The crisis of ethics in our time calls for a synoptic view capable of kindling confident teleological motivation, in persons and societies. It is futile to search for the "clear and distinct idea" in a field of such universal importance as ethics, for which the ordinary discourse of humanity is well suited. Rather, our notions must be open, open to the analogies in things and situations, and open too to the real human situation in all its depth and breadth, such things as the desires of the human heart, the burdens of finitude, misfortune and death, the polarization of the sexes, the insights and traditions of religion, the exigences of politics, the compelling witness of the arts and of literature.
The reason for this universal importance, such that a field of discourse considered especially intractable or even, recently, "queer" (J.L. Mackie), cannot be isolated as if somehow less scientific and hence inherently problematical or "emotive", was clearly stated by Aristotle when founding this science, this theoria of praxis. It is that ethics is concerned with the nature and end of man, with man, that is, in view of his characteristic action or praxis. That is to say, to take the short way for the present, it is the science of human happiness, of how to be happy. But this is the object of all human endeavour without exception. Hence, if its content be ever identified, e.g. as the vision of God, then it will follow that this content is the ultimate aim of all our civil and social arrangements, a conclusion that St. Thomas unhesitatingly draws.1
1 Summa contra gentiles III 37.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION: INCLINATIONS AND BEATITUDE
1. ETHICS
2. HUMAN ACTS
3. FINIS ULTIMUS
4. TELEOLOGY
5. THE VIRTUES
6. DUTY, OBLIGATION, LAW
7. MORALS AND METAPHYSICS: FACT AND VALUE
8. WHAT IS LAW?
9. NATURAL LAW IN ST. THOMAS'S THOUGHT
10. NATURAL LAW - OTHER VIEWS
11. DOES MORALITY REQUIRE A DIVINE LAW-GIVER?
12. CONSCIENCE
13. THE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES
14. THE MORAL VIRTUES
15. THE CARDINAL VIRTUES
16. THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES
17. NATURAL LAW AND THE ACTS OF THE VIRTUES
18. PRUDENCE: THE UNITY OF THE VIRTUES
19. A FOURFOLD SCHEME
20. JUSTICE: LEGAL AND MORAL DEBT
21. FORTITUDE: THE EXAMPLE OF AUDACITY
22. TEMPERANCE AND THE BONUM HONESTUM
23. NATURAL INCLINATIONS AND THEIR ORDER
Objectives and Topics
This work provides an interpretation of the moral philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas, focusing on the interplay between natural inclinations, human action, law, and virtue. The central research objective is to demonstrate that Thomistic ethics is fundamentally teleological, rooted in an objective metaphysical understanding of being and goodness, rather than a system of extrinsic commands or duty-based formalisms.
- The relationship between natural human inclinations and the natural law.
- The necessity of a teleological framework for understanding moral acts.
- The role of virtues (intellectual, moral, and theological) as intrinsic principles of action.
- A critique of modern ethical theories, such as Kantianism and consequentialism, from a Thomistic perspective.
- The integration of the spiritual life and the pursuit of happiness (beatitude) within moral philosophy.
Excerpt from the Book
1. ETHICS
This term is derived from Greek ethos, custom, corresponding to Latin mos (gen. moris), hence morals, moral philosophy.
As founded by Aristotle ethics is the science of action, of human acts (actus humani, see Chapter Two), already extensively considered in the dialogues of Plato, building upon the life and work of Socrates.
Ethics is a practical science in the sense that it aims to achieve something, viz. man's good. It does not, however, aim at secondary goods (as does, say, the science of medicine, as aiming at health), but at man's absolute good, the finis ultimus or ultimate purpose (meaning) of life. For this reason it is a part of philosophy, given that philosophy studies the first causes or highest principles of things (in so far as these belong to the natural order alone, i.e. apart from revelation).
As science ethics is a theory of practical living, however, and hence it is not essentially practical, like an art or a moral virtue. There are degrees of practicality, in other words. Ethics is imperfectly practical. It does not, for example, apply rules to practical cases; it merely supplies or provides such rules.
Summary of Chapters
INTRODUCTION: INCLINATIONS AND BEATITUDE: This chapter establishes the necessity of a teleological perspective in ethics, arguing that human desire is naturally ordered toward a transcendent end.
1. ETHICS: This chapter defines ethics as a practical science aimed at the absolute good, distinct from prudence in its theoretical nature.
2. HUMAN ACTS: Explains the distinction between voluntary human acts and mere acts of man, emphasizing that intellect and will are the primary powers driving action toward an end.
3. FINIS ULTIMUS: Argues that human life must be directed toward one supreme end, beatitude, which St. Thomas identifies as the intellectual vision of God.
4. TELEOLOGY: Posits that all moral precepts must be understood as being ordered toward an end, rejecting theories of obligation that are divorced from the good.
5. THE VIRTUES: Introduces virtues as the essential habits required for man to attain his end, framing the bulk of moral philosophy around these dispositions.
6. DUTY, OBLIGATION, LAW: Distinguishes between intrinsic principles of action (virtues) and extrinsic principles (laws), grounding obligation in the divine lawgiver.
7. MORALS AND METAPHYSICS: FACT AND VALUE: Critiques the Kantian separation of morals from metaphysics, asserting that value is an objective property of being.
8. WHAT IS LAW?: Explores the connection between law, the causality of the good, and the fundamental precept of natural law: that good is to be pursued and evil avoided.
9. NATURAL LAW IN ST. THOMAS'S THOUGHT: Details the theistic basis of natural law as a participation in the eternal law by the rational creature.
10. NATURAL LAW - OTHER VIEWS: Contrasts St. Thomas’s view with other interpretations, defending the idea that nature itself is normative.
11. DOES MORALITY REQUIRE A DIVINE LAW-GIVER?: Discusses whether moral obligation necessitates a divine source, contrasting Kantian autonomy with the Thomistic view of reason as a reflection of divine order.
12. CONSCIENCE: Defines conscience as an act of reason, arguing that while one must follow it, erroneous conscience is not an absolute excuse if ignorance is culpable.
13. THE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES: Categorizes virtues that perfect the intellect, distinguishing them from the moral virtues which require right desire.
14. THE MORAL VIRTUES: Focuses on virtues residing in the will, responsible for moderating passions and subjecting the will to reason.
15. THE CARDINAL VIRTUES: Examines the four principal virtues (prudence, justice, fortitude, temperance) as the hinge points of moral life.
16. THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES: Argues that faith, hope, and charity are necessary for the attainment of the supernatural end, distinguishing them from cardinal virtues.
17. NATURAL LAW AND THE ACTS OF THE VIRTUES: Connects the natural law to the practice of the virtues, arguing that acting virtuously is the natural fulfillment of the rational soul.
18. PRUDENCE: THE UNITY OF THE VIRTUES: Discusses the interdependency of the virtues, particularly how prudence acts as the unifying virtue.
19. A FOURFOLD SCHEME: Tabulates the properties of the four cardinal virtues using St. Thomas's scheme of definitions and integral, subjective, and potential parts.
20. JUSTICE: LEGAL AND MORAL DEBT: Clarifies the difference between legal and moral debts, emphasizing the role of legal justice in ordering all virtues to the common good.
21. FORTITUDE: THE EXAMPLE OF AUDACITY: Uses audacity to analyze the balance between fear and excess in the virtue of fortitude.
22. TEMPERANCE AND THE BONUM HONESTUM: Explores the connection between temperance, spiritual beauty, and the moderation of bodily pleasures.
23. NATURAL INCLINATIONS AND THEIR ORDER: Concludes by showing how the hierarchy of natural inclinations integrates the entire Thomistic vision of the good life.
Keywords
St. Thomas Aquinas, Natural Law, Teleology, Virtue, Beatitude, Human Acts, Conscience, Prudence, Justice, Temperance, Fortitude, Grace, Morality, Metaphysics, Finis Ultimus
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the fundamental premise of this book?
The book interprets St. Thomas Aquinas's moral philosophy to demonstrate that all human action is inherently teleological—directed toward an ultimate end, which is God—and that natural law is the rational expression of this order.
What are the central themes of the work?
The central themes include the integration of virtue and law, the metaphysical foundation of morality, the role of natural inclinations in defining ethical precepts, and the unity of moral and spiritual life.
How does the author define the ultimate goal of human life?
Following Aquinas, the author identifies the ultimate goal as beatitude, understood not merely as a secular flourishing but as the intellectual vision of God, which is the only end that fully satisfies the human will.
What methodology does the author employ?
The author employs an analytical and historically grounded approach, engaging deeply with the primary texts of the Summa Theologica and contrasting Thomistic thought with modern philosophical perspectives such as Kantianism and utilitarianism.
What is discussed in the main sections of the book?
The main sections cover the theory of human action, the nature of law and conscience, a comprehensive treatment of intellectual and moral virtues, and detailed case studies on cardinal virtues like fortitude, temperance, and justice.
Which keywords best characterize this work?
The most important keywords are St. Thomas Aquinas, Natural Law, Teleology, Virtue, Beatitude, and Metaphysics.
How does the book address the concept of duty?
The author argues that duty is not a formal requirement created by individual reason, but rather an obligation derived from the objective goodness of the end toward which human nature is ordered by the Creator.
How does the author differentiate between legal and moral debts?
Legal debt is binding under justice as it pertains to things strictly due to others according to law, while moral debt is owed ex honestate virtutis—necessary for the preservation of moral integrity, even if not enforceable as a legal contract.
What role do the passions play in Thomistic ethics?
Passions themselves are morally neutral; their moral quality is determined by their moderation according to reason, which is achieved through the development of the moral virtues.
Why is the concept of "spiritual beauty" (honestas) important?
Honestas represents the intrinsic nobility of virtuous action, serving as a bridge between the pursuit of secondary goods and the ultimate union with God, illustrating that virtue is desirable both as a means and for its own sake.
- Quote paper
- Dr. Stephen Theron (Author), 2008, Thomas Aquinas: Happiness, Desire, Virtue, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/114279
