Hungary, one of the Central European states that freed itself from Communist rule through a peaceful and negotiated revolution during 1988/1989, entered the post-Cold War era with a considerable unsolved national ’problem’, or the „minority problem” as Katona points out. This ’problem’ is constituted by the existance of more than 2 million ethnic Hungarians living as national minority groups in its neighbouring states. The particuliarity of this problem does not only derive from the size of the minority groups – which is approximately third of the Hungarian state’s total population - but also from the fact that the post-1989 era was one of the first opportunities in Hungarian history when the state could actually lead a sovereign foreign policy.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. The Concept of EU conditionality – “Norms and Nannies”
2.1 EU Conditionality and the Western “Nannies”
2.2 Return to the West – Conceptionalization of the Receiving End
2.3 Domestic and Alternative Explanations
2.4 Putting Theory into Practice
2.5 Europeanisation
3. Historical Background
3.1 The Trianon Syndrome
3.2 Prescribed Silence during Communism
3.3 The 1980’s – Solidarity Movement for the Forgotten Ones Beyond the Borders
4. EU conditionality and Hungarian Foreign Policy
4.1 The Antall Government and the Holy Trinity of Foreign Policy
4.2 Pressure is Needed – the Csurka Essay and the CoE Veto
4.3 Active Leverage – the Bilateral Treaties
4.3.1 The Slovak-Hungarian Basic Treaty
4.3.2 The Romanian-Hungarian Basic Treaty
5. EU pressure not needed anymore? – The Status Law
5.1 Individual Rights, Group Rights, and the Hungarian perspective
5.2 The Status Law and the Debate about European standards
6. Conclusion
7. Annex
7.1 Remarks concerning Terminology
7.2 Numbers of Hungarian Minorities outside Hungary
7.3 Maps
7.4 The Economic Gap between the EU-15 and the Candidate Countries
Objectives and Research Themes
This work explores the effects of EU conditionality on Hungarian foreign policy, specifically examining how external pressure from the European Union influenced the Hungarian government's approach to its neighboring states and its ethnic kin living abroad. The primary research question addresses to what extent EU pressure effectively moderated nationalistic foreign policy tendencies during the accession process.
- The impact of accession conditionality on foreign policy moderation.
- The evolution of the "holy trinity" of Hungarian foreign policy goals.
- The historical context and the persistent influence of the Trianon Syndrome.
- The EU's role as a norm-maker versus the Council of Europe's influence on minority rights.
- The transition from confrontational diplomacy to bilateral treaty-based engagement.
Excerpt from the Book
3.1 The Trianon Syndrome
After the medieval Hungarian Kingdom fell and most parts of it were conquered by the Ottomans in 1526, a small part of Hungarian territories came under Austrian Habsburg rule. At the end of the seventeenth century, the Habsburg army reconquered Budapest and expelled the Turks. The growing movements towards independence in the Hungarian part of the monarchy following the 1848 revolution finally led to the so-called ‘Ausgleich’ of 1876, when the Hungary became certain sovereign rights: while it remained part of the monarchy, it gained inner sovereignty over the territories regarded as ‘historic Hungary’ and was independent in all political fields except for foreign politics and military issues.
In 1918, the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire and the consequent reorganisation of its former territories into several nation states separated almost all territories of the former Hungarian Kingdom, which had been inhabited by non-Magyar nationalities. The Peace Treaty of the Entente Powers with Hungary is called the Trianon Treaty, because it was signed in the castle Trianon “in the park of Versailles”, on the June 4, 1920. The Treaty prescribed Hungary’s new borders. The Hungarian state lost 70 per cent of its former territories and one-third of its Magyar population. The numerical losses of population and territory are cited by almost all authors touching upon the topic of the Trianon Treaty, while the ways in which these numbers are presented differ. Some ways to present the numerical losses seem to imply sorrow or outrage for the Hungarians, while some seem to forget that the huge losses partly were a consequence of the fact that the Hungarian elites had denied any kind of compromise with or more rights for the other nationalities during the period of the double monarchy.
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: Introduces the research topic and defines the scope of the study regarding EU conditionality and Hungarian foreign policy.
2. The Concept of EU conditionality – “Norms and Nannies”: Discusses theoretical frameworks surrounding conditionality, norm diffusion, and the role of international actors in the democratization of Central and Eastern Europe.
3. Historical Background: Analyzes the historical roots of the Hungarian minority issue, focusing on the Trianon Treaty, the impact of the Communist era, and the late-1980s opposition movement.
4. EU conditionality and Hungarian Foreign Policy: Examines the Antall government's foreign policy priorities and the subsequent shift in strategy due to external pressure, leading to the signing of bilateral treaties.
5. EU pressure not needed anymore? – The Status Law: Investigates the 2001 Status Law and demonstrates how the EU's role changed, shifting focus from security concerns to broader debates on international legal standards.
6. Conclusion: Summarizes the findings on how external pressure influenced Hungarian policy and reflects on the prospects of post-accession foreign policy.
7. Annex: Provides supplementary data, including terminology, population statistics, maps, and economic comparisons between the EU-15 and candidate countries.
Keywords
EU conditionality, Hungarian foreign policy, Trianon Syndrome, bilateral treaties, minority rights, European integration, accession process, Status Law, regional stability, norm diffusion, democratization, Central and Eastern Europe, national identity, sovereignty, bilateral relations.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is this study primarily about?
This work examines how the European Union's accession conditionality influenced the foreign policy of Hungary during the 1990s, particularly in relation to the treatment of Hungarian minorities in neighboring countries.
What are the core thematic areas?
The core themes include the concept of EU conditionality, the historical trauma associated with the Trianon Treaty, the evolution of Hungary’s "holy trinity" of foreign policy goals, and the role of international organizations in norm diffusion.
What is the primary research objective?
The primary goal is to determine how and to what extent EU pressure effectively compelled Hungarian governments to moderate nationalistic foreign policy stances and align with Western European norms during the accession process.
Which scientific methods were employed?
The study utilizes a political science approach, combining theoretical analysis of conditionality and institutionalism with historical analysis and case studies of specific policy instruments like the bilateral treaties and the Status Law.
What topics does the main body of the work cover?
The main body covers the theoretical concept of conditionality, the historical background of the minority problem, the foreign policies of the Antall and Horn governments, the impact of the Status Law, and the broader context of European norm-setting.
Which keywords characterize the work?
Key terms include EU conditionality, Hungarian foreign policy, Trianon Syndrome, bilateral treaties, minority rights, European integration, and regional stability.
Why was the Status Law a critical turning point?
The Status Law represented a unique case where the EU's direct pressure was less visible compared to the negotiation period of bilateral treaties; instead, the debate shifted toward the interpretation of international legal standards for minority protection within the Council of Europe.
Did the study find that external pressure was the only factor influencing Hungarian policy?
No, the study acknowledges that while EU conditionality was a primary driver for policy moderation, domestic factors, such as the electoral success of the Socialists in 1994, also played a significant role in aligning Hungary with European integration requirements.
- Quote paper
- Judith Hamburg (Author), 2007, EU Conditionality at Work in the Accession Process of Central and Eastern Europe. Hungary, Minorities and the Criteria of 'Good Neighborliness', Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1215495
