The view of the United States of America concerning Italy after Benito Mussolini’s “March on Rome” was important for the whole of Europe. The political course of the fascist country also affected the surrounding European states. In the primary phase of the fascist regime, the U.S. government was in the position to alter parts of Italy’s policy course, by applying political pressure. Thus America’s foreign policy towards Italy did not only concern this one country. It also had consequences for the rest of Europe, and the start of the Second World War.
This work is concerned with the view of the successive American administrations towards Italy after Mussolini’s ascension to power. Questions being answered are:
How did the U.S. government react after the fascist ruler took over Italy? Did the administration valuate Mussolini as a positive or a negative change for the European country? Was a thread visible in the U.S. attitude concerning Italy? What were the government’s reactions to Italy’s cooperation with Hitler? And: Could a different American political strategy concerning Italy have hindered Hitler’s war efforts?
To answer those questions, the work is structured along three main parts. The first part is addressed with the U.S. government’s position after Benito Mussolini’s soaring to power. This part is divided into a description of America’s characterization of the new leader and an account of the first times the U.S. questioned their view on Italy. Following this evaluation, the second part deals with the American view in the times of The Great Depression. The third part is concerned with the administrations view after Hitler’s rise to power. Finally the conclusion marks the end of this work.
Mainly four books were used: David F Schmitz’ “The United States and fascist Italy, 1922 – 1940” gives a well structured and informative overview of the American – Italian relations from Mussolini’s ascension to power, until the begin of The Second World War. Another useful book, in the first parts handling this topic, is H. Stuart Hughes’ “The United States and Italy”1. John P. Diggins’ work “ Mussolini and Fascism: The view from America”2 is mainly concerned with the public opinion in the U.S. toward Italy and very informative. Another well written and informative book dealing with America’s foreign policy is William L. Langer’s and S. Everett Gleason’s book “The challenge to isolation: The world crisis of 1937 – 1940 and American foreign policy”.
Table of Contents
Introduction
Main part
A. The US government’s view on the rise of Mussolini
A.1 The characterization of the new leader
A.2 The view being questioned
B. The US governments view in times of the great depression
C. The U.S. governments view after Hitler’s rise to power
Conclusion
Objectives & Topics
This paper investigates the evolution of United States foreign policy toward Italy under Benito Mussolini from the 1922 March on Rome through to Italy's entry into World War II in 1940. Specifically, it analyzes how consecutive US presidential administrations evaluated the fascist regime, prioritizing economic stability and anti-communist containment while misjudging Mussolini's diplomatic role as a presumed peacemaker against Adolf Hitler.
- Initial American reactions to Mussolini's ascension and fear of Bolshevik expansion
- The distinction drawn by US diplomacy between fascist "moderates" and "extremists"
- Diplomatic resilience during domestic crises such as the Matteotti assassination and the Butler controversy
- Financial ties, debt relief agreements in 1929, and American corporate investments during the Great Depression
- The Roosevelt administration's appeasement strategy, the Ethiopian crisis, and attempts to detach Italy from the Axis
Excerpt from the Book
A.1 The characterization of the new leader
After Benito Mussolini’s “March on Rome” on the 28th of October 1922, the US government’s view of Italy was formed by two corresponding main points: Primary, a major threat was seen in a possible communist revolution in Italy. Thus, as a second point, the American export market, which was vital for the US economy, seemed endangered.
Until the failure of the workers factory occupation in 1920, Italy was in a revolutionary crisis. Even though the evident radical movement ceased to be present, the European country was still seen as unstable. The different administrations before Mussolini did not seem able to stabilize the nation. None of them stayed in power long enough to help the country with a constant policy. As early as 1917 a member of the US state department noted: “The Italians are like children. They must be lead and assisted more than any other nation.” Instead of successive weak governments the US hoped for a strong administration, which would guide the people and stabilize the political climate. Furthermore the Warren G. Harding administration saw a much larger hazard in a communist overthrow than in a fascist regime. It was believed once Italy became a communist country, the other European nations would also adopt this political course.
This unstable situation in Italy evoked the fear of a loss of market for America. The European economy, which had just recovered from the war, needed to follow a stable course. Otherwise the expansion of the US export market in Europe, which was vital for domestic prosperity in America, was not guaranteed.
Those fears and needs led the Harding administration to view Mussolini’s ascension to power as a positive change for Italy. He was believed to be the leader who would make an end to weak Italian governments and would reinstate the economy of his country. The American ambassador in Italy, Richard Washburn Child, called the “march on Rome” a “fine young revolution”, and the American president himself sent a congratulatory message to Mussolini.
Chapter Summaries
Introduction: Outlines the historical context of the March on Rome, establishes the core research questions concerning US diplomatic attitudes toward Mussolini, and introduces the principal secondary literature used.
Main part: Serves as the overarching operational framework dividing the historical analysis across the three major chronological phases from 1922 to 1940.
A. The US government’s view on the rise of Mussolini: Analyzes the early Harding and Coolidge administrations' classification of Mussolini as a stabilizing "moderate" who safeguarded American export markets and suppressed communist revolutions, despite serious domestic shocks like the 1924 assassination of Giacomo Matteotti.
B. The US governments view in times of the great depression: Details how the Hoover administration continued to perceive Italy as a reliable economic and political partner, highlighting the significant 1929 debt cancellation, private corporate investments, and official containment of scandals such as General Butler's allegations.
C. The U.S. governments view after Hitler’s rise to power: Examines Roosevelt's foreign policy maneuvering, which vainly sought to use Mussolini as an intermediary to moderate or isolate Hitler, leading to passive American resistance during the Ethiopian invasion and the signing of the Pact of Steel.
Conclusion: Summarizes the systematic failure of American diplomatic policy toward fascist Italy, arguing that conflicting strategies and persistent anti-communist fears prevented meaningful economic pressure from restraining Mussolini's march into World War II.
Keywords
Italian-American Relations, Benito Mussolini, US Foreign Policy, Fascism, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Herbert Hoover, Calvin Coolidge, March on Rome, Anti-Communism, Pact of Steel, Ethiopian Crisis, Giacomo Matteotti
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the central focus of this academic work?
The paper examines how consecutive United States presidential administrations viewed and handled political relations with fascist Italy from Mussolini's rise in 1922 to Italy's entry into World War II in 1940.
What are the primary thematic areas explored?
The main themes include anti-communist foreign policy considerations, American economic interests and export markets, the diplomatic dichotomy between fascist moderates and radicals, and Washington's attempts to counter Adolf Hitler through Mussolini.
What is the core research question guiding the study?
The work explores whether the US government evaluated Mussolini as a stabilizing influence, how it navigated Italy's aggressive foreign actions, and whether alternative American policies could have curtailed fascist expansion.
Which scholarly methodology is applied in the paper?
The author uses a historical-critical literature analysis, synthesizing key diplomatic history texts and primary source accounts regarding American-European interwar diplomacy.
What key developments are discussed in the main body?
The main body traces diplomatic developments across three eras: the initial fascist consolidation and the Matteotti murder, the financial ties during the Great Depression, and the futile appeasement strategies leading up to the 1939 Pact of Steel and the invasion of France.
Which keywords best describe the subject matter?
Key terms characterizing this study include Italian-American relations, Benito Mussolini, US diplomacy, appeasement, anti-communism, March on Rome, and the Great Depression.
Why did the Harding and Coolidge administrations initially view Mussolini favorably?
American officials regarded Mussolini as a strong hand who could prevent a Bolshevik revolution in Italy, restore industrial stability, and protect vital US trade markets and capital investments in Europe.
How did the US government respond to the 1924 assassination of socialist deputy Giacomo Matteotti?
Despite public outrage in Italy, the Coolidge administration supported Mussolini, fearing his downfall would create a power vacuum leading to communist control or rule by violent fascist extremists.
What role did the 1929 debt relief agreement play in US-Italian relations?
The Coolidge administration cancelled 80.2 percent of Italy's war debt, which triggered debates in Congress but ultimately encouraged significant increases in private American corporate investments across Italy.
Why did President Roosevelt's strategy to utilize Mussolini as a peacemaker against Hitler fail?
The US pursued contradictory policies of seeking to isolate Mussolini from Hitler while simultaneously expecting him to stay close enough to influence German aggression, resulting in Italy joining Germany in the Pact of Steel and declaring war on the Western Allies in June 1940.
- Quote paper
- Julian Voje (Author), 2003, Italian-American Relations - the Perspective of the US Government, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/12264
