The Acquisition of English in a Multilingual Context. The Use of English in Europe with Focus on Maltese English

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Multilingual Europe

3. The Use of English

4. History of Malta

5. Maltese: Language differences, changes and influences
5.1. Differences in Maltese, Maltese English and English
5.2. Cultural influences and Politeness in Malta
5.3. Further Language Changes in Maltese English

6. Maltese English nowadays

7. Conclusion

8. Bibliography

English as an official language in Europe with Focus on Maltese English

1. Introduction

The status of English has rapidly changed from the original and ancient language of England and America to an essential tool of international and global communication. English is currently considered the World language, a language everyone should be able to speak in order to communicate with other people from all around the world. In Europe, the concept of English as a world language is widespread and therefore vividly discussed. My research interests lie in the importance of English as an official language in Europe and the development of English in Malta. This paper implicitly examines detailed aspects about English as an official language, with specific focus on Maltese English. The book ‘The English Language in Europe’ by Hartmann (1996) provides the theoretical foundation and primary literature source for the introduction of this term paper.

The book ‘Standards of English: Codified Varieties around the World’ (Krug und Rosen 2012) deals, inter alia, with the question of how the standard of Maltese English emerged. Maltese English as an example for official English languages will be the second issue to delve into in this paper.

2. Multilingual Europe

The English language has changed dramatically over the centuries since it came from Europe to Britain. Consequently, the language as we know it today is unthinkable without this evolution. As the language has spread beyond the borders of Britain, it has changed in several contexts in different ways. It became such a diverse language that some scientists suspect that it is no longer correct to speak of a single “English”. Instead there are many different English languages around the world.

In two European countries English is officially recognised as the first language: The United Kingdom (England, Scotland Wales & Northern Ireland), and the Republic of Ireland. English as a first language is rare, but it is commonly used as official language or as lingua franca, if people do not have a common L1. Not only English but many other languages are supported by the EU.

“The European Union is a truly multilingual institution that fosters the ideal of a single Community with a diversity of cultures and languages. [...] The three core aims of the Commission’s multilingualism policy are to encourage language learning, to promote a healthy multilingual economy and to give all EU citizens access to the Union’s legislation, procedures and information in their own language.” (“Europeans and their languages”, 2006, p. 1)

The use of multiple languages can be seen in three European countries: In Malta, Cyprus and Gibraltar English is an official language, but not first language. All three countries were once part of the British Empire and therefore, English is still recognised as an official language. In these countries English coexists with other languages such as Italian, French or Maltese.

3. The Use of English

Due to the fact that English (?) is the most powerful language with the third highest number of mother-speakers worldwide it is commonly used and understood in the EU. In contrast, German is the most common mother tongue in Europe (Europeans and their languages, 2012, p.5). However, English grammar, lexis and sentence structure emerge as the easiest compared to other acquainted mother tongues. Thus, the use of the English language is generally increasing.

“The more recent developments in Europe concerning the use of English [...] are attributable to the ever increasing number of people who use this language as a vehicle of communication with native speakers of English as well as a lingua franca in their contacts with many others who have a non-English native language.” (Hartmann 1996, p. 48)

Graddol (2006) states that numbers of English speakers may fall. However, research shows that numbers have only been rising. In 2012, about 38% of European citizens (excluding Ireland and the United Kingdom) affirmed that they can speak English good enough to communicate with others in English. (Europeans and their Languages, 2012). A study about English in Europe reveals that “of the countries in Europe that speak English quite often over half the population are either fluent or able to hold a conversation, for example in a study by EF almost 67% of the population in Finland speak English [...]” (Top English Speaking Countries in Europe (2020). Figures from 2006 to 2020 show the increasing popularity of the language in Europe. Beside Russian, German, Spanish, French, Italian and many more European languages the English language is spreading and quite dominating. In order to prove this phenomenon, the development of English in Malta will be analyzed.

4. History of Malta

In order to understand the current developments of language usage in Malta, an investigation into Malta’s linguistic past is required.

Malta and the little island Gozo were first settled in 5000 B.C. by Italians. It also has a long history of different ruling powers, such as Greek or Romans. Even Comino, the third and smallest of the three Maltese islands has a long history. It is located between the two other islands of Malta. The country was populated around the Bronze Age. Due to the fact that living conditions were harsh on the small islands, people moved to the main island which became the main tourist attraction.

Even though the history of Malta dates back a long time ago, its linguistic history is young. It began two years after 1778, when Napoleon Bonaparte sailed to Malta for a short 6-days stay, accomplishing many reforms for slavery and the public schooling system. Just two years later, the British navy replaced French occupiers.

In 1814 Malta became part of the British Empire. At this time English was the dominating language. The rule was to speak English as the only language. In addition, British cultural are not only reflected in the language, but also in the flag, the national anthem, phone booths, food and festivals. Furthermore, driving on the left was also adapted from the British Empire; traditions and customs were also similar to British ones.

In 1964, the island finally became independent and build their own regime. Apart from the fact that it became a republic just after the Independence Day, they also formed their own English language out of many languages they got in touch with.

“British colonial rule and substantial British inputs are clearly in evidence, but Maltese English was not transmitted by a settler community nor did it develop early in the colonial era in a newly formed community” (Krug 2015).

There is no unbroken line from British colonial settlers to the current elites or other linguistically significant social groups in Malta. Maltese English is therefore a rather young variety of English and not a settler variety. (Schreier et al. 2015)

In the early 20th century Italian was still the official language in Malta. In 1934, it was replaced by English and Maltese. English and Italian were considered to be more prestigious during this time.

Until 1964, Malta was a British possession, and as a result English is obviously one of their official language. The problem is that this English variety lacks of standardisation and dictionaries. Nevertheless, their English has some significant differences to the British English. Moreover, even cultural habits and features of other countries have influenced the Maltese island and its languages.

5. Maltese: Language differences, changes and influences

5.1. Differences in Maltese, Maltese English and English

On the island of Malta people speak two official languages: Maltese and English.

It must be added that multilingualism is widespread and a remarkable feature for this marginalised island. Still, the Maltese language is the single native language of most inhabitants.

Maltese is very different from English as its roots and history stem from Romance languages such as Italian, especially languages from South Italy. But it also borrows some words or phrases from the English and other Germanic languages. (Cremona et al. 2017)

This important co-existence of Maltese and English in Malta refers to the “Englishisation1 of Maltese”, suggesting that the direction of influence is rather from the Maltese to the English of Maltese speakers or contrariwise. (Camilleri, Antoinette, and Albert J. Borg 1992). Bilingualism dates back to the time when England was still a colony, but also nowadays people can speak both languages. Maltese English has developed over time and slowly became an own variety of English. However, issues of standardisation and recognition still exist today. “The emerging standards of Maltese English [...] can be assigned a place somewhere between their local dialects and an exocentric standard.” (Krug and Rosen 2012, p. 112)

1 Englishisation = making use of the English language as a lingua franca and converting material in the local language into English in an international corporation or other organization.

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