kyoto Protocol

It is not easy to stop global warming. It is necessary to set strict emissions standards if we want to stop the increasing of the greenhouse effect. We have to reduce our fossil fuel use, develope alternative sources of energy to replace fossil fuels, remove carbon dioxide from emissions at the source, eliminate the use of chlorofluorocarbons, slow or stop deforestation, and develope agricultural techniques that release less carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

The most recent international effort to address the greenhouse effect is the Kyoto Protocol.

2.1. Definition of “The Kyoto Protocol”

Kyoto Protocol: An international agreement reached in Kyoto at the Third Conference of the Parties to the U. N. Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP 3) in 1997. The Protocol established specific targets and timetables for reductions in greenhouse gas emissions to be achieved by the framework’s signatories.

http://www.pacificforest.org/about/glossary.html (pacificforest)

2.2. Definition of “Conference of the Parties”

Before I start to discribe the background and history of the Kyoto Protocol I will give a short definition about “The Conference of the Parties”.

The Kyoto Protocol startet with a CoP therefore it is necessary to know what the CoP is.

Conference of the Parties: The CoP is the collection of nations which have ratified the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), currently over 150 strong, and about 50 Observer States. The primary role of the CoP is to keep the implementation of the Convention under review and to take the decisions necessary for the effective implementation of the Convention. The first CoP (CoP 1) took place in Berlin from March 28th to April 7th, 1995, and was attended by over 1000 observers and 2000 media representatives. www.puc.ohio.gov/consumer/gcc/defn.html

5 Claudia Körber winter semester 2004/05