Potentials of virtual museums - media-specific conception of cultural learning environments

Index

Acknowledgement

1 Abstract

2 Introduction

3 Basics and Definitions
3.1 Technology
3.1.1 Internet and World Wide Web
3.1.2 Multimedia
3.1.3 Interactivity
3.1.4 Virtuality
3.2 Pedagogy and Didactics
3.2.1 Knowledge and Learning Theories
3.2.2 Online Learning
3.2.3 Museum Pedagogy
3.3 Museology
3.3.1 The Traditional Museum
3.3.2 Museums as Cultural Institutions
3.3.3 The Meaning of Authentic Objects
3.3.4 The Museum’s Paradigm Shift
3.4 The Virtual Museum

4 Existing Virtual Museums and Their Visitors
4.1 Overview
4.2 Presentation of Selected Websites
4.2.1 The Virtual Museum of Canada
4.2.2 Landesgeschichte Nordrhein-Westfalen
4.2.3 Karlsruher Türkenbeute
4.2.4 The Getty Museum
4.2.5 LeMO (Lebendiges virtuelles Museum Online)
4.2.6 Lewis & Clark
4.3 Key Findings

5 Opportunities and Challenges of Virtual Museums
5.1 Benefits for Different Visitor Groups
5.1.1 The General Public
5.1.2 Children and Pupils
5.1.3 Teachers
5.1.4 Researchers
5.2 Challenges From the Visitors’ Point of View
5.2.1 The Lack of Reality
5.2.2 The Problem of Scale
5.2.3 Limited Social Interaction
5.2.4 Technical Requirements
5.3 Benefits for Providers
5.3.1 Extended Fulfilment of the Museum’s Mission
5.3.2 Connection, Communication and Cooperation
5.3.3 Overcoming Real Exhibitions’ Limitations
5.3.4 Marketing Purposes for Real Museums
5.3.5 Merchandising and Charging for Content
5.4 Challenges From the Providers’ Point of View
5.4.1 New Tasks, Costs and Little Experience
5.4.2 Digitisation and Standardisation
5.4.3 Increasing Needs for Quality Control
5.4.4 Ownership and Rights Management
5.4.5 Competition and the Need for Collaboration
5.5 Summary and Consequences

6 Knowledge and Culture Intermediation in Virtual Museums
6.1 Conditions of Learning in Virtual Museums
6.1.1 Communicational Characteristics
6.1.2 The Need for Motivation
6.2 The Meaning of Constructivism
6.2.1 Applied Learning Theories in Traditional Museums
6.2.2 Constructivist Structures in Virtual Museums
6.3 The Meaning of Prior Knowledge
6.3.1 Learning as Conceptual Change
6.3.2 The Paradox of Continuity
6.3.3 Practical Implications of Prior Knowledge Theory
6.4 Networked Information
6.4.1 Traditional Exhibition Design
6.4.2 Contextualisation in Virtual Museums
6.4.3 Connectedness of Virtual Museums
6.5 Digital Storytelling
6.5.1 Online Dramaturgy
6.5.2 Integrative Multimedia Composition
6.5.3 Personification and Humanisation
6.5.4 Digital Storyboarding
6.6 Visitor Orientation
6.6.1 Offering a Broad Range of Options
6.6.2 Means of Individualisation
6.7 Visitor Activation and Participation
6.7.1 Theoretical Background
6.7.2 Types of Educational User Interaction
6.7.3 The Entertainment Value of Virtual Museums
6.8 Socialisation in Virtual Museums
6.8.1 Means of Asynchronous Communication
6.8.2 Means of Synchronous Communication

7 Practical Example of a Virtual History Museum
7.1 Project Definition
7.1.1 Topic, Scope and Target Group
7.1.2 Goals from the History Didactical Perspective
7.1.3 Goals from the Multimedia Production Perspective
7.2 Conception and Prototype Production
7.2.1 Instructional Design
7.2.2 Interface Design
7.2.3 Scenario: A Possible Path Through the Virtual Museum
7.2.4 Design Manual and Media Formats
7.2.5 Selected Features and Their Purpose
7.2.6 Technical Issues
7.2.7 Formative Prototype Evaluation and Improvement
7.3 Results of the Feasibility Study

8 Conclusion
8.1 Summary of Main Results
8.1.1 Theoretical Findings
8.1.2 Practical Experiences
8.2 Future Outlook
8.2.1 Tendencies of Virtual Learning Museums
8.2.2 The Practical Project’s Prospects

References

List of Figures

List of Tables

Authorship and Main Areas of Responsibility

1 Abstract

This paper is about the chances of virtual museums’ success in the intermediation of cultural knowledge to internet users. Existing websites are analysed and benefits as well as challenges for both visitors and providers are discussed. Afterwards, the core part of this thesis (chapter 6) addresses the question how digital environments can be optimised following modern learning theories. Finally, the findings and results are applied to the prototype of a virtual history museum.

The issue is highly relevant since opportunities for life-long and leisure learning have become increasingly important in our information age. Besides the public educational mission which museums are obliged to fulfil, institutions as well as their visitors can significantly benefit from the establishment of cultural learning environments on the internet if certain crucial factors for success are taken into account. Central ideas that are derived from the theoretical part of this paper are these:

- Virtual museums must not primarily aim at teaching their visitors, but they should serve as stimulating learning environments which seek to motivate and support visitors’ self-directed knowledge construction.
- Cultural learning environments should be strongly visitor-oriented. They need to be set up in a way that enables visitors to interactively choose their preferred style of navigation and allows them to participate and socialise. Didactically prepared content which addresses prior knowledge should support users in developing individual interpretations of the exhibited topics. The material provided should be networked by means of internal contextualisation as well as external connectedness.

From the practical project work of this thesis, the following results are most important:

- The creation of cultural online learning environments is an interdisciplinary task that requires the continuous involvement and close collaboration of museum personnel, pedagogues and multimedia professionals. The goal must be to create applications which are didactically founded as well as attractive, inspiring and enjoyable.
- An aspect that virtual history museums can especially benefit from is the possibility of networking information since it serves the idea of providing multiple perspectives on past events. Furthermore, the interactive and animated presentation of content helps to give a vivid and tangible impression of history.

The findings of this thesis reflect the museological paradigm shift from object-oriented towards information-oriented exhibitions. One major implication is that the sole digitisation of existing collections cannot be sufficient. To assure the long-term success of virtual museums, investment in the sophisticated preparation of material and the technical optimisation of cultural learning environments is obligatory.

2 Introduction

The increasingly important task of modern virtual museums is to provide didactically arranged information. This demand is especially valid for websites that are supposed to serve as cultural learning environments. In order to encourage and support learners’ knowledge construction, it is necessary to consider the different needs and preferences of the anticipated user groups. As the development of visitor-oriented and satisfying applications is challenging and costly, the critical factors for success need to be considered in advance. This paper is meant to outline those which are most important for the intermediation of knowledge and culture in order to assist conception and design processes in future projects.

Today, nearly every real museum has an online counterpart, although the quality of the internet presences varies from simple brochure websites for marketing purposes to sophisticated learning environments. The importance of publishing educational information is derived from museums’ mission statements, which demand the collection, preservation as well as the public exhibition of objects and information. Although these statements are usually related to traditional institutions, it is a logical exercise to extend them to their virtual equivalents. A further aspect which demonstrates the rising importance of creating cultural learning environments on the internet is the fact that the audience can theoretically be about one billion visitors^[1] – this is the number of people who currently have access to the internet worldwide.

Previous research on the general potentials of virtual museums has already been done, as can be seen from the reference list of this thesis. Little existing material explicitly focuses on the optimisation of online learning processes which would appear to be crucial in view of museums’ educational mission. Therefore, this thesis analyses traditional pedagogical and didactical approaches as well as conventional museological tendencies with regard to their applicability to virtual museums.

Considering the research that has already been conducted on the one hand and the complexity of the topic on the other, the boundaries of this work are clearly set. The focus of discussion is derived from the practical project on which the authors of this thesis are currently involved:

- The emphasis is defined to be the intermediation of cultural knowledge in virtual museums. It addresses the question how digital learning environments can be optimised with regard to constructivist and other theories including aspects like motivation, contextualisation and visitor participation.
- Among several potential visitor groups of virtual museums, pupils and teachers are found to be of outstanding importance due to the mutual benefits for both sides.
- Due to the multi-disciplinarity of the topic which includes internet and multimedia technologies, pedagogy and didactics, online learning and museology, none of these fields can be discussed in complete detail. Instead, the focus is set on the combination of these sciences and the effects on the creation of virtual museums.
- Technical requirements and feasibility aspects are taken into account as far as this is possible. Still, comprehensive programming questions such as content management systems, 3D visualisation, XML and information objects cannot be discussed within the scope of this thesis.

The paper is based on publications by international authors and scientists from varying backgrounds. For basic museological theory, Friedrich Waidacher’s work is consulted repeatedly. The contributions of Werner Schweibenz and Suzanne Keene are extraordinarily valuable on the opportunities and challenges of museums entering the digital environment. Regarding institution and visitor statistics, the surveys and essays of Petra and Gernot Schuck-Wersig turned out to be very helpful. Two internet resources which serve as extensive research forums are the German conference website “Museums and the Internet”^[2] and the online archive of the annual international conference “Museums and the Web”^[3], which goes back to David Bearman.

In order to provide an overview on the structure of this thesis, the focus of the separate chapters can be described as follows:

- Chapter 3 provides basics and definitions of the different disciplines which are involved in the discussion of virtual museums. They result in the introduction and characterisation of the virtual museum itself.
- The basics are followed by an analysis of the status quo in relation to existing virtual museums and their visitors in chapter 4. In keeping with the focus of this thesis, only those examples which can be categorised as learning museums are taken into account. A few of them are selected for presentation and discussion in order to provide an impression of the current possibilities and approaches to designing cultural online learning environments.
- Chapter 5 analyses and summarises the general opportunities and challenges of virtual museums from the perspective of the providers as well as the visitors. Key target groups are defined to be the general public, children and pupils, teachers and researchers.
- As the core part of this thesis, chapter 6 elaborately discusses the requirements and conditions for the successful intermediation of knowledge and culture in virtual museums. Motivation is identified as an essential factor of optimised learning environments. It can be enhanced by implementing didactically prepared content which addresses visitors’ prior knowledge and promotes the idea of arranging information in a networked manner. Dramatic digital storytelling as well as visitor orientation including means of activation, participation and socialisation are other important aspects which are taken into close consideration.
- Chapter 7 contains the practical example of a virtual history museum and applies the results of the theoretical analysis. A prototype which matches the criteria that a learning museum should fulfil is conceived. It focuses on the implementation of moderated constructivist theories and tries to present its components in a highly networked manner. The entire spectrum of potential users is supposed to be attracted by visitor-oriented services and the adherence to accessibility standards. This prototype might serve as the basis for realising a complete virtual learning museum about Schleswig-Holstein in the future.
- Finally, the conclusion in chapter 8 summarises the main results of this thesis and provides an outlook which tries to position the task and relevance of virtual museums in the information and knowledge era.

3 Basics and Definitions

Before concentrating on the ultimate topic of the paper, this chapter is supposed to clarify some important terms which are essential for the understanding of later comments. The three main disciplines identified as relevant for the discussion of learning processes in virtual museums are technology, pedagogy and didactics as well as museology. At first, they are defined separately in a condensed way that provides an introductory overview and focuses on their meaning for this study. Afterwards, they all meet in the interdisciplinary definition of the virtual museum itself.

3.1 Technology

The implementation of museum websites is based on internet and multimedia technology which is shortly outlined below. As virtual museums are characterised by a high level of interactivity that can support the intermediation of knowledge and culture, this term needs to be defined as well. Finally, it is crucial to take a closer look at the idea of virtuality in contrast to reality which is reflected in the distinction between real museums and virtual ones.

3.1.1 Internet and World Wide Web

3.1.1.1 Definition and Characteristics

Originally developed for military information exchange purposes, the internet has become a mass medium of continuously growing significance in today’s society. Amongst others, its success goes back to the establishment of one of its main services, the information system World Wide Web (WWW), which was introduced in 1991 by Tim Berners-Lee. It is based on Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)^[4], which means that the digital content does not have to be accessed in a linear way from beginning to end. Instead, the provision of links between related chunks of information allows jumping from one position to the next and back by just a mouse-click. The following statement of Berners-Lee points towards the relevance of the internet for our information age:

“The dream behind the web is a common information space in which we communicate by sharing information.” (Berners-Lee, 1998: WWW)

The newest “Allensbacher Computerund Technik-Analyse (ACTA) 2003” describes the internet as a medium that answers very targeted requests for information or transactions. In contrast to print media or TV, for example, the delivery of online content depends on the question whether or not there is a well-defined or activated need for it on the side of the audience (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW). This fact is connected to the unique characteristics of the internet that users can benefit from, including the following aspects:

- The internet allows two-way communication (cp. Keene, 1998: 11). The users are not forced into the role of passive recipients, but can actively communicate for their part. Interactivity allows self-determined usage of internet services and is defined in chapter 3.1.3 of this thesis.
- The internet is a hybrid medium which supports different forms of communication such as one-to-one (e.g. email), one-to-many (e.g. newsletter) and many-to-many (e.g. chat).
- The internet can be especially up-to-date (cp. Meschenmoser, 2002: 167): Information that is published online can be altered or complemented quickly and without great effort. Thus, internet users generally expect to find the latest news.
- The internet is available worldwide, any time and any place that the user is free to choose independently.
- The internet is a pluralistic medium that anyone can publish content in (cp. Meschenmoser, 2002: 167).
- The internet allows the integration of different data formats such as text, image, animation, sound, video and 3D (cp. Meschenmoser, 2002: 167). As this is essential for the creation of virtual museums, chapter 3.1.2 provides some approaches to defining the term multimedia.

3.1.1.2 Statistics on Internet Usage

On the WWW, websites serve as graphical user interfaces and grant access to all sorts of online resources and services that have developed over the past years, commercial as well as non-commercial. While the offers multiply, bandwidths grow and costs decrease, more and more users connect to the online world. The following statistics concentrate on the German market since the practical example of a virtual museum conception in chapter 7 is about Schleswig-Holstein’s regional history and mainly aims at German internet users.

According to the “ACTA 2003” (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW), 55.7% of the 14 to 64 year old German population used the internet in 2003, either professionally or privately:

illustration not visible in this excerpt

Fig. 1: Internet Usage and Internet Potential in Germany (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW).

Compared to the fact that already three out of four US citizens have private internet access at home (Nielsen//NetRatings 2004: WWW), the German figures may appear to be low. However, it must be considered that in international comparison, the USA have been and still are a precursor when it comes to the establishment of online technology. The finding that 55.7% of the German population used the internet in 2003 means that more than half of the population is connected, which should not be underestimated.

As can be seen from the diagram, the German internet usage once more increased significantly after the growth seemed to slightly flatten between 2001 and 2002. Due to this spreading it is evident that the internet potential, which defines the number of people who intend to become internet users, decreases steadily. However, 11.5% of the interviewed target group still plans to get connected to the internet within a foreseeable period of time. In addition to this tendency of more and more internet connections, the intensity of usage increases as well. According to the ACTA study (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW), the percentage of German users who are online for more than one hour per day rose from 17% to 23% while already 25% of all users accessed the internet daily. The web usage statistics of Nielsen//NetRatings (2004: WWW) for the German home and work panel in May 2004 prove that German internet users have averagely visited 80 different domains in 38 internet sessions. The total time spent online added up to about 33 hours per person, the viewing duration of every single web page being 38 seconds.

Besides the internet usage, the number of broadband connections that allow convenient access to huge amounts of data significantly increases, too. According to the German Electronic Commerce Info Net (ECIN, 2004: WWW), the worldwide number of highspeed connections has risen by 80% in 2003. Towards the end of the year, Germany has had one of the highest amounts of broadband connections in European comparison: 4.7 million German households with DSL^[5] or cable access have been counted (ECIN, 2004: WWW).

Concerning demographic characteristics, the study “Internet 2002 – International Key Facts”^[6] states that in 2002, 63% of all German internet users have been up to 40 years of age. While the group of internet users aged 50 years or older still constituted 18.3%, only 2.6% of all users have been 60 years or older (Doh, 2004: WWW).

3.1.1.3 The Statistics’ Meaning for Virtual Museums

For the discussion of virtual museums and their potentials, the outlined statistics can be considered a promising basis:

Continuously increasing internet penetration among the population means that more and more people are technically able to access virtual museums. A lot of those who do not have access yet plan to get connected. Thus, the potential target group coverage of virtual museums can be expected to be high already and to increase even further in the future. As the internet offers to address a broad audience, it might in a long-term perspective become indispensable for museums to be present online. And not only the number of internet users increases, but also does their frequency and duration of usage.

As people start to include online services in their everyday life by using them on a more and more regular basis, the chances for virtual museums to attract potential visitors are likely to rise.

However, the statistics also prove what is typical for the medium internet: The viewing duration of every single website appears to be very low. In consequence, virtual museums should meet standards of successful information and screen design which include attracting attention as quickly as possible, to hold it once attraction is gained and to offer content in small units that can be perceived easily and quickly.

The fact that broadband connections are advancing in German households leads to new opportunities in terms of the file sizes. The development of complex multimedia applications that require high speed internet access might become more and more rewarding in the next few years due to the fact that an increasing number of potential visitors will be able to view them. Not only can the amount of animations, videos and other rich components be expected to rise, also the quality of provided material might improve. Nevertheless, virtual museum content needs to be offered in alternative formats in order not to exclude those with slow internet access who still make the majority of German internet users.

Regarding the German demographics, it is obvious that virtual museums are likely to primarily target a rather young user group. Still, tendencies on the American market show that even older audiences can be worth addressing. Initiatives such as SeniorNet^[7] stress various benefits that the medium internet can hold for this specific user group. Amongst others, seniors look for and can benefit from lifelong learning and entertainment opportunities on the internet (Adler, 2002: WWW). As learning and entertainment is what virtual museums mostly seek to provide, seniors might become a relevant target group. After all, nearly every fifth German internet user is 50 years or older already, and it is only a matter of time until this number increases.

Overall, the observable technological progress will lead, according to Keene (1998: 7), to an increasing demand for online content which virtual museums might recognise and try to fulfil:

“It seems certain that the extraordinary growth of the technological infrastructure and its use will continue for several years to come, and the consequent demand for content is only just developing.” (Keene, 1998: 7)

3.1.2 Multimedia

Websites on the internet are commonly understood as multimedia products and built by utilising according technologies. In times of the new information and communication enthusiasm, the term multimedia was connected with idealistic hopes and future visions. Today, with the end of the new market’s hype, it sometimes seems to have been overused, but still resounds throughout the land. Almost as often as it has been used, the term multimedia has been defined. Etymologically, it can be understood as a combination of numerous media or as multiple means of transferring information from sender to receiver.

For the discussion of virtual museums, the two perspectives that are most interesting are the developer’s and the user’s understanding of multimedia. Richard Stang (in Nispel et al., 1998a: 14-19) addresses both:

From the technical creator’s point of view, he describes multimedia as computerbased applications which integrate different types of information such as texts, graphics, still images, moving images and sound on platforms such as CD-ROMs or the internet. Issing (in Beste & Kälke, 1996: 53-64) stresses that the output of those multimedia applications usually takes place on one single user interface which is the computer screen. There are numerous similar definitions. Some of them extend the above concept by underlining the necessity of combining at least one continuous with one discrete medium, i.e. time-dependent elements such as audio or video with static elements such as images or text.

From the users’ point of view, Stang (in Nispel et al., 1998a: 14-19; cp. Issing in Nispel et al. 1998b: 53-64) outlines three specific dimensions of multimedia applications which are the following:

- Multicodality: Multimedia applications refer to different symbolic systems or codes such as language and pictures.
- Multimodality: Multimedia applications address different human senses such as eyes and ears.
- Interactivity: Multimedia applications allow users to become active themselves.

Schulmeister (1997: 19ff) agrees with Stang in terms of interactivity which is, according to his understanding, one central and essential aspect of multimedia applications. He analyses and criticises several other approaches and comes to the following five conclusions that compose his definition of multimedia:

- Different media are presented in an integrated way.
- Data is processed and manipulated by computer technology.
- For the user, multimedia is a multisensory impression, a multiple representation of interpretable information.
- In order to distinguish multimedia from the sequential presentation of multiple media, the possibility of user interaction is of outstanding importance.
- The information that multimedia products present is symbolic expression. Its value is gained from the user’s interpretation and causes individual cognitive activity.

The combination of all these points serves as the basic definition of multimedia in this thesis. Aspects of outstanding relevance are discussed in more detail later on, when it comes to analysing the potentials of virtual museums and the opportunities of efficient knowledge and culture intermediation.

3.1.3 Interactivity

When dealing with interactive systems in modern media, data exchange between user and medium takes place bi-directionally. The user can influence and control the program flow by handling the input devices; the output is generated accordingly by the software and displayed on the screen, mostly as text or images (Broy & Spaniol, 1999: 356f). The term interactivity also refers to the possibility of self-determined access to offered content. If it is the user who can actively define the scope, the selection and the sequence of pieces of information in form of a two-way communication with the medium, a system can be called interactive (cp. Brauner et al., 1998: 180).

According to these definitions, the interactive character of the internet becomes obvious: Users continuously make decisions on what services to access when and how, the choice of websites is well directed and based on individual preferences. By using search engines and hyperlinks, users control their navigation through the network. Therefore, the internet is understood as a “pull-medium” in contrast to so-called “push-mediums” such as radio or television. The terminology originates from marketing theories and, adapted to media science, points out to the following situation that is characteristic for the interactivity of the medium: Instead of “pushing” information towards the user, the internet provides information that the interested user can “pull” out of the system^[8].

In the discussion of learning with hypermedia, Schulmeister (1997: 45) describes interactivity as the main difference between educational software and film. According to his understanding, interactivity is much more than just a technical feature of the multimedia system, because it makes a significant difference to the user’s experience. Depending on the quality of the learner’s cognitive activity, he cites three levels of human-computer interaction that have been identified by Schwier in 1992^[9]:

- Reactive interaction is the response to presented stimuli, e.g. the answer to a question.

- Proactive interaction stresses the learners’ constructional and generating activities. Their efforts exceed the plain choice of provided information and the answering of given structures. They generate unique constructions and elaborations beyond the rules that have been defined by the designer.

- Mutual interaction takes place in designs that make use of artificial intelligence or virtual reality, where learner and system can adapt to each other.

According to Deimann (2002: WWW), the two central functions of interactivity in online learning environments are individualisation and motivation. The second one mainly refers to the provision of feedback:

“Durch die Rückmeldungen kann die Lernmotivation aufrecht erhalten und eine aktive Aneignung des Wissens begünstigt werden.“ (Deimann, 2002: WWW)

In order to exploit its motivational potential, feedback should not only indicate users’ learning behaviour as right or wrong, it should also include hints about the underlying reasons for possible mistakes. Furthermore, interactive system output should be neutral, informative and geared to the user’s individual learning activity. Also, the provided feedback should be encouraging and avoid to debase the learner’s performance or to create a competitive atmosphere (Deimann, 2002: WWW).

More details on the meaning of interactivity for the intermediation of knowledge and culture in virtual museums can be found in chapter 6.7.

3.1.4 Virtuality

As this thesis is about virtual museums in contrast to real ones, a definition of the term virtuality is essential to begin with. Different online dictionaries seem to agree on the understanding of virtuality as the quality or state of being virtual. The MSN Encarta^[10] offers quite a few definitions of the term virtual, dependant on the context of use. For the topic of this paper, the first general definition and the third one coming from the computer science perspective are most interesting:

- Being something in practice: being something in effect even if not in reality or not conforming to the generally accepted definition of the term.
- Computer-generated: simulated by a computer for reasons of economics, convenience or performance.

Although both ideas seem to hold some truth at first sight – a virtual museum is a special form of institution that does not conform to the generally accepted definition of a museum, it is generated by a computer and may attempt to simulate a real museum – neither of the approaches is exactly appropriate for the purpose of this thesis.

Schulmeister (in Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 129-145) clearly states that the word virtual in the discussion of multimedia applications and modern technologies is mistakable which is why he rejects the common definitions. He argues that virtual in the given context has nothing to do with artificial, imitated or unreal. A virtual university, for example, is not fictitious, but an existing institution that is characterised by offering its services on the internet. This example reveals Schulmeister’s (in Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 129-145) conclusion which serves as the underlying basis for the analysis of virtual museums in this thesis: Instead of being understood in the sense of unreal or imitating reality, the term virtual specifies services or actions that take place on the internet. This theory is supported by Schweibenz (2001: WWW), who introduces his reflections on the virtual museum as follows:

„Der Begriff der Virtualität ist in aller Munde. Im Internet entstehen virtuelle Kaufhäuser, virtuelle Unternehmen und virtuelle Bibliotheken. Auch vor Museen macht die Virtualität nicht halt.” (Schweibenz, 2001: WWW)

Thus, virtual museums are defined as museums that are offered online and not as digital imitations of museums made of bricks and mortar. A further characterisation can be found in chapter 3.4, where the technical, pedagogical and museological basics meet in the ultimate introduction of the virtual museum itself.

3.2 Pedagogy and Didactics

As a lot of virtual museums seek to intermediate knowledge and culture to their visitors, pedagogical, psychological and didactical considerations play an important role for the design of the website. This chapter provides an overview on the main theories of knowledge representation and acquisition before introducing the topic of online learning. Finally, important museum pedagogical basics are presented and serve as a transition towards the last introductory chapter of this thesis which is about museology.

Initially, the definition of and the distinction between the terms pedagogy and didactics needs to be clarified. According to the Cambridge Dictionaries Online^[11], pedagogy is “the study of the methods and activities of teaching”.

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language^[12] largely confirms this understanding by defining the term as “the art or profession of teaching”.

When comparing this understanding with the following definition of didactics, the distinction between both terms remains obscure for the time being:

„Didaktik befasst sich mit Theorien des Unterrichts im weitesten Sinn. Gemeinsames Ziel der einzelnen didaktischen Ansätze ist es – bei unter-

schiedlicher Gewichtung – , das Gesamt der den Unterricht bedingenden Faktoren zu ermitteln und das zwischen diesen Faktoren bestehende Interdependenzverhältnis zu berücksichtigen.“ (Dorsch, 1994: 158)

The proximity of both definitions may go back to the fact that the terminological separation of didactics from pedagogy is not completely clear in English language. North American research, for example, often uses the substituting terms of instruction and instructional design for what is commonly known as didactics in European studies. Furthermore, Strittmatter & Niegemann (2000: 7) identify a negative connotation of didactics in English language, which is based on the association with a rigid, authoritarian way of teaching. However, literature review for this thesis comprises references not only in English, but also in German, which is why the consulting of the German Duden Dictionary of Foreign Words (Dose et al., 1990: 563 & 138) seems to be another appropriate attempt of clarifying the terminology. In fact, the book offers definitions that do show a certain level of distinction between pedagogy and didactics:

„Pädagogik: Theorie und Praxis der Erziehung und Bildung; Erziehungswissenschaft. –

Didaktik: Lehre vom Lehren und Lernen; Unterrichtslehre, -kunde.“

Pedagogy is defined as the superior theory and practice of upbringing and educating, whereas didactics is defined as the subordinated theory of teaching and learning. This understanding can be found confirmed in expert literature:

Kron (2000: 29ff) presents the term didactics from different perspectives and in varying contexts, one of them being the categorisation as one partial discipline of pedagogy. He underlines the central position of didactics within pedagogical courses of studies and the high interconnectivity towards adjacent disciplines in numerous fields of cooperation. Didactics is understood as a science that has the ideological potential of optimising teaching and learning processes, whatever the specific purpose may be. It is about the interactions between sender (teacher), receiver (student) and the content (knowledge) that is supposed to be intermediated. In related literature, this constellation is commonly referred to as the “didactic triangle” (cp. Strittmatter & Niegemann, 2000: 9). It visualises the “double-bind-situation” of the teacher who on the one hand needs to concentrate on the subject, while on the other hand he needs to keep an eye on the audience in order to observe listeners’ reactions.

Didactics is not limited to organised, professional teaching and learning situations such as classical school lessons. Instead, any teaching and learning process that takes place anywhere and anytime can be understood as subject to didactics (cp. Kron, 2000: 291f). Theory is put into practice by the development of instructional methodologies that build the basis for teachers’ thinking and acting. Subject didactics relate to a specific content that is supposed to be intermediated (cp. Kron, 2000: 33ff). For the discussion of virtual museums, history didactics, for example, are of special interest because they deal with the question how to optimise the intermediation of historical knowledge and culture. The practical project part of this thesis (chapter 7) explains and applies different criteria that need to be considered in a didactically optimised presentation of history.

3.2.1 Knowledge and Learning Theories

Before concentrating on the most important learning theories, it is essential to basically define how knowledge is represented in the human brain, and there are different explanatory approaches. Hein (1995: WWW) describes two oppositional ones:

- The first approach is called realism and based on the belief that an absolute knowledge exists independently from the learner. Learning, accordingly, means to arrive at knowledge through an intellectual process (Hein, 1995: WWW).
- The second approach, in contrast, follows the idea that knowledge is constructed by the learner and only exists in the mind of the knower.

This second approach leads to theories of semantic webs and schemata, which, according to Terlutter (2001: WWW), are the most important models of knowledge representation in the human brain.

Semantic webs involve numerous nodes and links. While the nodes represent certain terms, characteristics, situations or events, the links represent associative relations between the nodes. Links are directed in the form of arrows, can be labelled and may vary in strength, depending on how close a relation is. Terlutter (2001: WWW) presents an example of the term “Andy Warhol” being more closely related to the term “art museum” than to the term “science museum”. In the discussion of semantic webs, learning is understood as the connection of new nodes, the reorganisation or the intensification of existing associative links. Interactions between existing mental structures and new environmental stimuli are the basis for knowledge acquisition. Terlutter (2001: WWW) exemplarily states that someone who visits a Warhol exhibition for the first time will add a node for the term “Pop Art” to his semantic web.

Schemata are understood as cognitive structures of organised existing knowledge about typical relations and the most important characteristics of a certain topic (Terlutter, 2001: WWW; cp. Zimbardo, 1995: 365). Represented in a hierarchical network structure, they are autonomous, distinguished parts of a semantic web. Schemata are entities that are activated as a whole and significantly influence human information processing: Schema-relevant information is preferably processed, saved and better memorised than information which is not relevant to existing schemata. According to this theory which goes back to Piaget^[13] (cp. Kron & Sofos, 2003: 96ff), learning means to acquire new or to modify existing schemata by processes of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration. The underlying belief is that learning is the basis for human survival and development:

“Assimilation increases knowledge while preserving of structure, by integrating information into existing schemata. Accommodation increases knowledge by modifying structure to account for new experience. […] The critical episodes in learning occur when a tension arises between assimilation and accommodation, and neither mechanism can succeed on its own. Equilibration coordinates assimilation and accommodation, allowing the learner to craft a new, more coherent balance between schemata and sensory evidence.” (Roschelle, 2000: WWW)

Concerning assimilation, Terlutter (2001: WWW) exemplary quotes that a visitor who gets to know a new impressionist in a museum could add his name to his existing schema “painter”. An example for accommodation could be that the museum visitor realises that he needs to extend his schema “paintings” by an attribute of scale in order to pay respect to an exceptionally large work of art. In case of equilibration, a severe intervention into the existing schema takes place. The exemplary museum visitor might need to redefine his schema of “modern art” after having encountered new forms of presentation such as video installations that he did not know before (Terlutter, 2001: WWW).

Knowledge can be categorised into different types, one of the most common categorisations being the distinction of declarative, procedural and contextual or conditional knowledge:

- Declarative knowledge is understood as the knowledge of facts. It includes to know about something or to know that something applies. The term declarative points out to the fact that this kind of knowledge can be declared in spoken or written form (cp. Zimbardo, 1995: 379ff). An example of declarative knowledge could be the date of an historical event.
- Procedural knowledge, in contrast, refers to how things are done or how declarative knowledge is used in order to complete a given task. It may contain knowledge about different steps that need to be taken in a process or knowledge about alternative ways of doing something (cp. Zimbardo, 1995: 379ff). Sufficient practice of procedural knowledge can allow people to perform an activity automatically without conscious reflection, such as driving a car, for example.
- Contextual or conditional knowledge, finally, is about knowing when, where and why declarative or procedural knowledge is applied. It refers to specific situations, their context and the appropriateness of reacting in one way or the other.

After having outlined some basics about knowledge representation and before discussing the question how virtual museums can act as learning environments, it is essential to clarify the following aspects: What is learning? How does it take place and what are the main different learning theories? What factors can hinder or assist learning?

Per definition of the Cambridge Dictionaries Online^[14], to learn means “to get knowledge or skill in a new subject or activity”, and learning is defined as “the activity of obtaining knowledge”. This activity seems to be the interaction of learners with a well-defined content in order to achieve certain objectives. However, learning does not necessarily have to be conscious or targeted^[15], and its definition varies according to the theoretical perspective that is taken. From the psychological point of view, learning is defined as follows:

„Lernen ist ein Prozess, der zu relativ stabilen Veränderungen im Verhalten oder im Verhaltenspotential führt und auf Erfahrung aufbaut. Lernen ist nicht direkt zu beobachten. Es muss aus den Veränderungen des beobachtbaren Verhaltens erschlossen werden.“ (Zimbardo, 1995: 263)

While Zimbardo focuses on behavioural changes exclusively, learning can also refer to the acquisition of knowledge, as indicated in the very first citation above. Dorsch (1994: 877) defines the acquisition of knowledge as

„Lernen von Sachverhalten der Welt oder der eigenen Person, von Strategien für Problemlösungen, von Metakognitionen (Reflexion des eigenen Wissens).“

There are numerous different learning theories and it would go beyond the scope of this basic introduction to present all of them. Instead, this chapter gives an overview on the three main approaches of behaviourism, cognitive theory and constructivism that most of the other theories are derived from.

Behaviourism is based on a stringent system of stimulus-response-reinforcement and is, compared to the other two approaches, considered the theory of lowest complexity. Amongst others^[16], it goes back to the American behaviourist John B. Watson^[17] who understood psychology as the science of explaining, controlling and predicting behaviour. His article “Psychology as the Behaviourist sees it” had significant impact on learning research after its publication in 1913 (Zimbardo, 1995: 277). According to Watson’s theory, a stimulus is any sort of energy that reaches an organ of sense while a reaction is any kind of physical answer to a certain stimulus, such as a muscular reaction.

From the behaviourist perspective, learning is the adjustment of learners to their environment which is controlled by external stimuli. A myriad number of pieces of information, facts and experiences are incrementally added to a “tabula rasa” until knowledge results (Hein, 1995: WWW).

For the field of classical conditioning, one of the most famous experiments is Pavlov’s dog^[18] which demonstrates how new associations between two stimuli can be learnt. A second behaviourist school of thought is called operant conditioning. Its main idea is that the probability of a certain behaviour can be influenced by either providing comfortable or uncomfortable consequences (cp. Zimbardo, 1995: 275ff). Stimuli are presented and cause a certain behaviour of the learner which results in a well-defined reaction, either rewarding or neutral. Thus, positive or right behaviour can be increased while negative or wrong behaviour can be reduced. Concerning the computer based intermediation of knowledge, operant conditioning can be found applied in basic vocabulary training software, for example, where the stimulus-response-mechanism is appropriate and justifiable (cp. Abel in Nispel et al., 1998b: 47-55). If learners enter the correct word, an enjoyable melody may be played while wrong answers could be punished by an unpleasant sound. Behaviouristic online learning environments are often called “drill & practice” applications (cp. Ebner & Holzinger, 2002: WWW or Strittmatter & Niegemann, 2000: 130ff). They are characterised by the fact that learners’ preferences, prior knowledge and social circumstances remain unconsidered. Furthermore, the subject that is to be intermediated is divided in the smallest possible elements which is why the overall, contextual meaning threatens to get lost (Meschenmoser, 2002: 110).

Implemented in an educational context, behaviourism is generally characterised by a high level of repetition and the total control of the teacher, which is why it works especially fine with young children. Nevertheless, behaviouristic learning does hardly achieve any goals higher than knowledge because content is rather learned by heart than understood. In contrast, its explanatory strength is especially meaningful for emotional reactions and behaviour.

Cognitive learning theory is mainly based on the findings of Jean Piaget and can alternatively be called the structure genetic model (Kron & Sofos, 2003: 96ff). The approach emphasises internal processes rather than observable behaviour. It acknowledges that every learner is different and starts by activating already existing knowledge from prior learning. It is based on the three steps of perception, encoding and retrieval of information, which is why it can be understood as an information-processing theory. Learning is seen as the synthetic transformation of information into knowledge and gained from selecting and organising sensations (Hein, 1995: WWW). Cognitive learning focuses on conscious mental processes, higher order thinking and problem solving and is more common than behaviourism in these days. From a media didactical perspective, Kron & Sofos (2003: 96ff) summarise three characteristic steps of cognitive learning theory:

- The underlying assumption is that learning and development are based on the interaction of acting and active thinking. From cognitive logical structures, actions are anticipated.
- According to Piaget, cognition and concepts for action are mentally organised in the form of systems. Thus, humans adapt to their cultural and social environment.
- The process of assimilation, accommodation and equilibration (see above) represents the basis for developing intelligence. This development is mainly influenced psycho-socially and by interactions.

Overall, cognitive theory is considered a better way of learning for more complex content that needs to be understood. Applied in a school situation, it is characterised by a higher level of active participation on the side of the learners while the teacher is still in control of the process. However, it neglects emotional and social factors that may influence the learning activity. Also, cognitive theory tends to be criticised for the fact that it puts the human in analogy to a computer with regard to processing information.

Constructivism as the most contemporary approach is based on the theory that knowledge and meaning are unique to every individual learner who constructs them within a social and cultural context. Amongst others, constructivism goes back to the American psychologist, therapist and educator George A. Kelly^[19] (cp. Kron & Sofos, 2003: 100ff).

“The constructivist view holds that to know is to construct conceptions of reality that fit my experience, that are viable and useful to me; it is not to discover truth.” (Feher, 2000: WWW)

There is no correct answer or reality (cp. Thissen in Nispel et al., 1998a: 29-43), but people can think and understand in different ways. If they come across new information, a conflict with prior experiences arises that can be solved according to one of the two main constructivist points of view:

Cognitive constructivism goes back to biological considerations and a process of accommodation, assimilation and equilibration as it has been outlined above.

Social constructivism, in contrast, focuses on the social context of any learning situation and characterises the process by the three steps conversation, negotiation and consensus.

Here, the community agrees on what is right or wrong. Both types of constructivism have in common that the learner is very much in control of the process and can actively decide on how to learn. Some guiding principles of constructivist thinking, according to Hein (1991: WWW), are the following:

- Learning is an active process in which the learner uses sensory input and constructs meaning out of it.
- People learn to learn as they learn.
- The crucial action of constructing meaning is mental.
- Learning involves language.
- Learning is a social activity.
- Learning is contextual.
- One needs knowledge to learn.
- It takes time to learn.
- Motivation is a key component in learning.

One of the most important aspects is the very last one: Learning processes need to be motivated (cp. Deimann, 2002: WWW). Psychologically, motivation is defined as follows:

“Motivation bezieht sich generell auf das Ingangsetzen, Steuern und Aufrechterhalten von körperlichen und psychischen Aktivitäten.” (Zimbardo, 1995: 407)

If the affected activities that need to be initialised, controlled and maintained are learning efforts, the term learning motivation is used. It describes people’s desire and intention to acquire knowledge or skills while distinguishing between extrinsic and intrinsic forms (Deimann, 2002: WWW):

- Extrinsically motivated learners seek to reach a goal that is not related to the content, such as a qualification or certification. Their learning activity is driven by outer rewards that are promised in case of success and punishments in case of failure.
- In contrast, intrinsic motivation is based on the learner’s own internal enjoyment and interest, on the conviction that learning leads to a rewarding value that contributes to self-actualisation and fulfilment.

Most learning processes in educational environments tend to be extrinsically motivated, while intrinsic motivation is generally regarded as more valuable. In most cases, both forms complement each other in varying weightiness while extrinsic can turn intro intrinsic motivation (Friedrich, 2004: WWW). For learning processes in virtual museums, the development of intrinsic motivation can be considered especially important due to the fact that the motivating influence of a teacher is missing (Deimann, 2002: WWW).

A common understanding in psychology is that motivated activities are based on an interdependency between the learner’s characteristics (interests) on the one hand and the situation’s characteristics (interestingness) on the other hand (Deimann, 2002: WWW). Concerning the latter, Deimann (2002: WWW) emphasises the need for online learning environments to be highly interactive (see chapter 6.7) as well as adaptable and adaptive (see chapter 6.6).

However, the success of learning is not only influenced by the level of motivation, but also by the learning situation (e.g. time and place), the way of instruction that is applied and various other possible factors that cannot all be discussed here. In order to conclude this basic introduction on learning theories, it is helpful to take a look at the classification of six different learning outcomes that have been listed by Bloom^[20] according to their level of complexity:

- Knowledge as the ability to recall information,
- Comprehension as the understanding of the information learned,
- Application as the use of learned information in order to complete a task,
- Analysis as the breaking down of information into its components in order to understand the principles behind it,
- Synthesis as the application of learned information to new and different forms and
- Evaluation as the application of generic principles to judge the value of new concepts and ideas.

3.2.2 Online Learning

Online learning is commonly defined as learning on the internet by using new information and communication technologies. Various other expressions such as “virtual learning” or “e-learning” are used synonymously without an exact terminological distinction (cp. Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 323). Obviously, online learning takes place under special circumstances which are partly mentioned in the following paragraphs, but mainly analysed in the context of communication and learning in virtual museums (see chapter 6.1).

For the further discussion, it is essential to be aware of the fact that the motivation behind the development of the internet as such was of no pedagogical kind. The medium can be seen as a special environment that can potentially be used for educational purposes, but this requires the creation of educational value by applying didactical considerations to the design of online learning services (cp. Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 14f). According to Thissen (in Nispel et al., 1998a: 29-43), technology can only be seen as a tool, and the weakness of multimedia based learning environments is often the lack of methodology. Online Pedagogy is the according science:

“[Sie] ordnet den Technikeinsatz der pädagogischen Problemstellung unter und fragt danach, welche pädagogischen Ziele sich mit Hilfe der Technik besser als bisher lösen lassen.” (Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 17)

According to Ebner & Holzinger (2002: WWW), media didactics as one partial discipline of online pedagogy are characterised by the fact that they seek to connect two diametrically different sciences: Pedagogy, with its basically critical attitude towards the use of new information and communication technologies, meets computer science which, in contrast, tends to be euphoric about the modern opportunities. The result of the cooperation is likely to be a compromise that approaches realistic estimations about the potentials of computer based education. When developing online learning applications, Ebner & Holzinger (2002: WWW) underline that the technology must not be given priority over the content and that an ongoing evaluation, involving teachers as well as learners, is crucial. Concerning the workflow, it is important to initially define the target group, the learning targets and the content. Afterwards, the didactical method should be chosen and the material should accordingly be structured and organised. Not until then, the choice of applied media for communicating the information should be made (Ebner & Holzinger, 2002: WWW).

Schulmeister (in Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 129-145) describes different possible virtual learning scenarios that can be distinguished by the three qualitative criteria form, function and method:

- Forms of organisation can vary from online learning components that support traditional educational sessions to plain virtual seminars.
- Concerning the functions of virtual learning, Schulmeister (in: Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 129-145) defines the five categories information, reciprocal data exchange, asynchronous communication, synchronous communication and synchronous cooperation.
- Methods are what he calls the different possible approaches to designing the teaching and learning situation, reaching from plain instruction over interactive seminars to self-organised learning.

Regarding the different methods of designing online learning applications, every product can be categorised according to the theoretical school of thought it reflects, either showing behaviouristic, cognitive or constructivist characteristics. This does not necessarily mean that the approach has been explicitly targeted when creating the application (cp. Ebner & Holzinger, 2002: WWW). With constructivism being the most popular theory nowadays, the meaning of hypertext for online learning is of significant importance:

„Man nimmt an, dass […] nicht-linear strukturierte […] Informationsräume gegenüber traditionellen Medien der Wissensvermittlung den Vorteil aufweisen, dass sie Lernenden mit unterschiedlichen Interessen, mit unterschiedlichen Fragestellungen und unterschiedlichem Vorwissen gerecht werden.“ (Gerdes in Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 183)

The two main justifications for the application of hypertext in learning situations are the

- cognitive plausibility, which assumes that the networked structure of hypertext corresponds to the structure of knowledge in our brain (Kuhlen, 1991: 182),
- and the possibility of interactivity (cp. chapter 3.1.3).

However, Gerdes (in Lehmann & Bloh, 2002: 183-200) warns not to be too euphoric about presenting information in hypertext structures: While holding potentials on the one hand, online learning environments can cause problems such as learner disorientation and cognitive overload on the other hand. This is why online pedagogy has to deal with questions of good information and interface design in order to eliminate or at least reduce the disadvantages of navigational freedom. Support should be provided, reflections on the target group, the learning goal, the presented content and aspects of software ergonomics need to be conducted frequently. In order to keep the cognitive load^[21] of an online learning application as low as possible, the screen design should be intuitively useable, for example, and follow established conventions^[22]. As internet based learning does not only intermediate competences, but also requires certain skills (cp. Hagedorn, 2002: WWW; Friedrich, 2004: WWW), the discussion of media competence comes into play. Self-directed learning processes in virtual museums can only be successful if visitors know how to use the medium:

„Medienkompetenz bedeutet das Vermögen und die Fähigkeit des einzelnen,

Medien zu handhaben und sich immer wieder neue Qualifikationen selbst aneignen zu können,

sich in der Medienwelt zurechtzufinden und sich selbstbestimmt und verantwortungsvoll darin zu bewegen,

Medien-Inhalte aufzunehmen, zu verarbeiten, zu verstehen und sie angemessen einzuschätzen, und schließlich

gestalterisch in den Medienprozess einzugreifen.“ (Forum Info 2000, 1998: WWW)

Stang (in Nispel et al., 1998a: 14-19) adds that the critical reflection of media and their structures, self-conscious communicating in media communication structures and the targeted selection of information are further relevant aspects that should be included in the definition of media competence.

As only media competent visitors will be able to find what they are looking for on virtual museum websites, statistics on the status quo of people’s internet skills are of high interest for the discussion. According to the current ACTA study (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW), internet orientation confidence among the German population between 14 and 64 years of age increases constantly:

illustration not visible in this excerpt

Fig. 2: Orientation Confidence on the Internet (IFD Allensbach, 2003: WWW).

This tendency seems to promise that in future, an even higher percentage of the population will be confident in using the medium internet and may benefit from virtual museum sites by learning new information online.

3.2.3 Museum Pedagogy

When learning processes take place in museums, the related pedagogical considerations are specified as museum pedagogy. According to Weschenfelder & Zacharias (1981: 13), museum pedagogy is education towards the museum, in the museum, by the museum and from the museum. Tripps (in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41) follows a similar approach, but provides further details in the following definition of modern museum pedagogical work:

“Gegenstand der Museumspädagogik ist die für die Museen aller Sparten typische Bildungsund Erziehungsarbeit. Diese reicht von den ersten Überlegungen zu einer Museumsausstellung bis zur direkten Präsentation einer Schausammlung. Untersuchungsgegenstand der Museumspädagogik muss demnach das der musealen Ausstellungstätigkeit innewohnende gesamtpädagogische Geschehen sein.” (Tripps in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41)

As in the previous discussion of pedagogical terminology in general, the definition of the term museum pedagogy, too, is rather open and broad. Again, didactics are understood as a partial system of pedagogy and, in museum contexts, specified as museum didactics. They aim at intermediating knowledge and culture to museum visitors in order to satisfy educational interests (cp. Tripps in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41). According to Weschenfelder & Zacharias (1981: 15f) as well as Tripps (in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38- 41), two areas of application for museum didactics can be identified:

- Exhibition and presentation didactics comprise considerations about the content and the intention of museum exhibitions and presentations. Amongst others, they deal with selection criteria, impacts on and relevance for specific target groups. Tripps (in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41) describes the presentation as the pedagogically effective provision of collected items and as the scientific didacticalmethodological and aesthetical-attractive design of exhibitions.
- Besides, the actual didactics of museum pedagogy, as Weschenfelder & Zacharias (1981: 16) call them, are about any situation of personal intermediation and intentional pedagogical activity in and proceeding from the museum. According to Tripps (in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41), the pedagogically effective intermediation and acquisition of exhibition messages is called reception.

Altogether, museum didactics try to optimise learning processes that take place in a museum context and seek to ensure that the intermediation of knowledge and culture is successful. In addition to this immediate intention, the superior goal of museum pedagogical activity can be outlined as follows:

“Vornehmste Aufgabe und zugleich höchste museumspädagogische Zielsetzung […] ist es, die Entwicklung demokratisch denkender und handelnder Persönlichkeiten anzuregen.” (Tripps in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38- 41)

In practice, museum pedagogical considerations come to application in methods such as lingual communication of information, with showing rounds being a very popular component. Written communication uses museum pedagogically prepared texts in order to intermediate between object and viewer. Inviting visitors to become active by handling historical objects or doing handcrafts, for example, is another area of museum pedagogical practice. The underlying principle for all methods shall be to keep the conserved alive, to handle it according to specific circumstances and to complement it by new ideas. Thus, disciplines such as opinion research, sociology, psychology, pedagogy and information theory need to be evaluated and used in an integrated manner (Tripps in Vieregg et al., 1994: 38-41).

Museum pedagogy tends to depend on the type of museum that it is applied in and the topics of its exhibitions. In this thesis, the focus will be on history museums for two reasons. Firstly, the practical project in chapter 7 is on the topic of regional history and supposed to be based on the theoretical findings of this study. Secondly, almost all types of museums including art museums and science museums, for example, have an historical dimension to them which requires the application of history didactical considerations.

Museum pedagogical practice in history museums aims at offering visitors the opportunity to experience the past (Kuhn & Schneider, 1978: 7):

“Die Geschichtsvermittlung im Historischen Museum gewährt die Erlebbarkeit von Geschichte; sie begegnet dem im Unterricht vielfach beklagten Mangel an erfahrbarem Geschehen mit dem Einsatz der Museumsexponate und der durch sie begünstigten vielfältigen emotionalen und praktischen Erfahrung.”

According to Kuhn & Schneider (1978: 8ff), crucial aspects that contribute to the success of history museums as a place for learning include the following:

- A museum must not only present neatly arranged collections, but needs to offer insight into historical and social contexts.
- As the target group of museums is no longer dominated by upper class people, the topics and the content of museum collections should try to address every potential visitor from any social background.
- The exhibited objects in a museum need to be accompanied by explanatory information which requires the initial definition of goals for a certain conception. The presentation should be visitor-oriented in order to decrease the distance between audience and objects. In order to make history understandable, all sorts of technical possibilities should be used and controversial discussions should be stimulated.
- Museums are expected to provide their visitors practice-oriented experiences and to cause mental processes. In this context, it is essential to communicate that the exhibited objects have been collected under certain intentions and that they mirror reality, but must not be perceived as reality themselves.
- Finally, Kuhn & Schneider (1978: 8ff) encourage museums to conduct research on their impact on the development of visitors’ historical conscience because this may be of high value for the further evolution of museum pedagogical practice.

[...]

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^[1] See http://www.clickz.com/stats/big_picture/geographics/article.php/5911_151151 (last viewed 08/2004).

^[2] See http://www.lvr.de/fachdez/kultur/unsichtbar/Maitagung/ (last viewed 08/2004).

^[3] See http://www.archimuse.com (last viewed 08/2004).

^[4] For further information on HTML see the website of the World Wide Web Consortium (http://www.w3.org) or the online tutorial SelfHTML (http://selfhtml.teamone.de/) by Stefan Münz (last viewed: 06/2004).

^[5] Digital Subscriber Line, see http://www.dsl-magazin.de/dsl-infos/was_ist_dsl/ for more details (last viewed: 08/2004).

^[6] Published by the German IP-Vermarktungsgesellschaft and the RTL-Group, see http://www.ip-deutschland.de/ipdeutschland/63_556.htm (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[7] See http://www.seniornet.org (last viewed: 06/2004).

^[8] For a closer definition of “pushand pull-media” see http://www.net-lexikon.de/Push.html (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[9] Schwier, R.A. (1992): A Taxonomy of Interaction for Instructional Multimedia. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of the Association for Media and Technology in Education in Canada (Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, June 13-17, 1992).

^[10] See http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_/virtual.html (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[11] See http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=58389&dict=CALD (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[12] See http://www.bartleby.com/61/34/P0143400.html (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[13] See http://www.piaget.org/ for more details on Piaget (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[14] See http://dictionary.cambridge.org/define.asp?key=45245&dict=CALD (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[15] “Lernen ist ein Prozess und wir bezeichnen damit jede Veränderung unseres Verhaltens oder unseres Wissens (unabhängig davon, ob es beabsichtigt (intendiert) oder unbeabsichtigt (inzidentiell) erfolgt).” (Ebner & Holzinger, 2002: WWW)

^[16] E.g. Skinner, cp. Kron & Sofos (2003: 86ff).

^[17] See http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/John%20B.%20Watson (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[18] See http://www.encyclopedia.com/html/p/pavlov-i1.asp for more details (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[19] See http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/George%20Kelly%20(psychologist) for more details on Kelly (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[20] See http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/guides/bloom.html (last viewed: 07/2004).

^[21] The term cognitive load “refers to the total amount of mental activity imposed on working memory at an instance in time”. (Cooper, 1998: WWW)

^[22] See the guidelines of Jakob Nielsen, for example: http://www.useit.com (last viewed: 07/2004).