The Sphere of Rigour Reporting

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Investigative Journalism

3. Muckrakers

4. Analysis
4.1 Media Trends
4.2 Barriers
4.3 Consequences of Absence
4.4 Challenges

5. Conclusion

References

The Sphere of Rigour Reporting

An essay on investigative journalism and its importance: In general and with some respect to New Zealand

Victoria Tschirch 1

1 School of Communication Studies, MBus Programme, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, NZ

“His [the journalist’s] job is to report, not to invent.”

(Malcolm, 2004, p. 71)

1. Introduction

This research paper presents a mosaic of powerful quotes and reflections in relation with investigative journalism. The ultimate aim is to explain the importance of investigative journalism – a phrase that is used interchangeably with rigour reporting and agenda-setting journalism further on, despite differing nuances in academics. Also, some of the presented reports and stories are not necessarily perceived as purely investigative pieces of writing, they do however exhibit characteristics of investigative journalism to some extent.

It is not compulsory to be intensely involved and informed about journalism as a style of writing or as some say religion (Njawe, 2006), since the maxima of journalism do not only apply to the reportage but to every aspect of a strong journalist’s life, in order to pursue the argumentation of this paper. Further, the quantity of references serve partly as proof of the presented argumentation while on the other hand invites for further reading.

Classical synopses of muckraking stories and investigative journalistic achievements are rather kept short and serve as a basis for further examinations on rigour reporting. Moreover, the focus is on the effects of investigative journalism, consequences in state of its absence and eventually its importance.

The soul of investigative journalism has been described in a myriad of ways. An adequate introduction into the topic, without consulting the “big three investigation units” – the Watergate Affair, the Pentagon Papers and Ida Tarbell’s merits – is a comment by Gene Roberts, an American journalist who was executive editor of The Philadelphia Inquirer and managing editor of The New York Times. He was quoted by Weinberg saying:

“Investigative journalism is ‘not so much catching the politician with his pants down or focusing on a single outrage’; instead, it is digging ‘beneath the surface so we can help readers under­stand what’s going on in an increasingly complex world’.”

(Weinberg, 1995, p. xvi)

However, the mission of investigative journalism goes beyond dedicated in-depth research work with the ultimate aim to report rigorously in a manner that comprehensively explains and interprets events in a wider context – it is marked by honesty that, in its best form, stares the reader in the face.

Malcolm, an American journalist, refers to the job of a journalist as “to report, not to invent” (Malcolm, 2004, p. 71). Furthermore, Fergal Keane, BBC foreign correspondent, puts this central idea in following powerful words:

“The art of the reporter should, more than anything else, be a cele­bration of truth. And if that truth offends the dictators, the gunmen, the secret policemen, if it offends lobby groups, vested interests or governments, so be it.”

(De Burgh, 2000, p. 78)

Altogether investigative journalism and agenda-setting journalism comprises to “inform, contextualise, analyse, comment [...,] mobilise [… and] cause change or reform” (Mercer, 2008b) with rigour and throughout be uncompromisingly honest – a scheme that is highly challenging, time-consuming, respectable, often distinctly profit-poor and yet even on top always to some degree constrained by the global environment of investigative journalism.

2. Investigative Journalism

Baybars-Hawks proposes a comprehensive differentiation between investiga­tive journalism and agenda-setting theory. According to her “the primary goal of investigative reporting is to reform policy-making agendas [, whereas] agenda-setting theory […] suggests that the media tell people what to think about, not what to think” (Baybars-Hawks, 2003, p. 3). This research paper, however does not focus on defining different excercises of journalism as a craft but instead examines the importance of journalistic pieces that fit somewhere in the range of investigative journalism and eventually in the sphere of rigour reporting.

illustration not visible in this excerpt

Figure 1: Investigative journalism in context with its global environment.

(Self-illustrated)

Figure 1 illustrates how investigative journalism can be categorised in context with its global environment. There are four external factors that influence investigative journalism either directly or indirectly, which are: Economics, politics & law, technology and society. Since the first two factors incorporate the most conflict potential with investigative journalism, there is a focus on economics and politics further on.

Economics, in this connexion, comprise the media corporations and conglomerates which own shares of the media market and act best possible according to their own interests which are significantly influenced by core business philosophies to make profit.

Their ownership of media and reportage platforms impose profitability pressures upon individual press, broadcasting and online firms (Chomsky & Herman, 2002; Hickey, 2001; McKenzie-Minifie, 2007).

In addition, public relations play a significant role in constraining reportage that conflicts with the view of the media corporations and conglomerates, further referred to as ‘big players’.

Politics are somewhat similar to economics in terms of interest conflicts with investigative journalism within the global environment. Instead of profitability issues, there are reputation and image issues that the government is mainly concerned with.

Two forces influence potential voters: politicians themselves and the news culture. In order for politicians to ratify their agendas they need public support, which in some cases happens to be earned through misguidance of the public. On the other hand, an imbalance of hard and soft news (Patterson, 2000) can create a suboptimal environment in which the public is informed of positive aspects and achievements of the government, partly occurring through pre-packaged news with a doubtful degree of honesty (Barstow & Stein, 2005; Buncombe, 2006). In addition controversial topics might be buried deep beneath public relation efforts (Hager, 2007) and the languishment of a mainstream-spoiled folk (Patterson, 2000).

Furthermore, accusations – alias ‘witch hunts’ – of anti-patriotism, terrorism-sympathies and anti-capitalism or anti-communism, depending on the devil painting of the nation, made by either government officials or unofficial spokes-persons, can influence journalistic work ante or post negatively: First, they can constrain press freedom as part of a prevention effort or second, they attempt to discredit a rigour journalist if necessary by falsely portraying him as absurd as part of a defence mechanism (Pilger, 2005).

Hence, honesty resembles not only an ideology but moreover an imperative that secures credibility of every single reported word. “If they [public relations] catch you with a lie, they can paint everything with that brush” (Mann, 1999).

Last but not least consequences of critiques on a government can have much more devastating effects – financial ruination, imprisonment, even death (Antelava, 2007; Borden, 2007; Groskop, 2007; Harding, 2003; Spencer, 2004; Yardley, 2007).

The third external factor that influences investigative journalism is society. The public’s level of education and their information and news habits (Patterson, 2000) play a significant role in the demand of qualitative reportage and ultimately the amount of assets provided by corporations, hence its finance.

Finally, the fourth factor is technology. The ‘digital divide’ and the telecommu­ni­cations infrastructure have an influence on investigative journalism as far as restrictions in research and the distribution is concerned. Online reportage is most affected in this connexion. Nevertheless, the absence of technology does not necessarily affect and limit investigative journalism in a very profound way, as the ‘tree of knowledge’ with a ‘world paper’ in Sudan exemplarily shows (McCrummen, 2007).

Further understanding of investigative journalism can be acquired in two different ways: First, by either following up on guidelines (Randall, 2000), theoretical concepts and critiques on the status quo of journalism, its practice and global environment (Chomsky & Herman, 2002; De Burgh, 2000) or second, by examples that resemble investigative journalism (Bernstein & Woodward, 2005; Hager, 2007; Pilger, 2005; Scott, 2006; Serrin & Serrin, 2002; Weinberg, 2001).

3. Muckrakers

Rigour journalists have many names and address diverse characters. They are watchdogs, whistleblowers, troublemakers, mainstream-counter-currents and inter alia muckrakers. Moreover they generally do not fit any default layout by following their own agendas.

This chapter informs about the character of muckrakers. Further it presents changes caused by muckraking stories so that the importance of rigour reporting becomes clearer.

Peter Hitchens, a British journalist, is quoted by Spark conveniently in a book chapter called “The making of an investigative reporter” (Spark, 1999, p. 14). Hichens describes in essence the stimuli for rigour journalists when he says:

“The more united Fleet Street is, the more wrong it is likely to be.”

So by definition and by belief rigour journalists beware of mainstream reporting. They even pose stronger scepticism when there is no balance in perspectives within the media market and news become commodities as part of a recycling concept. Pilger states in this context:

“Never has there been such a volume of repetitive ‘news’ or such an exclusiveness in those controlling it.”

(Pilger, 2005, p. xxvii)

Furthermore, journalistic integrity becomes evident by asking a simple question, which is brought up by a film-character who plays the role of a respectable current affaires television programme producer. He addresses the reporter of the programme who morally seems to have lost track and has given in to corporate interests. The question is: “Are you a business man or are you a news man?” (Mann, 1999).

In fact, rigour journalists possess integrity towards their profession that is marked by ideology that stands the test of time, fairness and factual accuracy. In this context it is significant that journalists remain true to themselves. Martha Gellhorn, an American novelist and journalist, emphasised her own journalistic agenda by saying:

“All I did was report from the ground up, not the other way round.”

(Pilger, 2005, p. 1)

Finally, achievements of muckrakers are mentioned in order to capture the scope of effects and ultimately importance of agenda-setting changes in politics, society and business.

The foremost popular muckraking stories in the category government and politics are the Watergate Affair which had an impact on the downfall of former U.S. president Nixon (Bernstein & Woodward, 2005) and the Pentagon Paper that revealed malpractices of the U.S. government that duped the public in regards its intentions and practices in relation to the Vietnam War (Sheehan, 1971).

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