Work Transformation. From "Industry 1.0" to "Industry 4.0"

Table of contents

List of abbreviations

1 Introduction
1.1 Objective
1.2 Structure of the paper

2 Basics
2.1 Concept of work
2.2 industrialization

3 Development of industrial periods
3.1 The first industrial revolution - Industry 1.0
3.2 The Second Industrial Revolution - Industry 2.0
3.3 The Third Industrial Revolution - Industry 3.0
3.4 The Fourth Industrial Revolution - Industry 4.0

4 Work transformation in industrial change using the example of
4.1 Child labour
4.2 Energy supply

5 Summary

Bibliography

List of abbreviations

CAD Computer-Aided Design

CAM Computer-Aided Manufacturing

CIM Computer Integrated Manufacturing

CPS Cyber-physical system

DNC Distributed Numerical Control

EDP electronic data processing

WITH Massachusetts Institute of Technology

PC personal computer

PPS Production planning and control

PLC programmable logic controller

UNITED STATES The United States of America United States of America

1 Introduction

One of the major turning point in the history of the development of work is the industrial revolution. This was a comprehensive technical, economic and social process.¹ Technical progress was brought together with the organization of work during the Industrial Revolution. With the introduction of assembly line work, people's living environment was revolutionized with the basic principles of division of labor and rationalization and quickly formed the economic and political basis for modern industrial societies. At the same time, social adaptation structures with concepts such as separation of mental and manual work, separation of gainful employment and activities outside the labour markets as well as gender-specific separation of fields of work were produced. Through the possibilities of technical innovations, the action logics of the division of labor and rationalization could be initiated. Work processes were digitized, standardized and networked with the almost nationwide introduction of information and communication technology.²

1.1 Objective

The aim of this assignment is first to define and delineate the terms "work" and "industrialization". Based on this, the development of the industrial periods with the emergence of the transitions between the periods will be described. The focus will be on the essential features, inventions or properties that characterize respective periods of industrial development. In addition, the course or change and the implementation of work and work processes will be described using the examples of child labor and energy supply.

1.2 Structure of the paper

Chapter 2 is followed by the definition of the terms "labour" and "industrialisation" in Chapter 2. The third chapter describes the development of industrial periods. The fourth chapter deals with the changes in child labour and energy supply in industrial change. In the final fifth chapter, the elaboration ends with a summary.

2 Basics

2.1 Concept of work

The term "work" is used after Voigt and Wohltmann defined as "goal-oriented, social, planned and conscious, physical and mental activity"³. Work was originally the process of man's confrontation with nature for the immediate securing of existence. With increasing social differentiation and division of labor as well as the emergence of a barter economy and money economy, labor became indirect.⁴ Kocka defines the 18th century term "work" with the following general characteristics: Work has a purpose outside of itself to produce, accomplish, and achieve something. Work has something of an obligation or necessity in itself, which serves a task set by others or set by oneself. Work is tedious, has resistance to overcome, requires effort and a minimum of perseverance, beyond the point where the task ceases to be exclusively pleasant.⁵

The conceptual content of work was considered an unworthy activity in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Known by the linguistic synonyms of hardship, plague, burden and hardship, work was negative and pejorative. This made work a matter for the lower social classes. Work received a positive purpose only through the Christian religion, because in Protestant ethics work was identical with the fulfillment of duty and godly action. In the early industrializing Western societies, the positive evaluation of work has prevailed. Weber (1864-1920) saw Protestant ethics as the prerequisites for the capitalist industrialization process. Work is also currently rated as positive by earned income and the success documented therein.⁶

2.2 industrialization

The term "industrialization" is used by Polzin, Bollard and Kirchner as an "expansion of the industrial sector in an economy compared to other economic sectors such as crafts or trade"⁷ defined. Klodt defines the term, on the other hand, as an economic process characterized by a significant increase in the production of industrial goods in the secondary sector at the expense of the agricultural sector in the primary sector. With the growing use of machines, the production of commercial bulk goods takes place in large-scale, labor-based production organization.⁸

The term "industrialization" distinguishes three important concepts of industrialization. after Gerschenkron The economic backwardness of an economy at the beginning of industrialization decisively determines its course. Above all, the speed and intensity of industrialization and thus also the burdens borne by the population during the process increase with the degree of backwardness. Hoffmann distinguishes four periods in the industrialization process: Predominance of the consumer goods industry, all-round growth of the capital goods industry, equilibrium between consumer and capital goods industry as well as preponderance of the capital goods industry. The mass demand for essential goods favours the use of industrial processes for the production of consumer goods. As household incomes rise, the structure of demand and production shifts. In addition to demand, there is also the possibility of producing capital goods, which means that the capital goods industries are becoming increasingly important. Rostov distinguishes, on the other hand, four typical growth phases in the industrialization process, starting from a traditional society with pre-industrial economic and domination structures: Start-up period, upswing period, maturity period and mass consumption period. In the start-up period, the preconditions for future industrial growth are laid. In the following upswing period, a self-sustaining economic upswing begins. The development is consolidated in the ripening period until the first market saturations occur in the mass consumption period.⁹

3 Development of industrial periods

Nothing is more constant than the change, which is also becoming faster and faster in industry, regardless of the industry. Industrial change can be divided into four roughly subdivided phases (see Figure 1), which are described in more detail below.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Figure Phases of industrial change¹⁰

3.1 The first industrial revolution - Industry 1.0

Driven by the development of the steam engine, the first industrial revolution began around 1750.¹¹ This continued to have an effect well into the 19th century. After the end of the Seven Years' War, the population grew strongly and demanded masses of products that made her life easier. The replacement of human or animal muscle power or unsafe air and water power by the steam engine was the first technological milestone at that time. For the first time, this made it possible to set up production without dependence on wind and weather.¹² With the first steam-powered loom in 1784, mechanical production systems were introduced, which led to the first industrialization in the textile, iron and steel industries.¹³ The experience gained over time with metal processing led to groundbreaking developments in machine tools, but also to the first railway at the beginning of the 19th century. Henry Maudslay designed the first lathe made entirely of metal with forced guidance of the turning steel via cross support and tool slide as well as guide spindle to the machine-controlled tool feed in 1797 in order to be able to produce reproducibly accurate screws.¹⁴

Industrialization was made possible by labor and power machines and made a major contribution to the fact that since that time no structurally shaped famines have arisen in industrialized countries. As part of this development, there was a population explosion. The improved transport system – such as steamship and railway – made it possible to provide the population with clothing and food. But productivity in the production of basic supplies, e.B in agriculture, also improved enormously.¹⁵

The increased separation of property and service, which represented a unity in the craft, was a consequence of the first industrialization. Compared to the tools used so far, the new working machines were associated with high investments, both in terms of purchase and production costs, which a simple craftsman could not muster. At the same time, the machines enabled an enormously improved workforce, against which conventional, independent craft businesses without mechanical equipment had a hard time maintaining. This resulted in the sale of their own labour. From the owner, people became machine operators. Anyone who was previously able to independently determine work equipment, working hours, production methods and prices now had to comply with organizational guidelines. The companies, for their part, had to coordinate and ensure work through organizational structures and leadership.¹⁶

However, the first industrial revolution also had an impact on society. On the employment side, traditional crafts and agriculture have been greatly reduced, creating two new layers: factory owners and factory workers.¹⁷ Where some have earned a lot from industrial value creation, factory workers were exploited in the early days of industrialization. There was child labour, four-year-olds worked hard, hard in the factory and the working class did not grow old. More and more people have moved to the cities, even if the working conditions were very bad at the time. This led to a structural poverty of the factory workers, pauperism, which eventually led to a bourgeois revolution at the transition to the second industrial revolution.¹⁸

3.2 The Second Industrial Revolution - Industry 2.0

The next technological upheaval became apparent at the end of the 19th century, which was later referred to the second industrial revolution.¹⁹ As a rule, this is linked to the first assembly lines in slaughterhouses in Cincinnati around 1870.²⁰ The usable electrical energy brought many new fields of application in the form of electric individual drives, electric lighting but also communication in the form of the telephone. A stormy development of production was thus made possible. The noisy and dangerous transmissions disappeared from the factory halls.²¹

Thanks to the possibilities of electrical energy as well as flow and conveyor belts, the mechanization of production plants was further advanced and mass production expanded. The semi-skilled workers increasingly replaced the craft. The labour market was characterised by a surplus of supply, as a low level of qualification was sufficient for monotonous assembly line work, resulting in low wages for employees. The new possibilities for mass production were the starting point for companies to rethink workflows and structures in the organization and to optimize them in terms of productivity.²²

In addition to the technological advances, the advances in the organization must not go unmentioned, which were shaped above all in the United States of America (USA) and must be seen as the start of the age of mass production. Taylorism, named after the American Frederick W. Taylor, describes the principle of a strict separation of mental and manual work as well as a precise preliminary planning of all work steps up to individual steps. This was implemented by Fordism – named after the American company founder Henry Ford – and the mass production of the Ford Model T was built on it.²³

In the context of the second industrial revolution, there is usually talk of an organization-driven revolution.²⁴ During this time, however, electric drives and combustion engines were also developed. The electrified drives made it possible not to drive the machines by central power machines, but to operate them decentrally, i.e. to decentralize them. Crude oil became increasingly important as a raw material for the chemical industry and thus also as a new fuel for mobile systems – above all for automobiles.²⁵ The large-scale industrial mass production made possible by this has progressed above all in the chemical and electrical industries, in mechanical engineering and in the automotive industry. With the growing population, society realized that factory workers cannot be exploited any further, but that there is a need for prosperity that must be taken into account in order to reduce social tensions. With large-scale industrial mass production, which made it possible to produce very cost-effective products due to economies of scale, this need could be satisfied. The importance of trade unions grew greatly at that time. Thus, in the transition from the first to the second industrial revolution, social democracy emerged. Corresponding systems arose with the spread of the ideas of communism, which laid the basis for today's consumer-oriented affluent society.²⁶

3.3 The Third Industrial Revolution - Industry 3.0

In the context of the first and second industrial revolutions, there was talk of increasing mechanization, while the third industrial revolution stands for a new dimension of automation of production.²⁷ In about the 50s and 60s, the third revolution was triggered by the advances of electronics. The first commercially usable computers came onto the market and revolutionized many administrative areas in companies, banks and municipalities. The rapid advances in microelectronics also brought completely new possibilities for the automation of production processes to industrial production and mechanical engineering. At the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) around 1950, numerical control was developed, which made it possible to mill complex geometries with computers. The first CNC machine tools (Computerized Numerical Control) were launched in the mid-1960s.²⁸

A change took place in particular with the programmable logic controller (PLC) in 1969. The hardware-based control became programmable with the replacement of machine-specific hardware with universal hardware and software. In the 70s, process computers offered software-based solutions at the plant control level for the first time. As early as 1968, the first machine networks were tackled in the USA. In the mid-70s, this resulted in the first industrially used DNC systems (Distributed Numerical Control), which, however, still had to struggle with the adversities of the enormously high costs of required computers and networks, but also of underestimated software development.²⁹

[...]

¹ cf. Eggebrecht, Flemming, & Meyer, 1980, p. 193.

² cf. GRUNWALD, W.:

³ Voigt & Wohltmann, 2018.

⁴ cf. Voigt & Wohltmann, 2018.

⁵ cf. Kocka, 2005.

⁶ cf. Voigt & Wohltmann, 2018.

⁷ Polzin, Pollert, & Kirchner, 2016.

⁸ cf. Klodt, 2018.

⁹ cf. Klodt, 2018.

¹⁰ Source: Own presentation based on DFKI, o. J.

¹¹ cf. Diamond, 2005 quoted from Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

¹² cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXI.

¹³ cf. Siepmann, 2016, p. 19.

¹⁴ cf. Diamond, 2005 quoted from Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

¹⁵ cf. Diamond, 2005 quoted from Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

¹⁶ cf. Schonfelder, 2018, p. 11.

¹⁷ cf. Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

¹⁸ cf. Sachwörterbuch der Geschichte Deutschlands und der deutschen Arbeiterbewegung, 1969 quoted from Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

¹⁹ cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXI.

²⁰ cf. Schonfelder, 2018, p. 10.

²¹ cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXI.

²² cf. Schonfelder, 2018, p. 10f.

²³ cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXI.

²⁴ cf. Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

²⁵ cf. Hahn, 2005 quoted from Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 1.

²⁶ cf. Vogel-Heuser, Bauernhansl, & ten Hompel, 2017, p. 2f.

²⁷ cf. Schonfelder, 2018, p. 11.

²⁸ cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXII.

²⁹ cf. Reinhart & Zühlke, 2017, p. XXXII.