Learning a foreign language is complex and unpredictable. Furthermore, speaking different languages is becoming increasingly important in today’s globalized world. However, it requires several strategies to gain the best possible result. Relevant challenges are problems related to memory, personality, culture shock, communicating with native speakers and boring and traditional teaching methods.
What is the most effective way of learning a foreign language? What is happening in our mind when we are learning a foreign language and how can adult learners overcome their personal challenges? Dr. Jacqueline Żammit explores the use of Maltese verbs by thirty-five non-native learners from all walks of life and different parts of the world to better understand and improve the language learning process.
To provide practical advice to foreign language learners, the author explores the acquisition of Maltese, which could easily be applied to any other foreign language acquisition. The book adopts chaos/complexity theory (C/CT) as a conceptual framework in a unique way and interprets the process of learning from both cognitive and sociocultural perspectives. It addresses any foreign language learner as well as teachers, lecturers, and school administrators. For methodical reasons, the book is also interesting for linguistic researchers. Furthermore, education policymakers will benefit from the findings, especially when it comes to understanding students’ and adult learners’ learning curves and language learning challenges.
This academic textbook is truly remarkable as each chapter starts with a funny comic-strip and a quotation. Join thirty-five adult non-native speakers as they overcome challenges and develop strategies to learn Maltese as a foreign language!
Happy Reading!
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Learning Maltese as a second language (ML2)
Research Questions
How will this study be an original contribution to knowledge on the subject?
2 UNDERSTANDING INTERLANGUAGE THROUGH CHAOS/COMPLEXITY THEORY
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Interlanguage
2.2.1 Interlanguage variability
Systematic variability
2.2.2 The risk of ‘fossilization’ in second language acquisition
2.2.3 Fossilization
‘Language Transfer’
‘Training Transfer’
‘Overgeneralization’
2.3 Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT)
Introducing C/CT
2.3.1 What are the characteristics of C/CT in SLA?
Dynamic
Complex
Nonlinear
Chaotic
Unpredictability
Butterfly Effect: Sensitivity to Initial Conditions
Open
Self-Organization
Feedback-Sensitive
Adaptive
Strange Attractor in SLA
Fractal Pattern
2.4 C/CT, SLA, Interlanguage and Teaching and Learning
3 THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
3.1 What is Cognitivism?
3.2 From Behaviourism to Cognitivism
3.3 Universal Grammar
3.3.1 Principles and Parameters
3.3.2 Is UG accessible in adult SLA?
3.3.3 Criticism of Universal Grammar
3.3.4 Criticism of the Cognitive Theories of Language Acquisition
3.4 The Age debate
3.4.1 Implicit and Explicit knowledge
3.4.2 Memory issues and forgetfulness in adults acquiring a second language
4 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A SOCIOCULTURAL PHENOMENON
4.1 Introduction
4.2 The Constructivist Approach to Learning a Second Language
The Social Constructivist Perspective on SLA
4.3 The Sociocultural Theory as proposed by Vygotsky
4.3.1 Cultural Mediation and Internalization
Self-Regulation
4.3.2 Private Inner Speech
4.3.3 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Scaffolding
Expert-Learner Interaction and the Comprehensible Input
4.3.4 Lockenean Theory of Language
4.3.5 Output and SLA
Interaction
4.3.6 Activity Theory
4.3.7 Affectivity and Learner’s Motivation
4.4 The Culture Shock Stages
4.5 Criticism of SCT
5 TENSE AND ASPECT IN MALTESE PERFETT AND IMPERFETT
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Definition of Tense and Aspect
5.3 An Overview of the Maltese Language
5.3.1 Learning Maltese tense and aspect as an L2
5.4 The Lack of an Infinitive Form
5.4.1 The similarities between Semitic languages and Maltese
5.5 The Perfett and Imperfett
Mood, Tense and Aspect
5.5.1 Person, Gender and Number
5.5.2 Perfett forms
5.5.3 The imperfett
A future time adverbial
A past habitual or past progressive interpretation
5.5.4 Maltese Verb Chains
5.6 Active/Present Participles
5.7 The ‘Qed’ Construction
5.8 The Future and its Markers sa/se, ser, sejjer and ħa
6 METHODOLOGY: THE PARTICIPANTS AND THE DATA COLLECTION
6.1 An Overview
6.2 Pragmatic Research Philosophy
6.3 Mixed Methods Research Design
6.3.1 Triangulation
6.4 Longitudinal Research Design
Data Collection Instruments
6.5 Validity and Reliability
6.5.1 Validity Approaches
6.5.2 Reliability
6.6 Study Aims and Research Questions
6.7 My Role in the Research
6.8 The Sample Size and the Sampling Method
6.8.1 The margin of error in terms of statistical analysis
6.8.2 The participants
6.9 The Pilot Study
6.9.1 The findings of the pilot study
The profile questionnaire
The pilot study of the picture interpretation speaking task
The pilot study of the reflective journal task
The interview pilot study
The TGJT pilot study
Pilot study of the verb conjugation task
6.10 Data Collection
6.10.1 Capturing implicit and explicit knowledge
6.11 The data collection instruments
6.11.1 Administration of the profile questionnaire
Research Question A
6.11.2 Timed Grammaticality Judgment Test
6.11.3 Retrospection of TGJT
6.11.4 The design and procedure for the verb conjugation task
Statistical Analysis of TGJT and VC
Research Question B
6.11.5 Picture Interpretation Speaking Task
6.11.6 Administration of the picture interpretation speaking tasks
6.11.7 Stimulated recall methodology and analysis
Research Question C
6.11.8 The Reflective Journal Task
Reflective journal procedure
Timeline and procedure for the reflective journal data collection
6.11.9 Administration of one-on-one interviews
Analysis of reflective journals and interviews
6.12 Validity Procedures
6.12.1 The validity of Research Question A’s Quantitative Measures
6.12.2 The ML2 participants’ performance on the tests’ weak candidates
7 UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING CHALLENGES
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The interviews
1. Do you learn languages just like other subjects?
2. Do you learn Maltese like other languages?
3. Are you more or less motivated now than before to learn Maltese?
4. Do you still study Maltese for the same reasons as previously?
5. Has your Maltese linguistic confidence improved?
6. Do you enjoy learning Maltese verbs in groups, in pairs, at lifelong learning centre, or on your own?
7. Do you find any areas of learning Maltese which are particularly interesting, enjoyable, dull, complicated, simple, frivolous ...?
8. What is your main problem in learning Maltese verbs?
9. What is your opinion about the best way to learn Maltese verbs?
7.3 The reflective journals
The learner’s beliefs related to their language learning
Interaction in Maltese
The learners’ self-assessment of their learning process
7.4 The difficulties faced by ML2 participants
7.4.1 Interruption in ML2 Study
7.4.2 Culture Shock
7.4.3 The Learners’ Loss of Memory due to Aging
7.4.4 Frustration due to Slow Progress (‘Stagnation’) in Learning Maltese
7.4.5 Problems in the initial learning stages
7.4.6 Exam-Triggered Anxiety and Self-doubt
7.4.7 The differences between the participant’s L1 and ML2
7.4.8 Lack of Metalinguistic Awareness
7.4.9 Knowing Arabic as an L1 or L2
7.4.10 Personality Characteristics: Extroversion versus Introversion
7.4.11 Problems while interacting in Maltese
7.4.12 Mood-Related Problems
7.4.13 Lack of Appropriate Affordances
7.4.14 Lack of Appropriate and Timely Corrective Feedback
7.4.15 Inadequate Language Support from Maltese Partners
7.4.16 Teaching Methodologies
7.4.17 Different learning styles
7.4.18 The Relationship between the learning rate and the teacher’s pedagogy
8 EXPLORING THE STATISTICAL FINDINGS
8.1 The Learning Pattern
8.2 Judgments on which learning curves are based
8.2.1 The most commonly misjudged TGJT sentences by ML2 participants
8.2.2 The most common mistakes in VC sentences by ML2 participants
8.2.3 The TGJT and VC Mean Scores and the different Data Months
A Slight Improvement on TGJT2 and VC2 mean scores in May 2016
A Slight Decline on TGJT3 and VC3 mean scores in October 2016
A Slight Improvement on TGJT4 and VC4 mean scores in January 2017
Exponential Learning on TGJT5 and TGJT6 and VC5 and VC6 mean scores in March and May 2017
8.3 Different Learning Curves
8.4 Fractal Pattern in TGJT and VC scores
8.5 Summary
9 DISCUSSING THE TYPE OF VERB CHOICE FINDINGS
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The Frequencies of the perfett and imperfett forms used by the participants
9.3 Samples of three ML2 Cases and their Choice of Verb Forms
9.3.1 The Correlation between TGJT and VC tasks and the production of perfett and imperfett
9.4 The Influence of First Language on Second Language Acquisition
9.4.1 The Interlanguage Hypothesis
9.4.2 Time Reference and Context
9.5 Reasons why ML2 learners used the imperfett when describing the pictures
9.5.1 The Choice of verb form and the participants’ L1 teaching and learning
9.6 The Reasons given by the participants for their chosen verb form
9.7 Summary
10 CLOSURE
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Contribution to knowledge
10.3 Pedagogical Implications
10.4 The Research Questions
Research Question A
Research Question B
Research Question C
10.5 Limitations of the study
The Sample Size
The Data Collection Instruments
The Learning Curves
10.6 Recommendations for Further Research
11 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
11.1 The participant profile questionnaire
11.2 Measuring SLA from a cognitive perspective
11.2.1 Background to Grammaticality Judgment Tests (GJTs)
11.2.2 The Binary Scale
11.2.3 Retrospection of TGJT and VC
11.3 Statistical Measurements and visual representation of Interlanguage
11.3.1 Drawing of illustrative GeoGebra Sketches of the Learning Curves
11.3.2 Learning curves
11.3.3 SPSS Statistical Measures
ANOVA
Pearson Correlation Coefficients between TGJT and VC mean graphs
Multiple Regression Analysis
R2-coefficient of determination
SLA studies that used Multiple Regression
11.4 Measuring SLA from a sociocognitive perspective
11.4.1 Picture interpretation speaking tasks
11.4.2 Stimulated recall methodology
11.5 Measuring SLA from a sociocultural perspective
11.5.1 The Reflective Journal Task
11.5.2 Limitations of reflective journal data collection
11.6 The Individual Learning Curves
11.6.1 Learning Curve 1
Analysis of Learning Curve 1
Variation 1a of Learning Curve 1
11.6.2 Learning Curve 2
Analysis of Learning Curve 2
11.6.3 Learning Curve 3
11.6.4 Learning Curve 4
11.6.5 Learning Curve 5
11.6.6 Learning Curve 6
Variation 6a of Learning Curve 6
Research Objectives and Topics
This study aims to investigate the acquisition of verbal tense and aspect in Maltese by adult non-native learners at an intermediate level. It seeks to determine if these learners follow a predictable pattern over time, how their production of certain verb forms compares to native speakers, and what primary difficulties they encounter during their learning process. By adopting a mixed-methods design and utilizing frameworks like Chaos/Complexity Theory, the research explores the non-linear, unpredictable nature of second language acquisition.
- Acquisition of Maltese verbal tense and aspect (perfett vs. imperfett).
- Application of Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT) to second language acquisition.
- Identification of common learning challenges faced by adult learners of Maltese.
- Use of longitudinal research and statistical analysis to observe non-linear learning patterns.
- The influence of first language (L1) background on L2 performance.
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2.2 Interlanguage
As with many things, it takes time for a learner to completely master an L2. When learning the L2, learners adopt what is referred to as an interlanguage (see Figure 2.1). The interlanguage hypothesis is the most theoretically developed and investigated approach to the study of L2 users’ proficiency (Stern, 1983; Davies, 2013). The Interlanguage hypothesis developed in the 1960s and 1970s, has been linked to Larry Selinker (1972), who created the terms “interlanguage” and “fossilization” (Davies, 2013). It is concerned with the errors in L2 user’s output as an indication of learning (Davies, 2013), and considers that the human brain has a dormant psychological framework which is working when an individual is trying to learn an L2.
The concept of interlanguage attempts to explain how an L2 user comprehends, acquires and uses the L2 linguistic patterns (Dufour & Kroll, 1995, Ellis, 2008; Fauziati, 2011; Richard, Platt & Weber, 1985; Selinker, 1972). According to Selinker (1972), this dormant psychological framework in the human mind is very flexible while it performs the function of bridging L1 and L2. The interlanguage of an L2 learner is unique and does not fully resemble the first language (L1) or the target language (TL) that the learner is trying to learn. The native or the first language (L1), and the target or the second language (L2) greatly influence a learner’s interlanguage (Ellis, 2008). When a learner starts learning an L2, there are many uncertainties and confusion about the use of L2. For aspects that are not clear or that are unknown, L2 learners often refer to their L1 (Seyyedrezae, 2014). In the initial stages of learning, the learners are more attracted to their L1 but as they advance, they are less influenced by their L1 (Seyyedrezae, 2014). However, in all stages of SLA, both L1 and L2 influence the learners’ interlanguage either by transfer or by generalization (Larsen-Freeman, 2014). Nonetheless, interlanguage is also a form of language in its own right, separate and distinguishable from L1 and TL.
Summary of Chapters
1 INTRODUCTION: This chapter provides the context for studying Maltese as a second language, focusing on the motivation for the research and the primary research questions.
2 UNDERSTANDING INTERLANGUAGE THROUGH CHAOS/COMPLEXITY THEORY: This chapter introduces Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT) as a framework to understand the non-linear, unpredictable nature of second language acquisition.
3 THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION: This chapter explores cognitive theories in second language acquisition, discussing the role of the mind, innate faculties, and age-related factors in learning.
4 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AS A SOCIOCULTURAL PHENOMENON: This chapter delves into sociocultural theories, examining how social interaction and the learner's environment impact the language acquisition process.
5 TENSE AND ASPECT IN MALTESE PERFETT AND IMPERFETT: This chapter introduces the morphological system of the Maltese language, specifically focusing on the perfett and imperfett forms and their interpretations.
6 METHODOLOGY: THE PARTICIPANTS AND THE DATA COLLECTION: This chapter outlines the mixed-methods research design, the data collection instruments, and the procedures used to study the participants over a 15-month period.
7 UNDERSTANDING THE LEARNING CHALLENGES: This chapter analyzes the various difficulties, such as memory issues, culture shock, and teacher methodology, that adult learners encountered while acquiring Maltese.
8 EXPLORING THE STATISTICAL FINDINGS: This chapter discusses the statistical results of the grammar tasks, revisiting the research questions through the lens of learning patterns and fractal theory.
9 DISCUSSING THE TYPE OF VERB CHOICE FINDINGS: This chapter analyzes the participants' use of specific verb forms during picture interpretation tasks, comparing their production to that of native speakers.
10 CLOSURE: This chapter provides final reflections on the study’s findings, acknowledging limitations and suggesting areas for future research.
11 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL: This section provides additional data, including questionnaires, statistical charts, and individual participant profiles and learning curve sketches.
Key Words
Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Maltese as a second language (ML2), Chaos/Complexity Theory (C/CT), Interlanguage, Perfett, Imperfett, Verb Conjugation, Grammaticality Judgment Tests (GJT), Language Transfer, Fossilization, Longitudinal Study, Mixed Methods, Sociocultural Theory, Learning Curves, Verbal Tense and Aspect.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core subject of this research?
This work focuses on the acquisition of Maltese verbal tense and aspect by adult non-native speakers, investigating their interlanguage development over a 15-month longitudinal period.
What are the primary thematic areas covered?
The study covers Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories, including Cognitive and Sociocultural perspectives, the specific structure of Maltese verbs (perfett and imperfett), and the challenges adult learners face in this specific linguistic environment.
What is the main objective of the study?
The primary objective is to determine how adult L2 users acquire Maltese verbal tense and aspect, whether patterns exist over time, and how their production compares to L1 native speakers, while identifying the difficulties they encounter.
Which scientific methods were employed?
The research adopted a mixed-methods approach, utilizing Timed Grammaticality Judgment Tests (TGJT) and Verb Conjugation (VC) tasks for quantitative data, alongside reflective journals, stimulated recall, and one-on-one interviews for qualitative insights.
What does the main body of the work address?
The main body examines the literature on interlanguage and Chaos/Complexity Theory, provides a detailed grammatical introduction to Maltese tense and aspect, outlines the methodology, and analyzes statistical findings and qualitative learning challenges.
What keywords define this work?
Key terms include Second Language Acquisition (SLA), Maltese (ML2), Chaos/Complexity Theory, Interlanguage, Perfett, Imperfett, and Language Transfer.
How does this study apply Chaos/Complexity Theory to language learning?
The study uses C/CT to model language acquisition as a non-linear, unpredictable, and dynamic process, rejecting traditional linear "start-to-finish" pedagogical assumptions in favor of a framework that accounts for "butterfly effects" and plateaus in learning.
What role does the learner's first language (L1) play in this study?
The study highlights how L1 interference (positive or negative transfer) influences the learner's production of Maltese verb forms, with participants often relying on L1-based grammatical rules when confronted with Maltese verbal structures.
- Quote paper
- Jacqueline Żammit (Author), 2021, A Verbal Odyssey. Learning Maltese as a foreign adult, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1020349
