The Cherokee Indians and the Trail of Tears

Table of Contents

I. Introduction
1. Synopsis
2. Sources of Information

II. Main Part
1. Summary
2. The Cherokee Indians
2.1. History
2.1.1. Heritage of the Cherokee
2.1.2. First Contact
2.1.3. Small Pox Epidemic of 1738
2.1.4. 1754 – 1783
2.1.5. First Western Movements
2.1.6. Discovery of Gold in the Appalachian Mountains
2.2. Culture
2.2.1. The Cherokee Nation
2.2.2. Clan Structure
2.2.3. Agricultural, Hunting and Housing Traditions
2.2.4. Religion
2.2.5. Sequoyah Develops a Written Language
2.2.6. “Cherokee Phoenix” – the Newspaper of the Cherokee
3. The Trail of Tears
3.1. Indian Removal Act
3.2. Supreme Court Cases
3.2.1 Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia
3.2.2 Worcester vs. Georgia
3.3. New Echota
3.4. The Roundup
3.5. The Trip
3.5.1. Water Route
3.5.2. Land Route
3.6. Witnesses
3.6.1. Chief John Ross
3.6.2. Private John G. Burnett
3.6.3. Samuel Cloud
3.7. A Picture
3.8. Effects
4. Modern Life of the Cherokee Indians
4.1. Life After The Trail of Tears
4.2. Tourism
4.3. Cherokee Rose
4.4. First Woman Chief

III. Conclusion

IV. Bibliography

I. Introduction

1. Synopsis

This research paper deals with a very unique Native American Tribe, the Cherokee Indians, who call themselves “Ani’-Yun’ wiya”, meaning “Principal people” ^[1]. Like many others of their race they suffered under the Europeans settling the American continent since Columbus’ arrival in 1492. I especially want to address the issue of the Trail of Tears. The Cherokee Indians were brutally forced to move west in order to make room for white settlers looking for gold. One fourth of those that had to walk on this trail died.

It is often forgotten what the United States have done to the natives originally populating the American continent, destroying wonderful cultures and wiping out millions of lives. I want to remind of all the cruelty used against them, while the U.S. are proud to be regarded as a country of liberty and equal rights for all. Events like the Trail of Tears in the history of America can be compared to the Holocaust during World War II. The methods used to extinguish the Native American and the Jewish races are very similar and contemptuous of human life. It is my concern to inform about this dark chapter in the US history and prevent people from pretending that it had never happened.

2. Sources of Information

As sources of information I have mainly used the Internet. I found a great variety of facts about my theme from simple encyclopaedia entries to personal reports written by witnesses of that time. In addition to the Internet, books gave me a general overview of the history and culture of the Cherokee. As a result I had to read a great number of articles to be able to select useful information.

V. Main Part

1. Summary

In the fall and winter of 1838 and 1839 sixteen thousand Cherokee Indians were driven away from their homelands after gold was found in the southern Appalachian Mountains of North Georgia. The Indian Removal Act, issued by Congress in 1830, authorised President Jackson to forcibly remove all eastern tribes to territory west of the Mississippi River, which is now known as Oklahoma. For the Cherokee, Creek, Seminoles, Choctaws and Chickasaws, the “Five Civilised Tribes” this meant that they altogether had to cede 100 million acres of cultivated land in return for only 32 million acres of prairie land. Violating treaties with the Cherokee, federal troops rounded them up into internment camps. From there a march westward began on what became known as “The Trail Where They Cried”. Due to poor conditions and the cold of winter, an estimated 4,000, i.e. one out of four Cherokee Indians, died of cold, hunger or disease. From the nine million dollars the tribe was supposed to receive for their lands, the federal government subtracted six million dollars it had spent to relocate the Cherokee.^[2]

To be able to understand the Trail of Tears and the damage it caused, it is necessary to be informed about the historic and cultural background of the tribe. The following paragraphs will provide information about the time before the beginning of the actual trail, and will allow access to the impressive culture of the Cherokee.

2. The Cherokee Indians

2.2. History

2.1.1. Heritage of the Cherokee

Based on archaeological discoveries and specific linguistic marks of their language, it is estimated that the roots of the Cherokee Indians originally lay in what is now Texas or in the North of Mexico. From there they moved to the region of the Great Lakes in New York. Disputes with Iroquois and Delaware tribes lead to a another expulsion and caused them to migrate to the Southern Appalachian Mountains where they were living when Europeans started to settle on the American continent.^[3]

2.2.2. First Contact

The first recorded contact of the Cherokee Indians with European settlers was in 1540, when Hernando De Soto, a Spanish explorer, crossed Cherokee territory looking for gold. He and 1,000 soldiers had landed near what is Tampa Bay, Florida today. When the Cherokee heard from neighbour tribes that strangers were travelling towards their lands, they abandoned their towns leaving only those behind that could not travel. On De Soto’s arrival, he and his expedition only found deserted villages. They were in need of food, but as they did not receive any help from the Cherokee, continued on their trip north.

A couple of years later, on their way westward the Spanish came across Cherokee tribes again. This time they were warmly welcomed, given food and gifts. For the first time the Spaniards held buffalo hide in their hands. The fur of the buffalo, also known as bison who roamed the Great Plains all the way to the Atlantic Coast, was thinner than the ox skin they knew, and as soft as wool. Later, in the 1600s fur trade became popular as clothing made from bison, beaver and other animals became fashionable in Europe, and the fur could be sold for gold. Hernando De Soto died of fever in 1542, only two years after he had met the Native Americans. The relationship between Cherokee Indians and the Spaniards remained good and in 1566 Fort San Felipe was established. Until the mid 1600s the Appalachian Mountains were mined for gold and other metals.

The first meeting of Cherokee and English settlers is dated 1654. In 1721 South Carolina, an English colony made a treaty with the tribe. It was the first land cession the Cherokee made to the whites, and many more should follow.

2.2.3. Small Pox Epidemic of 1738

As a result of the increasing number of Europeans coming to the New World diseases began to spread among the Indian people. The Native Americans had never been exposed to the diseases that were brought to the American continent by the settlers. The infections had devastating consequences for the exposed Native Indian tribes, who were not immune against them. Small pox brought to Carolina by slave ships caused substantial losses for the Cherokee Indians. Within one year their population decreased to 11,000 as half the tribe died because their cure for serious illnesses could not heal small pox. The Cherokee warriors being very proud of their physical appearance often committed suicide when noticing the deformation of their bodies. The tribe thought they were being punished for adopting the white man’s culture, and lost belief in their priests who were not able to prevent more and more tribe members from dying.^[4]

2.2.4. 1754 – 1783

During the French and Indian War, which lasted from 1754 until 1763, the English fought against the French and their Native Indian allies about the control over North America. The conflict arose about the English claiming some of the territory the French regarded as their own. Usually, when England and France were at war in Europe, their colonies across the Atlantic Ocean fought as well. The French and Indian War in contrary started in the colonies and later spread to Europe. The British had settled along the East Coast, establishing towns and clearing the woods for planting crops, whereas the French built forts further inland to protect their land claims. The French forts also served as trade centres with the Native Americans. For this reason, the French relationships with the Natives were usually better than the English. The Cherokee normally would have sided with the French, but they had already signed a treaty only to trade with the English in return for guns and ammunition. Henry Timberlake, an English lieutenant once said: “[...] it was the trade alone that induced them to make peace with us, and not any preference to the French, whom they loved a great deal better”.^[5] At first the English were far outnumbered by the French troops and lost many battles, suffering heavy losses. The war finally turned after William Pitt became prime minister of Britain. The victory over Quebec, the capital of New France, in 1763 marked the end of the French and Indian War. After the War was over, the tribes of the region were devastated by warfare.

Throughout the years more treaties were signed in order to fix borders between Cherokee territory and the colonies, but were altogether ignored by the growing number of settlers coming to America. Every treaty was forced upon the Cherokee who only agreed because they were assured that no further land cessions had to be made.

Despite the victory of the French and Indian War, the relationship between England and its colonies were weakened. It was followed by the Revolutionary War (1775-1783, also known as War of Independence), which finally gave the colonies their independence. The Natives now had a new enemy to deal with: The United States of America. The new independence attracted more immigrants from Europe, leading to an increasing number of settlers moving westward into American Indian territory.^[6]

2.2.5. First Western Movements

Feeling limited by the white people some Natives began to escape westward. The first Cherokee to move west were a group called Chickamaugans led by Chief Bowles in 1794. They had got into a fight with white men on their return from signing a treaty of peace with the U.S. After winning the battle Bowles and his men were afraid because they had broken the new treaty. They went west instead of returning to their hometown, and settled in Arkansas.

Meanwhile, the United States government and some Southern States, especially Georgia, were encouraging the Cherokee to give up their territory in the East. They were told that they could live on land the U.S. had just acquired in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which included Arkansas. The only problem was that this area already belonged to the Osage, which led to conflicts between the two tribes. Trying to end the war between the Cherokee and the Osage, the U.S. established Fort Smith in the troubled region. Not being able to stop the fighting, the U.S. moved the Cherokee again, this time to Oklahoma. Over the years more tribe members from the East joined their western tribesmen, either due to pressure by the increasing number of colonists or in search for better hunting territory.^[7]

2.2.6. Discovery of Gold in the Appalachian Mountains

The discovery of gold in the Appalachian Mountains in 1829 led to a flood of whites coming to Georgia looking for the valuable metal. This eventually led to violent fights between the settlers and the Natives. President Andrew Jackson and the State of Georgia exerted pressure to finally remove all remaining Cherokee. As a result the dispute was brought before the Supreme Court (→ 3.2. Supreme Court Cases).^[8]

2.2. Culture

2.2.1. The Cherokee Nation

The Cherokee belonged to “The Five Civilised Tribes” because they were very highly developed, and had adopted many white traditions throughout the years. In the early 1800s the Cherokee Nation was established, with a written constitution based on a democratic governmental system. The chief, his vice-chief and a council of 32 members were all elected by the tribes. Each town had a Supreme Chief, subordinate to the Principal Chief of the nation. The first Principal Chief was John Ross from 1828 until his death in 1866. In 1871 the Act of the Cherokee Nation Council approved the Cherokee seal, which was imprinted on all official documents of the nation.

Today the Cherokee Nation has over 150,000 registered members, and is regarded as the second largest Native American tribe of the United States.^[9]

2.2.2. Clan Structure

The Cherokee tribes were matrilineal. Kinship was traced through, and children married into the mother’s family. Having an equal voice in clan affairs was perfectly natural, as was the women’s right to do with their property as they pleased. It was passed on from generation to generation according to alliances. Clan members were not allowed to marry among themselves. The clans were divided into war- and peace moieties. Moiety derives from the French word “la moitié” meaning a half, and is used as a special terminology for a split social system.

2.2.3. Agricultural, Hunting and Housing Traditions

Originally the Cherokee were an agrarian folk, growing corn, beans, squash, and pumpkins, as well as hunters and gatherers. They celebrated a tradition similar to Thanksgiving. For this “Busk-“ or “Green-Corn” ceremony a sacred fire was lightened. A fire also had a symbolic meaning as the centre of life and became the Cherokee word for home. Agricultural products were stored, and meat was smoked to have food for the winter months.

In addition to agriculture they hunted deer, bears, wapiti and other small game and fished. They believed that the Deer-Spirit asked every killed deer if the hunter had apologised himself for shooting the animal. If not, the Spirit would punish him with rheumatism.^[10]

They lived in log homes, unlike the typical image of an “Indian” who lives in a tee pee.^[11] Those homes were made of wood and stone. Several houses were built in village-like communities. Connecting the towns that were often daylong walks apart was a network of roads, which made it easy to trade with other clans.

The Cherokee did not know the horse. It was brought to America by the Spaniards. After 1800 the tribe assimilated white culture, copying their farming and house-building methods, and adopting European-style clothing. The introduction of European weapons marked the beginning of the Cherokee not only hunting for food, but also for skins to trade with as well. As a result the animal population decreased quickly.

2.2.4. Religion

Native Americans often did not have a word for religion because it was part of their daily life. They believed in supernatural forces and had deep respect for nature. It was based on a thinking that all living beings depended on each other. In worship ceremonies they asked the great mystery for help, or expressed their thanks. Other ceremonies were supposed to heal illnesses, celebrate important changes in somebody’s life like birth, naming, coming of age, marriage and death or to persuade the unseen power for success in hunting and planting. For many celebrations the Natives danced and had painted faces.^[12]

The religious belief of the Cherokee was based on a sense of balance. They sought to stay in balance and harmony with their environment like many primitive-tribes. Imbalance was created when a person or animal was killed. It was believed that the spirit of the murdered person had to walk the earth, unable to go to the next world. As a result balance on earth was destroyed. Harmony could be restored by revenge: The clan of the killer had to accept responsibility and pay the cost. One of their family members had to be killed, because spirits could only move on to another world in pairs of two.

The story telling the origin of life is similar to the “Creation Act” in the Christian bible. It starts with: “In the beginning, when all was water…”^[13], and ends with the creation of human beings. The earth is created by the Water-Beetle, who dived into the water and brought up mud from the ground of the ocean to form land. Another story tells the myth of the first sunrise. For the Cherokee the sun was far more than only light. They knew that all life was dependant on the sun, which received its strength and warmth from a great spirit. In their belief the sky vault was made of rock, above which the thunder ghosts lived. The moon was considered as a ball, thrown into the sky.^[14]

2.2.5. Sequoyah Develops a Written Language

The Cherokee were one of the few native tribes that had become literate. “In a few short years one man had achieved a means of communication that had taken other civilisations thousands of years to accomplish.” ^[15]

Sequoyah, a half-blooded Cherokee, worked on a graphic representation of the Cherokee language. It took him 12 years to complete the Cherokee alphabet which he finished in 1821. The syllabary, also called “Talking Leaves” contained 85 symbols, each standing for a syllable. There are six vowel sounds, an “s” standing alone, and the rest a combination of consonants and vowels.^[16] To his honour a 19-cent Sequoyah postage stamp was released in 1980.^[17] The alphabet made it possible for the Cherokee to adopt a written constitution and publish a newspaper.

2.2.6. “Cherokee Phoenix” – the Newspaper of the Cherokee

A very remarkable achievement was the of creation their own newspaper, made possible by Sequoyah’s newly written language for the Cherokee. “The Cherokee Phoenix” was chosen as official name for the paper printed and published in New Echota, the capital of the Cherokee country. Editor became Elias Boudinot, who had been educated in Cornwall, Connecticut, and had raised money to finance the printing press. The first issue was published on February 28, 1828. As the Cherokee Phoenix was not only read by Cherokee tribe members but also other tribes across the north American continent, its name was changed to “The Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate” in 1829. The paper had become a voice for the Cherokee to make communication between tribe members, publication of new laws and announcements faster. On May 31, 1835 the newspaper was silenced by the State of Georgia. It had become too dangerous because of its opinions on political issues. After the Trail of Tears the property around the editorial building was destroyed and became desolate.

It was not until 1954 that archaeologists excavated the Cherokee capital and discovered pieces of the former printing machine, which were recognised as Cherokee characters.^[18] The publishing of “The Cherokee Phoenix and Indian Advocate” was resumed and the newspaper still exists today, celebrating 173 years of Native American journalism. There is even an official web site on the Internet →^[19].

3. The Trail of Tears

The following part of my research paper will talk about the Trail of Tears, or “The Trail Where They Cried” (=nu na hi du na tlo hi lu i in Cherokee language^[20] ). It was the most devastating event in Cherokee history. All tribe members who traditionally lived in the southern Appalachians –Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, western North and South Carolina, northern Georgia and northeastern Alabama – were removed to Oklahoma. It is terrible that this could happen in a country that had just declared “[…] that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness […]”^[21].

3.1. Indian Removal Act

In the 1820s, after Andrew Jackson began his presidential term in office, the States of Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi began to occupy Native American territory, violating federal treaties. Jackson suggested a relocation of the five residential tribes to regions west of the Mississippi River. They were supposed to move to lands in parts of Oklahoma, this being the President’s method of protecting the Natives and giving them time to adjust to white culture. On May 26, 1830 the twenty-first Congress passed the Indian Removal Act. About 100,000 members of the five tribes had to give up around 100 million acres of largely cultivated land in exchange for 32 million acres of land of little value. In July 1830 the Cherokee made a public appeal, intending to win support of American citizens:

“We wish to remain on the land of our fathers. We have a perfect and original right to remain without interruption. […] It cannot be that the community we are addressing, remarkable for its intelligence and religious sensibilities, and pre-eminent [unmatched] for its devotion to the rights of man, will lay aside this appeal.” ^[22]

However, they were unsuccessful to emotionalise the people and brought the case before the Supreme Court.^[23]

3.2 Supreme Court Cases

3.2.1 Cherokee Nation vs. Georgia

This first case was the reaction of the Cherokee to the Indian Removal Act of 1830, and an increasing number of disagreements between the Cherokee and the State of Georgia. In 1831 they filed suit in the U.S. Supreme Court. It ruled against the Cherokee because they did not represent a sovereign nation. Justice John Marshall decided not to be responsible reasoning that they were a “domestic dependent nation”^[24], therefore the Supreme Court was not high enough to hear them. On the other hand he said that State law applied to them giving Georgia power to enforce their laws. Cherokee Chief John Ross was disappointed but determined to reverse the decision, and employed Daniel Webster as an attorney.

3.2.2 Worcester vs. Georgia

As a result of the first Supreme Court Case Georgia passed a law forbidding white men to live within Cherokee boundaries thus limiting the rights of natives and mixed bloods. Anyone who killed a Cherokee was allowed to take over the native’s tract of land. The white missionary Samuel A. Worcester living with a Cherokee family refused to obtain a permit allowing him to remain with the clan. He was imprisoned and sued. This time Marshall decided that State Law was void within Cherokee boundaries. The removal act became invalid, and it was ruled that the tribe would have to agree to removal in a treaty. Worcester was released from jail upon his victory.^[25]

Despite the court judgement the Cherokee Nation was unable to stop its expulsion. President Jackson’s response to Worcester vs. Georgia was: “John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it.” ^[26] He was not willing to help the Cherokee, even though Cherokee Chief Junaluska had saved Jackson’s life and helped him win the Battle of Horse Shoe before he had become President.

3.3. New Echota

In this “Treaty of New Echota” the Cherokee officially traded their lands in the east for land in Oklahoma, called “Indian Territory”, and received five million dollars in return. The land in Oklahoma was divided among five tribes. The treaty was signed by John Ridge on November 11, 1834, despite the majority of the Cherokee Indians opposing the treaty. John Ridge, the son of Cherokee Chief Major Ridge, was of the opinion that it would be better to negotiate with Georgia, and advocated removal. He and his Treaty Party did not have the authority to represent the Cherokee Nation. He appealed to the mixed-blood Cherokee, whereas the full-bloods rather favoured Principal Chief John Ross, who tried to prevent relocation, referring to the decision of the Supreme Court in Worcester vs. Georgia. The treaty, signed in Ross’s absence, was the legal document President Jackson needed to remove the Cherokee. It was ratified by the United States Senate, although they knew that only a minority of the tribe agreed to the treaty. With this decision the fate of the Cherokee was sealed, and the forced roundup could begin.^[27]

3.4. The Roundup

During this terrible part in the United States history, 16,000 Cherokee men, women and children were rounded up by Army troops at the point of the bayonet. Martin van Buren had become president in 1837 and ordered immediate execution of the New Echota treaty. The roundup began under the command of General Winfield Scott.

The Natives were brought into 31 stockades all over North Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama and North Carolina. The troops came into the Cherokee villages, entered the houses, and dragged the people outside. They had hardly any time to collect personal belongings before having to leave their homes forever. The soldiers were cruel and destroyed house and property of the Indian People in their presence. The makeshift forts only served as temporary housing before they were moved to more central internment camps. There they had to stay until all Cherokee were brought together in late July 1838. There were only minimal facilities and food in the eleven captivity camps, ten situated in Tennessee and one in Alabama.

One group of Cherokee, called the Oconaluftee, was able to escape the removal. They said that the Indian Removal Act did not apply to them as they did not live on Cherokee territory anymore. Their land in North Carolina was given to them in a treaty in 1819. They did indeed receive permission to stay, and some Cherokee who could flee from the army troops during the roundup joined with this part of their tribe, and still live there today on a reservation recognised by the State and the Federal Government.^[28]

3.5. The Trip

The trip lasted 116 days, and was 1,000 kilometres long. After a chaotic beginning, Principal Chief John Ross requested to let the Cherokee oversee their own removal. When President Van Buren agreed, Ross divided the tribe into smaller groups, each led by a tribal member. This way the smaller groups could move more quickly, and separate through the wilderness, searching for additional food.

3.5.1 Water Route

The 2,800 Cherokee who made the trip by river were divided into three units. They went by steamboat, the first group leaving Chattanooga, Tennessee on June 6, 1838. First they followed the Tennessee River through northern Alabama, Tennessee and Kentucky to the Ohio River that took them to the Mississippi River, which they travelled south until they reached the Arkansas River. This group reached Indian Territory in June 1838. The other two detachments, also travelling by boat suffered more because of many diseases, and did not arrive until the end of summer.^[29]

3.5.2. Land Route

Even worse than the water routes were the land routes most Natives had to take. They walked in groups of 700 to 1,600 persons, each headed by a conductor and assistant conductor. They were appointed by Chief John Ross to lead the groups safely to their new lands. Usually a physician and a clergyman accompanied every unit. There were supplies of flour, corn, salt pork, coffee and sugar for the Natives, but they were of poor quality and there was not enough to feed all.

The major route was the northern route. It started in Tennessee, crossed southwestern Kentucky and south Illinois. The ice-cold Mississippi River was crossed in Missouri in the midst of winter causing many deaths and illnesses among the Indian People. Some of the last groups reached Oklahoma in March 1839, almost a year after leaving their homes.^[30]

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3.6. Witnesses

The Trail of Tears was a terrible occurrence that most of the people who went on it will never forget. I have listed the true stories of three people who witnessed the Trail of Tears.

3.6.1. Chief John Ross

John Ross was born in 1790. He only had ⅛ Cherokee blood, but always regarded himself as a full Cherokee. Being sent on a mission to negotiate with the Western Cherokee in 1809, Ross proved his diplomacy and leadership qualities at an early age. During the Creek War John Ross and 1,000 other Cherokees helped General Andrew Jackson of the U.S. Army to win the war. Would they have fought for the government with such pride if they had known that twenty years later it would force the Cherokee to leave their homelands? Jackson had profited from their help, but refused to listen to them on their requests. In 1815, Ross opened a trading post on the Tennessee River in Chattanooga, which later became known as Ross’s Landing. In 1817 followed the election to the Cherokee National Council where he served as president. He wrote a constitution, taking the U.S. Constitution as a model, which was adopted by the Cherokee Nation in 1827. He was elected first Principal Chief in 1828, and contributed to the Cherokee becoming a culturally highly developed nation. He even dreamed of a star on the U.S. Flag for the State of Cherokee.

In the 1830 the Cherokee were split into the Treaty Party led by Ridge, and Ross’s group opposing forced removal. When nothing could be done to prevent it, Ross pleaded that the Cherokee led themselves to Oklahoma in small groups, in order to improve living standards along the way. Among the 4,000 that died on the Trail of Tears was his wife Quatie. Even though this hit him hard, he never gave up fighting for Cherokee rights. The government had declared that people being ¼ of Cherokee heritage were considered as Native Americans, and the removal laws applied to them. But Ross was only ⅛, and therefore the takeover of his property by the State of Georgia can be seen as illegal. Once the Cherokee had reached and settled in Oklahoma, John Ross was reelected Principal Chief. Ridge and some of his men were murdered for signing the Treaty of New Echota. Ross died on August 1, 1866. Most Cherokee say that they will never forget John Ross because he always wanted the Cherokee to become the most educated and civilised Native American tribe, and fought for it until his end.^[31]

3.6.2. Private John G. Burnett

Private John G. Burnett was born in Sullivan County in Tennessee on December 11, 1810. As a child and young man he spent much of his time in the wilderness, and became a close friend of the Cherokee Indians. He learned their language, hunted and sometimes lived with them. Later he became a soldier in the U.S. Army, and was sent to Cherokee Country in 1838 as an interpreter because of his abilities to communicate with the Natives. He had to witness the cruel treatment of his friends, the Cherokee, as they were driven from their land and tells the Trail of Tears as he experienced it. He says that he will never forget one cold, rainy October morning when the Cherokee were loaded up, the children waving goodbye, not knowing what lay before them. He saw many die along the way, and was mad that he was not able to help the poor people, as he had to follow the orders of General Scott. The story told by Burnett is very touching. He says that he provides this information so that something like the Trail of Tears will never happen again.

“Murder is murder, and somebody must answer; somebody must explain the streams of blood that flowed in the Indian country in the summer of 1838. Somebody must explain the four thousand silent graves that mark the trail of the Cherokees to their exile. I wish I could forget it all, but the picture of six hundred and forty-five wagons lumbering over the frozen ground with their cargo of suffering humanity still lingers in my memory.” ^[32]

3.6.3. Samuel Cloud

Samuel Cloud, a Cherokee boy, was nine years old when the Trail of Tears began. In “Samuel’s Memory” ^[33] his great-great grandson, Michael Rutledge, tells how his grandfather remembers the Trail of Tears.

It was spring, when suddenly soldiers came to Samuel’s family’s house, where he was playing with his friends. They entered and knocked everything over. The family was brought to a stockade. Samuel was too young to understand what was going on, but he knew that something was terribly wrong. He only felt safe in his mother’s comforting arms, especially after his father had died. They spent seven months in the stockade, until the uniformed men told them to follow. It was winter by then, and the ground they walked on barefoot was frozen. It was cold and they did not have enough blankets and food. The dead were buried along the way. By the time they had reached a great, cold river, his mother had become sick. One morning, Samuel had slept in his mother’s arms; he woke up to find his mother had died that night. Samuel had lost both parents, and was all by himself from there on. I think this is a very sad and touching story, and can understand Samuel’s anger towards white people.

“I hate the white people who lined the roads in their woolen clothes that kept them warm, watching us pass. None of those white people are here to say they are sorry that I am alone. None of them care about me or my people. All they ever saw was the color of our skin. All I see is the color of theirs and I hate them.”^[34]

3.7. A Picture

The famous painting “The Trail of Tears” was drawn by Robert Lindneux in 1942. It can be found in most history books, and illustrates the cruelty the Natives of the American continent had to endure. I came across this painting several times during my research. Today it can be viewed in the Woolaroc Museum in Bartlesville, Oklahoma.

Lindneux was born in New York in 1871 and was raised by his aunt. He studied art and spent five years in Europe. Fascinated by West-America he became a settler. He lived with several native tribes, which explains his love and respect for their culture. Later he was adopted by the Lakota Indians, better known as Sioux, who named him “Good Eagle”, and he died at the old age of 99 years.^[35]

The painting shows the Cherokee on the Trail of Tears. It gives a picture of the brutality and hardness of the march. With this picture the artist expresses his concern about the suppression of Native People.

3.8. Effects

The heavy losses being about one fourth of the entire Cherokee that moved west, strongly affected the survivors. Many had lost their husband, wife or children. They had hardly any possessions left and had to start all over again.

Soon after they arrived on the new territory in Oklahoma, conflicts began to arise. The Cherokee already living in the West were not willing to share equally with the newcomers. Members of the Treaty Party, including Ridge were killed by his enemies. When first struggles were over, the Cherokee re-established their National Government, with John Ross as Principal Chief. The headquarter of the new government became Tahlequah. A bilingual school system was established to educate the children.

4. Modern Life of the Cherokee Indians

4.1. Life After The Trail of Tears

During the Civil War the Cherokee sided with the Confederacy. The following time of reconstruction meant further land cessions. In 1907 the State of Oklahoma increased pressure for land. The depression also had an impact on the life of the Cherokee Indians. They were supposed to be relocated to urban areas, alienating them from their tribal environment. There they suffered from the lack of basic needs, and many became addicted to alcohol. By 1970 the Cherokee had lost a total of 19 million acres.^[36]

4.2. Tourism

The only facility dedicated to the protection of the tradition of the Cherokee Nation is the Cherokee National Museum in Tahlequah, Oklahoma. There the Cherokee National Archives, the library as well as old Cherokee items can be found. The library contains over 4,000 books related to the history of the tribe, including special examples of old books that are not printed anymore, books written in Cherokee language and photographs. The current exhibit is about selected Cherokee elders, and “The Printed World”, containing print material from 1844-1906.

During my research I found that the Cherokee Nation is very proud of their heritage. Maybe because they have sought to maintain their cultural identity for such a long time, despite the hard times, they are motivated to keep their tradition and pass it on. Several Internet sites are devoted to the presentation of material, and spreading information all over the country. Members can contact other tribesmen, and non-citizens of the Cherokee Nation can apply for membership if they prove that they are of Cherokee origin. They invite tourists to come and visit their historical sites, and are eager to answer questions about the history and culture of the Cherokee.

4.3. Cherokee Rose

According to Cherokee legend, a new flower grew wherever a tear dropped to the ground along the path of the Trail of Tears. The flower, a beautiful white rose, was a sign for the travellers, giving them strength. The seven leaves of the rose stand for the seven clans that made the gruesome trip. Since 1916 the Cherokee Rose has been the official State Flower of Georgia.^[37]

4.4. First Woman Chief

Wilma Mankiller was the first woman to lead a major Native American Tribe. She was the Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation from 1985 until 1991. At first people were against woman leadership, and she even received threats to be killed during her campaign running for Principal Chief. In 1975 she was asked by Ross Swimmer to be his deputy chief. Ten years later Swimmer resigned to take office in the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Cherokee Law said that the assistant chief took over the former chief’s responsibilities. She won the election of 1987. In a speech she emphasised the achievements of the Cherokee.

“We are a revitalised tribe, after every major upheaval, we have been able to gather together as a people and rebuild a community and a government. Individually and collectively, Cherokee people possess an extraordinary ability to face down adversity and continue moving forward. We are able to do that because our culture, though certainly diminished, has sustained us since time immemorial. This Cherokee culture is a well-kept secret.” ^[38]

Mankiller began to take interest in politics since the occupation of Alcatraz Island in 1969 by Native American students wanting to attract attention for their problems. She divorced her first husband, because their opinions about her political career differed. During her time as a student at the University of Arkansas, her right leg nearly had to be amputated because of a car accident. Mankiller describes this as a time where she thought a lot about her life. Another hard blow came in 1980, when the doctors diagnosed a chronic neuromuscular disease. In 1986 she married a second time, her long-time friend Charlie Soap. Shortly after that she had to get a kidney transplantation. All the tragic occurrences made her realise the preciousness of life, and let her become a significant spiritual force of the Cherokee Nation.^[39]

VI. Conclusion

The more research I did on this topic, the more fascinating and unbelievable facts did I find. Of course the Cherokee Indians are only a small part of the true Native American Story, but I found them to be very special. Even though I lived in Georgia for some time, I never heard much about the Trail of Tears. The people there seem to ignore the injustice that had been done to the Natives. I hope that I got everybody’s interest to learn more about the history of the original inhabitants of the North American Continent.

IV. Bibliography

Brill, Marlene Targ: “The Trail of Tears: The Cherokee Journey” Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1995.

Cayton, Andrew: “America, Pathways To The Present” Needham, Mass.: Prentice Hall, 1999.

Hirschfelder, Arlene: “Happily May I Walk, American Indians and Alaska Natives Today” New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1986.

Johnsen, Bruce E: “The Encyclopedia of Native American Biography” New York: Da Capo Press, 1998.

King, Duane H: “Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History” Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.

Lowenstein, Tom and Vitebsky, Piers: “Mother Earth, Father Sky: Native American Myth” London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 1997.

Rutledge, Michael: “Samuel’s Memory”. Arizona State University.

Declaration of Independence. In Congress, July 4, 1776.

Microsoft® Encarta® 98 Enzyklopädie: “Cherokee” © 1993-1997 Microsoft Corporation.

Burnett, John G.: “The Trail of Tears” (1890). Internet: http://www.chota.com/cherokee/trail.html (Zugriff: 20.02.2001, 19:33).

Cherokee Nation, The: “Cherokee Advocate Publication”. Internet: http://www.cherokee.org/Advocate/Advocate.asp (Zugriff: 14.02.2001, 17:07).

Cherokee of California: “Trail of Tears”. Internet: http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/history/trail.htm (Zugriff: 11.02.2001, 20:02).

Golden Ink Internet Solution: (1996)

“North Georgia’s Cherokee Indians”. Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/cherokee.html

“Sequoyah’s Talking Leaves”. Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/alphabet.html

“The Cherokee Phoenix”. Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/phoenix.html

“Trail of Tears-North Georgia History”. Internet: http://ngeorgia.com/history/nghisttt.html (Zugriff: 06.03.2001, 18:14).

Joy Creations Card Company: “Native Americans” (2000). Internet: http://www.egcinc.com/joycreations/native.htm (Zugriff: 20.03.2001, 20:50).

Martin, Ken: “1700 Through the Revolutionary War” (1996). Internet: http://pages.tca.net/martikw/1700thro.html (Zugriff: 09.03.2001, 18:56).

Paxton, Jennifer: “Tsalagi Syllabary” (2000). Internet: http://coyote.csusm.edu/public/guests/raven/cherokee.dir/syll.html (Zugriff: 18.02.2001, 15:05).

Prentice Hall Documents Library: “The Indian Removal Act” (1998). Internet: http://hcl.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/dye/docs/removal.htm (Zugriff: 19.03.2001, 16:07).

Rose City Net: “The Cherokee Trail of Tears – Map of the Trail of Tears” (2000). Internet: http://rosecity.net/tears/trail/map.html (Zugriff: 20.02.2001, 15:13).

Smith, Chad:

“Cherokee History” (1994). Internet:

http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#smallpox

http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#westcher

http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#cherhistory

(Zugriff: 08.03.2001, 15:24).

[...]

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^[1] Golden Ink Internet Solution: “North Georgia’s Cherokee Indians”(1996). Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/cherokee.html.

^[2] Cayton, Andrew: “America, Pathways To The Present” Needham, Mass.: Prentice Hall, 1999.

^[3] Microsoft® Encarta® 98 Enzyklopädie: “Cherokee” © 1993-1997 Microsoft Corporation.

^[4] Smith, Chad: “Cherokee History” (1994). Internet: http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#smallpox.

^[5] Martin, Ken: “1700 Through the Revolutionary War” (1996). Internet: http://pages.tca.net/martikw/1700thro.html.

^[6] Cayton, Andrew: “America, Pathways To The Present” Needham, Mass.: Prentice Hall, 1999.

^[7] Smith, Chad: “Cherokee History” (1994). Internet: http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#westcher.

^[8] Cayton, Andrew: “America, Pathways To The Present” Needham, Mass.: Prentice Hall, 1999.

^[9] Smith, Chad: “Cherokee History” (1994). Internet: http://www.chadsmith.com/history.html#cherhistory.

^[10] Lowenstein, Tom and Vitebsky, Piers: “Mother Earth, Father Sky: Native American Myth” London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 1997.

^[11] Microsoft® Encarta® 98 Enzyklopädie: “Cherokee” © 1993-1997 Microsoft Corporation.

^[12] Hirschfelder, Arlene: “Happily May I Walk, American Indians and Alaska Natives Today” New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1986.

^[13] Mooney, James: “Myths of the Cherokee”. St. Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1996.

^[14] Lowenstein, Tom and Vitebsky, Piers: “Mother Earth, Father Sky: Native American Myth” London: Duncan Baird Publishers, 1997.

^[15] Golden Ink Internet Solutions: “Sequoyah’s Talking Leaves”. Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/alphabet.html.

^[16] Paxton, Jennifer: “Tsalagi Syllabary” (2000). Internet: http://coyote.csusm.edu/public/guests/raven/cherokee.dir/syll.html.

^[17] Hirschfelder, Arlene: “Happily May I Walk, American Indians and Alaska Natives Today” New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1986.

^[18] Golden Ink Internet Solutions: “The Cherokee Phoenix”. Internet: http://www.ngeorgia.com/history/phoenix.html.

^[19] Cherokee Nation, The: “Cherokee Advocate Publication”. Internet: http://www.cherokee.org/Advocate/Advocate.asp.

^[20] Cherokee of California: “Trail of Tears”. Internet: http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/history/trail.htm.

^[21] Declaration of Independence. In Congress, July 4, 1776.

^[22] Cayton, Andrew: “America, Pathways To The Present” Needham, Mass.: Prentice Hall, 1999.

^[23] Prentice Hall Documents Library: “The Indian Removal Act” (1998). Internet: http://hcl.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/dye/docs/removal.htm.

^[24] Cherokee of California: “Trail of Tears”. Internet: http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/history/trail.htm.

^[25] Brill, Marlene Targ: “The Trail of Tears: The Cherokee Journey” Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1995.

^[26] Cherokee of California: “Trail of Tears”. Internet: http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/history/trail.htm.

^[27] Brill, Marlene Targ: “The Trail of Tears: The Cherokee Journey” Brookfield, CT: Millbrook Press, 1995.

^[28] King, Duane H: “Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History” Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.

^[29] Rose City Net: “The Cherokee Trail of Tears – Map of the Trail of Tears” (2000). Internet: http://rosecity.net/tears/trail/map.html.

^[30] Rose City Net: “The Cherokee Trail of Tears – Map of the Trail of Tears” (2000). Internet: http://rosecity.net/tears/trail/map.html.

^[31] King, Duane H: “Cherokee Indian Nation: A Troubled History” Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1979.

^[32] Burnett, John G.: “The Trail of Tears” (1890). Internet: http://www.chota.com/cherokee/trail.html.

^[33] Rutledge, Michael: “Samuel’s Memory”. Arizona State University.

^[34] Rutledge, Michael: “Samuel’s Memory”. Arizona State University.

^[35] Joy Creations Card Company: “Native Americans” (2000). Internet: http://www.egcinc.com/joycreations/native.htm.

^[36] Cherokee of California: “Trail of Tears”. Internet: http://www.powersource.com/cocinc/history/trail.htm.

^[37] Golden Ink Internet Solutions: “Trail of Tears-North Georgia History”. Internet: http://ngeorgia.com/history/nghisttt.html-.

^[38] Johnsen, Bruce E: “The Encyclopedia of Native American Biography” New York: Da Capo Press, 1998.

^[39] Johnsen, Bruce E: “The Encyclopedia of Native American Biography” New York: Da Capo Press, 1998.