Interpersonal Communication for Tertiary Institutions

Textbook , 2018 , 127 Pages

Communications - Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal Communication is at the centre of human relationships. It is therefore a course of study that as humans, we cannot do without. In this text, the author has x-rayed what the course is all about within the purview of Mass Media and Communication Studies. There are nine chapters in all. The first chapter starts with the definition and overview of Interpersonal Communication. It describes how Interpersonal Communication is a means of shared meaning, as interpersonal relationship and as a means of transaction. It looks at the importance of nonverbal communication in the context of Interpersonal Communication. Chapter two specifies different types of Interpersonal Communication including Dyad, Micro-group, Macro-group and mediated; the principles guiding Interpersonal Communication and its relationship with extra-personal communication. It also situates the communication contexts of ATMs, POS and such like.

The third chapter explores the characteristics of Interpersonal Communication, the elements of Interpersonal Communication such as people, messages, channels, effects and feedback. It goes further to present the different Interpersonal Communication contexts including physical, psychological, social, cultural, and temporal. In the fourth chapter, the functions of Interpersonal Communication such as influence, social, psychological, and information are specified. What to do to enhance Interpersonal Communication skills, including the ten tips for good Interpersonal Communication and the Axioms of Interpersonal Communication are found in this chapter.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Chapter One

Chapter Two

Chapter Three

Chapter Four

Chapter Five

Chapter Six

Chapter Seven

Chapter Eight

Chapter Nine

Appendix

Bibliography

Preface

Interpersonal Communication is at the centre of human relationships. It is therefore a course of study that as humans, we cannot do without. In this text, the author has x-rayed what the course is all about within the purview of Mass Media and Communication Studies.

There are nine chapters in all. The first chapter starts with the definition and overview of Interpersonal Communication. It describes how Interpersonal Communication is a means of shared meaning, as interpersonal relationship and as a means of transaction. It looks at the importance of nonverbal communication in the context of Interpersonal Communication.

Chapter two specifies different types of Interpersonal Communication including Dyad, Micro-group, Macro-group and mediated; the principles guiding Interpersonal Communication and its relationship with extra-personal communication. It also situates the communication contexts of ATMs, POS and such like.

The third chapter explores the characteristics of Interpersonal Communication, the elements of Interpersonal Communication such as people, messages, channels, effects and feedback. It goes further to present the different Interpersonal Communication contexts including physical, psychological, social, cultural, and temporal.

In the fourth chapter, the functions of Interpersonal Communication such as influence, social, psychological, and information are specified. What to do to enhance Interpersonal Communication skills, including the ten tips for good Interpersonal Communication and the Axioms of Interpersonal Communication are found in this chapter.

Other forms cum types of communication are highlighted in chapter five. The authors present the differences between Interpersonal Communication and other communication forms including impersonal, intra-personal, Group, and Mass Communication.

Chapter six delves into group dynamics. The different types of groups, reasons for group formation and communication, group characteristics, structure, group norms, power dynamics and leadership styles are detailed in this chapter.

The specific theories that have direct bearing on Interpersonal Communication are the major concern of chapter seven. The theories include: interpersonal Needs, Individual Differences, and Attitude Change theories and their applicability to Interpersonal Communication.

In chapter eight, Interpersonal Communication is described in relation to attitudinal and behavioural change. The philosophy of humanism, its importance, and the specific theories that are related to behavioural change are highlighted; such as Cognitive Dissonance, Social Learning and Social Cognitive theories.

Self-disclosure, the components of self-concepts including attitudes, beliefs and values, dimensions of self-disclosure, characteristics and guidelines for self-disclosure are specified in chapter nine. It also describes the Johari Window and traces the concept of Listening and faulty listening behaviour.

There is also an appendix that closely follows this last chapter. Several terms and concepts that are related to Communication and Interpersonal Communication in particular are highlighted and explained. This part which functions more or less as a glossary is aimed at clarifying certain concepts that might constitute a challenge to students. It also presents a quick view of communication terms to ensure easy and enhanced understanding for students and faculty members as well.

It is hoped that every institution that offers Interpersonal Communication, especially Mass Communication department of Polytechnics in Nigeria, will benefit maximally from the contents of this Interpersonal Communication text.

Anthony O. Uche (PhD)

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Dr. Anthony O. Uche was formerly a manager in an indigenous publishing firm with head office in Lagos before engaging in students’ Project Supervision at the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). He is currently a lecturer in the Mass Communication Department at the Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State.

Chapter One

MEANING OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

- Define communication
- Identify the uniqueness of communication to human life
- Explain what interpersonal Communication is all about
- Understand how Interpersonal communication is a means of shared meaning
- Explain how Interpersonal communication is a means of transaction
- Identify what Interpersonal communication shares in common with Interpersonal Relationship
- Understand the relationships between Interpersonal communication and Non-verbal communication

1.1 Defining Communication

It is important to begin by briefly describing what communication is before we attempt to define interpersonal communication. According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Communication derives from the Latin word “communicare , “to make common, to share, to impart, to transmit.” Thus, communication is the process of making common or sharing meaning between two or among several persons or groups of people.

Communication in its broadest sense is a process that involves the deliberate or accidental transfer of meaning. One person does or says something, thereby engaging in symbolic behavior, while others observe what was done or said and attribute meaning to it. Whenever you observe or give meaning to behavior, communication is taking place.

Communication means the practice of encoding information through sounds, symbols, and actions in order to transmit that information to others. Communication also includes decoding that information and interpreting it to give it meaning (Paxson, 2010). Communication is the oil that lubricates the wheel of human existence. As Nayyar (2007) posits, communication-including state news, sports reports and gossip-helped in holding together people in a unified statehood.

The world book encyclopedia (1987) defines communication as sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or other methods. Probably the most important type of communication is personal communication, which happens when people make their thoughts and wishes known to one another. What the world book encyclopedia refers to as personal communication is what is known today as interpersonal communication. People communicate in various ways, including by talking, by moving their hands, and even by making faces. People also use telephone calls and letters for interpersonal communication. Without interpersonal communication, parents would not know what their children need. Teachers could not help their students learn. Friends could not make plans with one another. People could not share knowledge. Each person would have to learn everything for himself or herself. In fact, human beings probably could not survive long.

1.2 Interpersonal Communication

To understand what is meant by Inter-personal Communication, we first define inter-personal. The prefix "inter" means "between". Interpersonal refers to anything occurring between individuals. Therefore Interpersonal Communication refers to the type of communication that takes place between people. Interpersonal communication can take place between two individuals (one-on-one) or within a group.

Whereas communication is sharing information or providing entertainment by speaking, writing or other methods; Interpersonal Communication on the other hand, is the face-to-face communication between two or more persons, wherein exchange of ideas, information or messages takes place through a channel. It can be a face to face communication between parties, communication over mail, telephone and the like.

In Interpersonal Communication, the way something is said is as important as what is being said. So, here, the tone of voice, body language, gestures, facial expressions, have a great impact on the recipient (Surbhi, 2017).

Interpersonal communication occurs simultaneously with another person in an attempt to mutually influence one another, usually for the purpose of managing relationships. It is a special form of unmediated human communication. It is the form of communication we experience most often in our lives (Beebe, Beebe, & Ivy, 2001).

Interpersonal communication involves the kind of interaction that we often refer to as conversation. It is usually a person-to-person interaction. Interpersonal communication takes place daily. It enhances mutual relationship. Interpersonal communication is the transactional process of creating meaning between two individuals. We do it with people we know and we do it with people we have just met. Every day, we engage in interpersonal communication with family, friends, and strangers alike, face-to-face and online, in person and via our phones.

The primary goal of interpersonal communication is to develop, maintain or improve relationships (Verderber, 1990). Through our personal contacts, we build connections and establish relationships to satisfy our social needs and realize our personal goals. As we relate to others, the messages we send and receive shape us. It is very common for communicators to use digital media to get their messages across to one another or the public by blogging, texting, tweeting, Instant messaging, e-mailing, or posting in a social networking site such as Facebook.

Interpersonal communication establishes and facilitates our relationships. According to Beebe et al. (2001), effective interpersonal communication begins with an awareness of oneself. As you interact with people in your life, you make mental notes of what works well and not so well. You learn from these experiences and develop a personal style of communication. We continue this process by reassessing and reshaping our communication styles throughout our lives, with the goal of becoming better communicators. The second and third principles involve the effective use of verbal and nonverbal messages. We experiment with verbal and nonverbal communication as we interact with people, form relationships, develop those relationships, and in some cases, let go of those relationships. A major element that enhances relationships is the ability is the ability to listen carefully and respond sensitively to others. The last principle is adaptation. We live in an extremely diverse world, it is therefore important to adapt our communication to others—their cultural background and values, personalities, communication styles, needs and goals—so that we form satisfying relationships that helps us enjoy our lives to the fullest.

Figure 1.1: A simple model showing interpersonal communication

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

In the above figure, it is important to note that the process includes not only an arrow from the source to the receiver but also an equal arrow from the receiver to the source. This direct relationship between the source and the receiver is a feature unique to interpersonal communication.

Interpersonal communication is the ongoing, ever-changing process that occurs when you interact with another person, forming a dysad. Weaver (1984) identifies the problem in defining interpersonal communication in terms of the number of people involved to be:

1. Small-group communication is really an extended form of interpersonal communication.
2. Interpersonal communication may actually occur between two people who are part of a larger group.

1.3 An Overview of Interpersonal communication

1.3.1 Interpersonal communication as a means of shared meaning

As already noted, many types of communication exist of which interpersonal communication is one. Commenting on the importance of this type of communication, Nwosu (1996) says that it is an effective mode of communication because it has such advantages as immediate feedback. It is also able to benefit from nonverbal communication cues that reinforce the communicated messages and facilitates the meaning, sharing or understanding. Hybells and Weaver (1986) could not agree less when they stress that interpersonal communication offers the greatest opportunity for feedback. Aside the gain of immediate feedback, interpersonal communication is much needful and useful for socio-political mobilization. During campaigns, the rural populace is the target and attempts at persuasion are usually done through interpersonal communication (Ebo, 1997).

The communicator may be a single person or a group of people within an institution; for instance, a government department or Rotary Club (Ward, 1989). In most social situations, an active voice is made between any number of messages emanating from numerous sources. The receiver in choosing one message is initiating a relationship with the communicator. The message may be considered at three levels. There is the information, which contains, presumably requiring a reaction from the receiver. In order to achieve this response it must be coded in a language or shared sign system, understandable to both parties. Furthermore, it requires a medium of transmission which is accessible to communicator and receiver. This medium which can also be described as the “channel of communication is the speaker’s voice as it carries (sic) through the air” (Okunna, 1994, p. 25).

Communication takes place within a shared environment in that the participants in the process live within social, linguistic, physical and temporal frameworks which hold them together; which in turn are mediated to the participants through the messages circulating in the system.

Noise, especially psychological noise is likely to be minimal in interpersonal communication because each person can see whether the other is distracted. The persons involved in the conversation have many chances to check that the message is being perceived correctly.

NOTE: Psychological Noise arises as a result of sender or receiver’s prejudice, rage and close-mindedness. It can also be attributed to anxiety, confusion, bias, past experience and emotional arousal that interferes with communication. Effective communication therefore depends on shared understanding of the message between the sender and the receiver.

1.3.2 Interpersonal communication as interpersonal relationship

It should be borne in mind that interpersonal communication is related to the concept of interpersonal relationship. Satir (1981) posits that interpersonal communication works only in the present, right here, right now, between you and me…you are face to face with me; your senses take in what I look like, how I sound, what I smell like and if you happen to touch me, how I feel to you. Her postulation underscores the fact that interpersonal communication is more about relationship. There is a basic movement in the human world and it is towards relation, not division. To be human is to be relational. We all cherish some kinds and levels of relationships. Humans are not solitary beings; perhaps, that is what informs Steward and D’Angelo (1988) to say that to be a person is to experience relationship with other person. Little wonder the duo describe interpersonal communication as the quality or type of communication that occurs when the people involved choose to take and listen in ways that maximize their own and the other person’s humanness. This goes to prove the importance of interpersonal communication in bridging gaps and thus enhance interrelationship.

1.3.3 Interpersonal communication as a means of transaction

Wilson et al (1985) describe interpersonal communication as the transactional process of exchanging messages and negotiating meaning to convey information and to establish and maintain relationships. From this definition, two key concepts are unveiled:

1. Exchange of messages
2. Joint interpretation and negotiation

Interpersonal communication therefore involves a process of exchanging messages (ideas and feelings) with the main purpose of understanding and sharing these messages through negotiation.

Stewart (1986) sees it as the kind, type or quality of transaction relationship that happens when two or more humans are willing and able to meet as persons by making available some of their personness—their uniqueness, immeasurable aspects, active choosing and addressability and by being sensitive to or aware of some of the other’s personness.

1.4 Non-verbal communication

Interpersonal communication as we earlier explained can either be verbal or nonverbal. It becomes imperative to attempt some details on what nonverbal communication is about and its place in interpersonal context.

Non-verbal communication includes the gestures, facial expressions, movements of arts, etc., which make our communication more effective. When people speak, their words are usually accompanied by nonverbal cues. This could be sounds or signs such as frowns, nods, handshake, tears, weeping, laughter, eye-contact, touch, smell among others. Other non verbal means of communication include arts, drawings, diagrams, tables, charts, photographs, effigies, tattoos, tribal marks, statues, and road signs.

1.4.1 Importance of Nonverbal Communication in Interpersonal Context

- Nonverbal communication simplifies written and spoken words.
- Nonverbal communication enhances interpersonal communication especially in a face-to-face situation.
- Those with visual and auditory impairments can use it.
- Nonverbal communication gives additional information about the communication.

Nonetheless, nonverbal communication may contradict oral as well written communication. For instance, if I tell you that I am very happy but my face is frowned, or I tell you that I am very sad yet smiling, both nonverbal cues are contradictory.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Specify five importance of interpersonal communication.
2. Explain how nonverbal communication can contradict oral and written communication in an interpersonal situation.
3. Why are nonverbal cues important in interpersonal communication?

Chapter Two

CLASSIFICATION OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

- Identify the different types of Interpersonal Communication
- Define Dyadic, Micro, Macro, Mediated and Extra-personal Communication
- Differentiate Mediated Interpersonal Communication from Extra-personal Communication
- Identify the Principles of Interpersonal Communication

2.1 Types of interpersonal communication

Okunna and Omenugha (2012) identify these four types or forms of interpersonal communication: Dyadic, Micro-group, Macro-group and Mediated interpersonal communication.

2.1.1 Dyadic Communication: this is the most basic type of interpersonal communication. NOTE: A dyad is made up of two individuals. Dyad refers to two people communicating with each other. Both individuals in a dyad share the responsibility of determining the nature of a relationship by creating meaning from the interaction. Thus, anytime we communicate with another person, whether a friend, parent, coworker, or lecturer, we are communicating interpersonally. A two-person relationship or conversation; this is what is referred to as dyadic communication.

2.1.2 Micro-group Communication: interpersonal communication can also take place among a small number of people. This is referred to as a micro-group communication. It is also described as Small-group communication. It occurs when a small number of people meet to solve a problem. “Small-group communication is the transactive process of creating meaning among a small number of people (three to fifteen people) who share a common purpose, who feel a sense of belonging to the group, and who exert influence on one another” (Beebe, et al., 2001, p. 264). The group must be small enough so that each member in the group has a chance to interact with all of the other members. An example of a micro-group communication is a board meeting, a round-table discussion, a meeting of the academic staff in a mass communication department or any other department in an institution, a lecturer who is a project supervisor with some students he or she is supervising (the supervisees).

2.1.3 Macro-group Communication: This is a context of communication that occurs when a speaker addresses a large audience in person. Beebe, et al. (2001) refers to it as public communication. When interpersonal communication occurs in a large group for examples a political rally or an evangelical crusade; “macro-group communication is in progress” (Okunna & Omenugha, 2012, p. 17). Feedback in this type of communication varies unlike what obtains in a dyadic situation. This is because, though it is usually a face-to-face situation, participants however respond in a variety of ways.

2.1.4 Mediated Interpersonal Communication: this is another type of interpersonal communication. It is variously described as machine-assisted or technology-assisted interpersonal communication (Dominick, 2009; Okunna & Omenugha, 2012). It is a specialized type of interpersonal communication. Thus, any communication that entails the use of a device: pencil, personal computer, pen or mobile phone can be described as a mediated interpersonal communication. However, we see instances of technology-assisted interpersonal communication more through the use of mobile devices such as smart-phones, tablets, laptops and desktop computers.

The major challenge of mediated interpersonal communication is that if you do not have the needed facility or technological interface, you cannot participate in this kind of interpersonal communication. For instance, I was using Blackberry and Microsoft windows’ phones at a time, WhatsApp services were no longer supported in such handheld devices. I was therefore thrown into incommunicado. Those who hitherto communicated interpersonally with me via these machine-assisted communications could no longer do so. Therefore if one does not have the compatible machine, needed and current technology including internet connection, network and perhaps data or airtime credit, you are cut-off.

When you send audio or video messages, chats with somebody or a group of persons, watch a private birthday party of your friends or classmates, send your pictures and share assignments or collaborate in writing articles or projects by using your smart-phones and or computers with social networking applications like Facebook, Instagram, Imo, Skype, WhatsApp, Snapchat, Yahoo-messenger, SMS, and micro-blogging platform—twitter, you are engaged in mediated interpersonal communication.

The characteristics of machine-assisted interpersonal communication include:

- It combines the characteristics of both the interpersonal and mass communication situations.
- One or more people communicate by means of a mechanical device or devices with one or more receivers.
- It allows the source and receiver to be separated by both time and space. This is a very important characteristic. The machine can give a permanent message by storing it on paper, disk or some other material (Dominick, 2009).

2.2 Differences Between Mediated Interpersonal Communication and Extra-personal Communication

Extra-personal Communication: this can be described as communication with inanimate object such as a machine.

Machine-assisted interpersonal communication and Extra-personal Communication involve technology interface. In other words, both are mediated; however, in machine-assisted interpersonal communication, your target is the other individual or individuals whereas in extra-personal you are directly communicating with a machine. Although such machines or devices can mimic human voice, actions and or gestures (play-toys, drones, robots, POS, ATM etc.) nonetheless, they are not human beings. They are available as well as accessible to several others who may want to use the same facilities. There is no exclusiveness, elements of secrecy or privacy that often exist in interpersonal communication.

For example, if you send an electronic mail to your friend, even if your friend does not access it immediately, s/he can read it later through the use of an internet-enabled smart-phone, tablet, laptop or personal computer (PC). Your friend may decide to reply via SMS, WhatsApp or any other platform for that matter. Your communication remains private to the two of you except either of you decides to show the details of your conversation to a third party or if either of your accounts is hacked.

Instances of extra-personal communication include:

2.2.1 Transactions with the automatic teller machine (ATM)

When you go to transact via the ATM, as you slot in your card it asks you to select your preferred language, your personal identification number (PIN), if you want to withdraw—the amount, if you want a receipt etc, this is just between you and the automatic teller machine. However when another individual wants to use the facility, the same kind of communication is repeated.

2.2.2 Point of Sale Machine (POS)

This also applies if one wants to pay via POS. You do not need to carry some cash around. Having your cash funded ATM card, you can buy things and pay via POS terminal simply by engaging in extra-personal communication with the machine.

2.2.3 Banks security doors

Before you enter these days into any banking hall, the entrance door is usually locked. If you cannot engage it in communication you may not enter the hall except when assisted. Sometimes, if you have foreign objects especially objects that are metallic or made of steel, you might be denied entry. And some can welcome you in audible voice as you step in: “Welcome to our bank.”

2.2.4 Hospitality entrance sliding doors

In some hotels and major restaurants, when one approaches the entrance, some doors on their own accord open to welcome you. There is a computerized detector which makes it possible for these sliding doors to open as you step up to a particular spot. This opening of their doors is a sign of acceptance just as you would a customer to your lock-up-store or shop.

Figure 2.1: Classification of Interpersonal communication

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2.3 PRINCIPLES OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The same principle of communication applies to interpersonal communication. It should however be borne in mind that it is not as complex and complicated as other levels or kinds of communication such as group, extra-mundane and mass communication. These principles include:

1. Communication has purpose

When two individuals engage in a conversation with each other, regardless of communication setting, they usually have a purpose for doing so. When Tunde calls Yemisi to ask her whether she would like to join him for lunch to talk about a project his group is working on, his aim is to encourage Yemisi to lend a support or work together with them. When a fellow course-mate stops another student on the way, there is a reason for that. It might be to keep her company or to pass a piece of information or even to get an answer to a question troubling her.

2. Communication is continuous

Having noted that communication can be verbal or nonverbal, we are always sending behavioural messages from which others may draw inference or meaning. Even if you are silent or absent, another person may infer meaning from your silence or absence. Why is it so? The reason is because your silence or absence represents a reaction to your environment and to people around you. If you are cold, you may shiver and sneeze; if you are nervous or hot, you may perspire; if you are happy, confused or bored, your face will show it. Whether you are enjoying what you are reading or not; whether you like this interpersonal communication class or dislike it, your body will reflect it. As a communicator, a student, a living being, you are constantly communicating. The messages you are sending can be overt or covert. These messages may carry unintended meaning.

3. Communication is relational

Individuals communicate to define the nature of their relationships. This means that people continually define and refine the distribution of power and affection that exists between them by what they say and how they say it.

Verderber (1990) identifies two categories into which relationships generally fall into: complementary or symmetrical.

In a complementary relationship one of the individuals lets the other define who is to have greater power. Thus, the communication of person asserts dominance and the communication of the other person accepts the assertion. A parent—child relationship is complementary; a boss—subordinate relationship is complementary and a lecturer—student relationship is complementary. In each of these situations, one person holds power over the other.

In a symmetrical relationship each person is constantly challenging the other’s definition of who holds power. In such settings like husband—wife; boy—girl, relationship may be symmetrical. Relationships are likely to be symmetrical either when two individuals say things and act in ways that indicate that each believes him or herself to be in charge or when two people say things and act in ways that indicate they perceive each other as having an equal right to make decisions. In symmetrical relationships power is more evenly shared. Complementary relationship is however less prone to conflicts.

4. Communication is learned

Communication though inborn in us, communicating effectively is a skill that can be learned. Many individuals are poor communicators. We must pay attention to the skills that comprise our communication styles. Concerted and conscious efforts can make one to become an effective interpersonal communicator.

5. Communication messages varies in conscious encoding

In communication, the meaning you wish to share with another person must be encoded into verbal and nonverbal symbols that form messages you send. This encoding process may occur spontaneously. It could be based on a “script” we have learnt. An example of communicating spontaneously is when one blurts out “Ouch!” as one’s finger is suddenly trapped as one tries to slam the door or when you burn one of your fingers. Many of our scripts are learned in childhood. For instance, when you want to lift a heavy load and you ask somebody nearby, “please help,” followed by “thank you” when the person complies. Another scenario is when you say “thank you dad,” “thank you mom” after eating at home. This conversation comes from your table manners script you learnt while growing up.

6. Interpersonal communication is inescapable

“You cannot not communicate.” This expression shows the fact that we are communicating beings and as such cannot do without communicating. The very attempt not to communicate communicates something. Even when we sleep, we communicate. Through words, tone of voice, gestures, facial expressions, posture etc., we constantly communicate with those around us.

7. Interpersonal communication is irreversible

Once you have sent a message you cannot just intercept it. There is a wise saying, "once a word goes out of your mouth, you can never swallow it again." You cannot really take back something once it has been said. The effect more often than not remains. Once sent it is sent. You can only retract but cannot retrieve or intercept it midway.

8. Interpersonal communication is complicated

No form of communication is simple. Because of the number of variables involved, even simple requests are extremely complex. Theorists note that whenever we communicate there are really at least six "people" involved:

1) Who you think you are;
2) Who you think the other person is;
3) Who you think the other person thinks you are;
4) Who the other person thinks he or she is;
5) Who the other person thinks you are; and
6) Who the other person thinks you think he or she is.

We do not actually swap ideas. We swap symbols that stand for ideas. This also complicates communication. Words are symbols. A particular word does not just have a single meaning. Words are capable of several meaning. In other words, words are polysemous. We simply use them in certain ways, and no two people use the same word exactly alike. That is why each writer has his own writing style. Diction (choice of words) is often determined by Individuals.

9. Interpersonal communication is contextual

Communication does not happen in isolation. It takes place within certain contexts. Environmental context deals with the physical locale where you are communicating. Time of the day, season of the year, furniture, noise level, atmospheric temperature are all factors in the environmental context. An interaction that takes place in a classroom will be very different from one that takes place in a bar. Cultural context includes all the learned behaviour and rules that affect the interaction. If you come from a culture where it is considered rude to make long, direct eye contact, you will out of politeness avoid eye contact. If the other person comes from a culture where long, direct eye contact signals trustworthiness, then we have in the cultural context a basis for misunderstanding. When individuals want to communicate, their needs, desires, values, personality, etc., which constitute their psychological make-up are also brought to bear in the communication scenario.

Summary of Interpersonal Communication Principles

Communication has purpose

Communication is continuous

Communication is relational

Communication is learned

REVIEW QUESTIONS

Bimpe is with her pet in her living room. She interacts with her thus:

Bimpe: I know you’re feeling great bingo? How about an evening stroll?

Bingo: Meo! Meo!! She replied.

1. From the above scenario, describe this kind of communication.
2. Interpersonal Communication is more often than not dyadic, comment.
3. In what way is technology affecting interpersonal communication?
4. When two individuals in a relationship are conversing, how would you describe this form of communication?
5. Having studied to this point, describe the process of communication.
6. Your interpersonal communication lecturer is rubbing minds with your class, what kind of communication is taking place?
7. Give a detailed description of the various types of interpersonal communication.
8. You recently received a mail from your dad overseas, as you were reading through it, how would you describe that kind of communication?
9. When transacting with an ATM, what kind of interaction is that?
10. Describe mediated interpersonal communication citing three examples.

Chapter Three

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS AND CHARACTERISTICS

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

- Identify the characteristics of interpersonal communication
- State the different contexts of interpersonal communication
- Identify the elements of Interpersonal Communication
- Write short notes on the following elements: People, Message, Channel, Noise, Feedback, Context, Effect
- Lists the different kinds of Noise

3.1 Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication

The following are some of the features or characteristics of interpersonal communication:

1. Interpersonal communication involves two persons

One primary characteristic of interpersonal communication is the fact that it involves two individuals. This feature immediately distinguishes it from other kinds of communication such as intra-personal, extra-personal, extra-mundane, group and mass communication. This also rules out the communication we have with our pets such as cats, dogs and such like. It indicates that it differs from what takes place between an individual and his electronics or electrical devices such as mobile phones, ipads, laptops and walkman.

2. Interpersonal communication involves feedback

Interpersonal communication involves direct feedback. Feedback is the message sent by the receiver back to the sender. In interpersonal communication feedback is often immediate, obvious and continuous. This means that the term interpersonal communication does not include radio or TV newscaster whose messages go from source to audience but do not return. In other words, there is no immediate feedback to the source from the audience.

3. Interpersonal communication is affected by context

Context of interpersonal communication refers to all the human and environment factors which preceded, will follow and are at work during the actual exchange of messages. Communication does not occur in a vacuum. There are countless stimuli that affect what is meant, what is said and what is understood in a message exchange. Individuals involved in interpersonal communication must be in a position to receive signals from each other.

Context often determines content. We usually talk about different kinds of things depending on whether we are alone with a friend or surrounded by people who can eavesdrop on our conversation; on whether we are speaking over the phone or talking face-to-face; on whether we are happy or sad. These factors make up the communication context and have great effect on the quality of the communication that takes place.

4. Interpersonal communication is affected by noise

Noise is a factor in every communication. Noise can be of different kinds. There is the physical noise or environmental noise. Our environment is filled with physical noise.

This type of noise can also be referred to as external noise. Instances of physical noise:

- When somebody suddenly shouts when you are conversing with another individual.
- When talking to somebody and a door slams
- When talking to somebody and a car screeches to stop behind you
- When talking to somebody and a baby cries
- When talking to somebody and a car horn honks
- Stench from a nearby refuse dump or sewage
- Riot
- Traffic (vehicular and human)
- Mobile phones or computer interference etc.

There is psychological noise. This noise is usually hard to detect. This kind of noise is often overlooked because we may not have thought much about it; and because it is difficult to compensate for. Psychological noise exists both in the minds of the sender and the receiver.

Sometimes we have caught ourselves thinking while another person was talking to us: “what is he talking about,” “please let this fellow just leave me in peace,” “who does she think she is?,” “why did I just mention that?,” “why is this lecturer talking to me like that?”among others. We are communicating with ourselves about a message we are sending and we are in a sense, momentarily distracted from sending that message. To be able to communicate effectively, we must overcome both.

Aside the above two, there is the physiological noise. This kind of noise is related to biological factors such as hearing or speech impairment, sight problem and some not-so-obvious illnesses. Both physiological and psychological noise can be referred to as internal noise.

There are also semantic noise and intellectual noise. Semantic noise is due to the failure to understand the intended meaning of one or more words or the context in which the words are being used. This happens as a result of the use of jargon or different language when communicating. Intellectual noise is due largely to information overload or under-load including over or under-preparedness before the interpersonal communication commences.

5. Interpersonal communication is not only face-to-face

Face-to-face conversation is one of the features of interpersonal communication. Nonetheless, all interpersonal communication need not be face-to-face. You can speak to a person via your mobile phone. You can communicate with somebody by gestures, gesticulation and without even turning to look at the person. Example is when you are busy on your laptop or fiddling with your mobile like playing a game, you may not even look up before answering a question or responding to a greeting.

We do not however advocate for this manner of interpersonal communication. Losing direct contact means losing a major factor in feedback. Face-to-face is ideal and more effective since you can gauge each others’ emotions through eye contacts, nods, smiles, frown and heartbeats.

6. Interpersonal communication does not need to be intentional

Interpersonal communication is not necessarily deliberate. You might find out that somebody has lied to you through a slip of the tongue. You could discover that a person is very nervous around you by the constant shifting of weight from one foot to another, continual fumbling over words or by other nervous reactions. You might decide that you do not want to be around a person at all because of a certain mannerism. The person probably did not intentionally communicate these things but they are messages because they are signals that affect you.

7. Interpersonal communication produces some effect

A message must produce some effect to be truly considered an interpersonal communication. Weaver (1984, p. 16) identifies some scenarios to underscore this need for effect:

If you walk along the sidewalk towards a person you don’t know, wearing your broadest, warmest, I-want-to-get-to-know-you-better smile, and the other person doesn’t see you and walk on by, no interpersonal communication has taken place. A similar situation occurs if you are talking to someone while that person is listening to music on stereo headphones or using a hair dryer and doesn’t hear you. These are not interpersonal communications if the messages are not received and have caused no effect.

8. Interpersonal communication does not need to involve words

Interpersonal communication can take place nonverbally. Weaver (1984, p. 17) posits that “Nonverbal messages are a powerful and significant form of interpersonal communication.” You need not speak before you can convey your love to your spouse or friend. Sometimes a simple eye contact “speaks” volumes. You can wink, roll your balls, close one of your eyes, raise your eyebrow or even drop some tears. You can communicate interpersonally by touching, nodding, crying, smiling, licking your lips, pouting your mouth, sticking out your tongues, playing footsies with your feet and toes etc.

9. Interpersonal communication involves quality

Interpersonal communication is defined these days not just on the basis of number of people who communicate but the quality of the communication. The way we treat a waiter in a restaurant is different from the way we treat a friend in a restaurant. Interpersonal communication occurs not just when we interact with someone, but when we treat the other as a unique human being. Conversation with someone based on the individual’s role is quite impersonal, it becomes an interpersonal communication when such involves elements of empathy, sympathy, affection and some levels of self-disclosure.

10. Interpersonal communication occurs simultaneously

Interpersonal communication is not a one-sided monologue. It is a dialogue in the sense that all communicators are influenced and meaning is created simultaneously. Both people are communicating at the same time, and there is mutual influence. When you communicate with someone interpersonally, both participants act on verbal and nonverbal information originating from the other person. While you are with a friend in a restaurant conversing over a bottle of drink, you will be observing your friend’s nonverbal cues—eye contact, body posture, clothing and facial expressions. All these nonverbal cues give you information regarding your friend and how the relationship is going.

11. Interpersonal communication involves mutual influence

Interpersonal communication involves attempt at mutual influence. This means both participants are affected by the interaction. This not about persuasion or mind management. You may not actually set out to sway the other person, but as you communicate with each other, you mutually influence each other either positively or negatively. Every interpersonal communication interaction influences us. Sometimes it changes our lives dramatically, sometimes in small ways. Long-lasting interpersonal relationships are sustained not by one person giving and another person taking, but by mutually satisfying communication.

12. Interpersonal communication helps manage relationships

Relationships are ongoing connections we make with others through interpersonal communication. When we move away from impersonal communication, we move towards interpersonal communication in relationships. We initiate and form relationships by communicating with those whom we find attractive in some way. We seek to increase our attraction with people we would like to know better, and we interpersonally communicate to maintain those relationships. We also use interpersonal communication to end relationships we have decided are no longer viable.

Relationships develop for different reasons. There are relationships that develop based on some circumstances or situation and ones that are formed intentionally (i.e. relationship of choice). Relationships of circumstance form situationally—simply because our lives overlap with others’ lives in some way, or because a situation brings us into contact. Relationships with family members, classmates, lecturers, and co-workers fall into this category. In contrast, when we seek out and intentionally develop relationships, those are termed “relationships of choice” (Beebe, 2001, p. 179) . These relationships include friends and spouses. These relationship categories are not mutually exclusive. Relationships of circumstance can change into relationships of choice: your brother or sister can turn out to be your best friend. Conversely, you may be very close a certain family member, but over time, that relationship becomes more distant and evolves into more of a relationship of circumstance than choice.

[...]

• Author: Anthony Uche (Author)
• Publication Year: 2018
• Pages: 127
• Catalog Number: V1130380
• ISBN (eBook): 9783346490155
• ISBN (Book): 9783346490162
• Language: English
• Tags: interpersonal, communication, tertiary, institutions