The impact of gender-based violence on socio-economic development in Nigeria

Abstract

Generally, gender-based violence is not limited to women alone, but globally, women account for the majority ofpeople who suffer from various forms of gender violence, which are often perpetrated by men. While this is seen as a problem in developed countries, it is still widely accepted as a norm in developing countries like Nigeria, where cases of domestic violence are treated as private matters by the government. It is on this basis that the researchers did a general review of how violence against women has affected Nigeria’s socioeconomic development and fostered poverty through loss of jobs, income, employment opportunities, death and health hazards. It shows that not only does violence against women affect the individuals involved, it also has an impact on business and government alike. Although this literature review does not give an estimate on the cost of GBV, it was able to show the current gap in the body of literature pertaining to the lack of study on the estimated cost of gender-based violence in Nigeria. This paper also discusses the forms such as physical, emotional, psychological sexual and economic abuse. Recommendations were also made to mitigate and eradicate this menace from our society and allow us to achieve our full socioeconomic potential by utilizing our full human resources, the majority of which are women, who account for more than half of the Nigerian population.

Keywords: Domestic Violence, Socio-economic Development, Nigeria, Women.

INTRODUCTION

Several historically normalized, complex, and interconnected institutional, social, economic, and cultural factors have pervasively violated the human rights of women throughout the world, making them consistently and increasingly vulnerable to domestic violence (GTZ, 2009; Isaboke, 2019). The economic factors that contribute to gender-based violence against women are considered to be among the worst. Although every factor that leads to violence against women, no matter how minute we might think it to be, is as damning to the welfare and rights of women as it is a threat to their existence, human rights, and like economic abuse that is believed to perpetuate their continuous sufferings, gender-based violence should be a matter of concern to the global community. Gender-based violence is globally prevalent in different forms as evidence has shown that almost 1 in 3 women, globally, have experienced one or more forms of gender-based violence (WHO, 2021). At one point or the other, victims of domestic violence are often subjected to one or more than one form of abuse, which often affects them negatively (Oluwayemi, 2018; Aihie, 2009). Different forms of violence are strongly interconnected and often share root causes (CDC, 2022). This means that there is no clear-cut line between one form of gender violence and the other. It could be a mixture of both religious and economic or cultural and psychological, for instance, or a combination of all of them. While one partner may choose to stay in an abusive relationship as a result of her religious tenets or economic predicament, the other might cause this harm as a result of his or her sociocultural and or psychological makeup. Different countries in the world are susceptible to one form of violence more than the other, and the less developed a country is, like in the third world nations, the more prone women will be to experiencing domestic violence, which is also known as domestic abuse, spousal abuse, battering, family violence, and intimate partner violence. This is due to a number of factors, including low income for couples and high levels of stress caused by poverty and unemployment (Cherlin, 1999 cited in Etuk, Igbolo and Bassey, 2013).

Gender-based violence, specifically, domestic violence, is the most prevalent yet relatively hidden and ignored form of violence against women and girls (Kapoor, 2000). It is a grave issue that affects the world and a lot of research has been done on various forms of violence both in developed and developing nations, but few studies have really been conducted in Africa to estimate the economic cost of gender-based violence (GBV) on society, except for the recently conducted studies by KPMG in South Africa in 2014, which found that GBV costs the country between 28.4 and 42.4 billion rands per year, with the majority of these costs being borne by individuals and families. According to a research report conducted by ISSER, Ipsos MORI, ICRW and NUI Galway on the Economic and Social Costs of Violence Against Women in Ghana in 2019, it shows that the effects of gender-based violence cost about US $18.9 million (GH074 million). These studies are among the very few conducted by African countries on measuring the economic cost of gender-based violence; besides that, there appear to be no other published articles on the subject. Even these studies had shortcomings in respect to scanty or lack of data from victims who, for several reasons, do not report cases of spousal abuse, making it hard to come by reliable statistics (Etuk et al., 2013; Kapoor, 2000) and a lack of longitudinal studies to access the long­term effects of GBV on the economy of their states. This is supported by Duvvury, Callan, Carney & Raghavendra (2013), when they noted that majority of the existing costing studies are typically limited to developed high-income nations, where access to data across various cost categories is more readily available. But this review is not meant to fill that gap. Instead, it is meant to draw attention to how GBV, especially domestic violence, affects Nigeria's social and economic development. We also briefly talked about other types of domestic violence in Nigeria.

THE STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Violence based on gender has been deemed a violation of women’s human rights (WHO. 2013; GTZ, 2009) due to its intensity and global harmful impact on numerous countries. Despite this declaration and other international regulations enacted to prevent the behavior (Onyemelukwe, 2016; Giridhar, 2012) certain socio-cultural variables (Etuk et al., 2013), especially in developing nations, have rendered these laws ineffective. As a result of the normalization of GBV (WHO. 2005), the effects of domestic violence on the general welfare of women in particular and the nation as a whole are overwhelming, particularly in terms of the nation's socioeconomic development. To break free from poverty, economic stagnation, and being the world's capital of poverty (Uzoho, 2022), the Nigerian government must ensure the equal and full participation of women in economic and political decision-making (Bakare, Asuquo & Agomoh, 2010; World Bank Group, 2019), as well as re-educate and initiate actions that will result in a paradigm shift among its male citizens, allowing them to accept women as equal partners in society.

WHAT IS DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

The United Nations defines violence against women as "any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion, or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life" (WHO, 2019). It is an act of aggression that can be committed by a partner or family member. (Younger, 2011).

Whether in a romantic relationship, marriage, or cohabitation, violence is as an act of dominance and control by one partner in an intimate connection, resulting in injury to the other person's physical health, mental well-being, or sexual well-being (Ishrat and Abdul, 2016). It is a purposeful act that rarely occurs in isolation and grows in frequency and intensity over time in the absence of competent help. (Florence and Bukaliya, 2015).

Domestic violence is defined as a harmful act or pattern of behavior perpetrated by an individual against anyone in a family or intimate relationship, regardless of gender or age, with psychological, sexual, economic, and physical consequences.

Gender-based violence and violence against women are often used interchangeably, and it is widely acknowledged that the majority of gender-based violence is perpetrated by men against women and girls. Although men are also victims of domestic violence, the majority of victims are women and girls, with men being the primary perpetrators (Kabeer, 2014). This means that women can also be violent, but their actions account for a small percentage of domestic violence. Thus, while more focus is placed on women, who account for the majority of cases of domestic violence, we should also note that men and children are sometimes affected by domestic violence as well, but not as severely as the violence faced by girls and women (Iyabo, Ibukunoluwa, & Busayo, 2020; Project Alerts, 2016; Etuk et al., 2013; Kapoor, 2000).

CONCEPT OF SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Social and economic development are developmental processes that are interrelated, although the outcome of one does not always guarantee the presence of the other unless they are integrated, because mere economic growth rates cannot be a proxy for the quality of life and cannot indicate that basic needs are met, which social development is about (Madan 2002; Iyabo, et al., 2020; Isaboke & Nyataya 2019). Morris (2010) also cited in Morris (2010) defined social development as the bundle of technological, subsistence, organizational, and cultural accomplishments through which people feed, clothe, house, and reproduce themselves; explain the world around them; resolve disputes within their communities; extend their power at the expense of other communities; and defend themselves against others’ attempts to extend power. Bilance (1977), cited in Abdul (2014), defined "social development" as "the promotion of a sustainable society that is worthy of human dignity by empowering marginalized groups, women and men, to undertake their own development, to improve their social and economic position, and to acquire their rightful place in society. These definitions emphasize social development as an inclusive process involving the complete and total improvement of the general societal structures put in place to enable everyone, irrespective of class, race, gender, ethnicity, or religion, to access and lead better lives. According to Kariuki and Kelele (2018), this is accomplished by developing a society in which everyone has a voice.

Economic development, on the other hand, according to Isaboke and Nyataya (2019), is defined as growth accompanied by changes in the qualitative structure of production and employment, which they also refer to as "structural transformation." Kriti and Tisdell (2003), cited by Iyabo et al. (2020), also defined economic development as a process that aims to improve people's standard of living by increasing the quantity of goods produced, sold, and consumed. According to Fitzgerald and Leigh (2002), cited in Isaboke and Nyataya (2019), economic development aims to ensure that a community's quality of life is not only protected by equity and sustainability principles, but also improved by the construction of both human and physical infrastructure.

The combination of social and economic development improves people's lives and what they are able to accomplish through access to economic opportunities, political and social liberties and powers, in an environment that encourages and fosters the conditions for good health, basic education, and the cultivation of initiative (Sen, 1999). In his studies on the "relationship between economic freedom and socioeconomic development," Madan (2002) finds that socioeconomic development leads to an increase in access to education, improved life expectancy, and a deliberate reduction in income inequality. Fritz (2004), cited by Iyabo et al. (2020), asserts that socioeconomic development is all about the improvement of economic, social, cultural, and political processes. It indicates that the health and well-being of the population as a whole is improving. They also stated that the goal of socioeconomic development is to raise the social and material status of everyone and everything in society in order to achieve the highest level of human development possible (Iyabo, et al., 2020). Simply put, socioeconomic development guarantees that people are placed in positions where they can enjoy their lives as they were intended to be enjoyed (Isaboke & Nyataya, 2019).

FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

Acts of violence against intimate partners manifest in different forms. These forms are linked to one another because an action can result in one or more other forms, some of which are more familiar than others.

Physical Abuse

This is the most familiar and common form of abuse (Ogunkorode, 2018; Aihie, 2009). It is when a person hurts or tries to hurt a partner by hitting, kicking, or using another type of physical force (CDC, 2022). It is that kind of abuse which involves contact intended to cause pain, injury, and/or other physical suffering (Isaboke, 2019). For Oluremi, (2015), physical abuse involves injuring or endangering a victim through the use of force. Direct attacks on the victim's body, the use of weapons, driving recklessly, destroying property, abusing pets in front of family members, attacking children, locking the victim out of the house, denying them sleep, grabbing, pinching, pushing, slapping, hitting, biting, arm-twisting, kicking, punching, hitting with blunt objects, stabbing, shooting, beating, strangling, choking, suffocating, burning, and killing. It also includes harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation and wife inheritance, such as transferring the widow and her property to the deceased husband's brother (Kapoor, 2000; Ishrat and Abdul, 2016; Aihie, 2009).

Sexual Abuse

Sexual abuse or marital rape has been a global problem which has affected family members, especially women and children, since time immemorial (Isaboke, 2019). According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention, sexual abuse is forcing or attempting to force a partner to take part in a sex act, sexual touching, or a non-physical sexual event (e.g., sexting) when the partner does not or cannot consent (CDC, 2022). The law in Nigeria like in most developing countries does not recognize marital rape, which occurs when a husband has sexual relations with his wife without her consent or with the use or threat of force. According to Kapoor (2000), most countries do not consider intimate partner rape to be a form of sexual abuse or a crime. The majority of women in developing countries, in particular, do not consider forced sex to be a form of abuse, because society believes that marriage grants a man the right to unlimited sex with his partner, even if she does not feel or desire it.

Psychological Abuse

Similar to sexual assault, physical violence is frequently but not always present when this type of abuse occurs (Jewkes, 2002). According to Coker, A. (2000), which was cited by Ishrat and Abdul (2016), women who have been victims of psychological abuse are significantly more likely to report poor physical and mental health as well as to have had more than 5 visits to the doctor in the preceding year. According to Walker LEA (1984), who was cited by the same authors, psychological abuse is a form of abuse that involves a great deal of complexity. The majority of the time, physical abuse results in psychological effects such as phobia, feelings of guilt, insecurity, poor impulse control, nightmares, disturbed sleep, humiliation, shame, forced weakness, and social isolation. Psychological abuse is more difficult to define and report than other forms of abuse due to its intangible nature. Consequently, the victim is frequently placed in a position where she feels mentally unstable and helpless.

Emotional Abuse

It is the use of verbal and non-verbal communication with the intent to harm another partner, mentally or emotionally, and/or to exert control over another partner (CDC, 2022). According to Oluremi (2015), emotional abuse is threatening a person or his or her possessions or harming a person’s sense of self-worth by putting him/her at risk of serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional, or mental disorders (Oluremi, 2015). In a study on domestic violence against women and girls, Kapoor (2000) observed that emotional torture and living under terror are often more unbearable than physical brutality, with mental stress leading to a high incidence of suicide and suicide attempts.

Economic Abuse

Economic abuse is also referred to as economic control, economic deprivation, economic violence, financial abuse, or financial control. (Ndong, 2013). It is that type of abuse when one intimate partner has control over the other partner's access to economic resources. It leads the victim, who may be denied basic needs, employment, and access to money, including their own, to financially depend on the perpetrator. (Isaboke, 2019; Kapoor, 2000). It also includes stealing from or defrauding a loved one, withholding money for essential things like food and medical treatment, manipulating or exploiting family members for financial gain, preventing a loved one from working or controlling his or her choice of occupation (Oluremi, 2015). According to Ndong (2013), economic violence takes several forms, including financial deprivation of women by their spouses, violence resulting from sex peddling transactions, and denial of women by their male spouses to engage in any form of business. Furthermore, the author noted that economic deprivation mainly affects women who are housewives and are not engaged in gainful employment or business.

THE IMPACT OF GENDER-BASED VIOLENCE ON SOCIOECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA

The low economic status and poverty of women within and outside of marriage or in an intimate relationship contribute greatly to the perpetuity of violence against them, which in turn has implications for advancing economic development (Duvvury et al., 2013). Researchers have been 7 able to classify the magnitude of the impact of gender-based violence on a country's social and economic development into direct or tangible (costs that can be monetized) and indirect or intangible (costs that cannot be monetized) costs (Morrison & Orlando, 2005; KPMG, 2014; ISSER et al., 2019). Direct, or tangible costs, according to the studies by Morrison & Orlando, and KPMG, are actual expenses paid, or real money spent on the provision of services, facilities, or expenses incurred by the victim or the household. Examples are taxi fares to a hospital and salaries for staff in a shelter. While indirect or intangible costs have no monetary value in the economy, they are measured as a loss of potential, such as pain, fear, and suffering, or the social and psychological costs of violence, which ultimately result in lower earnings and profits due to lower productivity (Morrison & Orlando, 2005; KPMG, 2014). Indirect costs include lost productivity from paid and unpaid work; forgone lifetime earnings for women who die as a result of GBV; as well as physical and psychological trauma; and long-term effects of such violence. Deterioration of the quality of life for survivors and their loved ones is another indirect cost. The intangible costs of violence are priceless; that is, they cannot be measured in money (Morrison & Orlando, 2005).

Although domestic violence is viewed and treated as a private matter in Nigeria as with most developing nations, from the above studies by Morrison, Orlando, KPMG, and ISSER et al., it can be deduced that the economic and social costs of gender-based violence both on the perpetrators and victims are far-reaching and include and are not limited to household/personal cost, business/community cost, and government cost as well. According to a recent World Bank report cited by Kluman, Hanmer, Twigg, Hasan, McCleary-Sills, and Santa (2014) in Iyabo, et al., (2020), the estimated cost of intimate partner violence across five countries is 1.2-3.7 percent of GDP, which is comparable to what most governments spend on primary education. This was also corroborated by Duvvury et al., (2013), who noted that data from nine countries indicates that costs are substantial, ranging from 1-2 percent of GDP. In the US, the lifetime economic cost associated with medical services for IPV-related injuries, lost productivity from paid work, criminal justice, and other costs was $3.6 trillion. The cost of IPV over a victim’s lifetime was $103,767 for women and $23,414 for men (CDC, 2022; Iyabo, et al., 2020).

Being a victim of IPV, particularly over an extended period of time, can indirectly prevent and impede women from securing and retaining employment due to their poor health or that of those for whom they are responsible. Cuts, bruises, broken bones, internal bleeding, and head trauma are among the most common physical health issues or injuries female victims experience. In addition, scratches and bruises are common, compelling them to miss work to visit the doctor or to spend the majority of their time at home. (lyabo, et al., 2020). Domestic violence frequently prevents victims from attending paid employment, which has a negative effect on their earnings. As a direct result of the assault, the victims' income falls by 35%. Consequently, the household's resources and the manner in which they are allocated are likely to be affected. The high costs of violence against women have a ripple effect on those who provide financial assistance to cover these costs (Duvvury et al., 2013).

A research study by Otufale, where 220 rural women were surveyed in Western Nigeria, on the impact of gender-based violence on agricultural livelihood activities, turned out to be negative with 32.8%, showing how violence suffered by women greatly reduces their economic output. As noted by the author, the studies also went on to show that gender-based violence reduces the income of women from agricultural livelihood activities by 43.08%. Adams, Tolman, Bybee, Sullivan & Kennedy (2012) noted that the employment instability that abuse creates can have significant implications for women’s economic well-being, including material hardship and access to job benefits. Intimate partner violence and job stability can cause material hardship due to lost income and reduced job benefits. While citing Vozoriz & Tarasuk (2003), they further observed that with limited income, it also becomes increasingly difficult for women to put food on the table.

Domestic violence has also resulted in women losing time needed for productive work. In the same research conducted by Otufale, it was opined that women’s work on cash crops often competes with the time they need to put into their food crops. The result also indicated that about 62% of the respondents agreed that one of the effects of gender-based violence on the agricultural livelihood activities of women is that it will reduce time spent by women working on the farm, thus resulting in a low investment of time and money by women in agricultural livelihood activities (64.7%). (Otufale). According to Duvvury et al. (2013), victims of intimate partner violence missed more work hours than new or current victims. Current victims of IPV are more likely to be distracted at work, whereas lifetime victims are more likely to miss work, possibly due to the psychological stress associated with being a victim for a long period of time. More evidence indicates that abused women who are employed are more likely to be in unstable employment. According to the authors, women in abusive relationships frequently change or lose their employment. They are frequently forced to quit or fired, making it difficult for them to remain committed to their jobs, maintain job stability, and advance their careers. Due to inconsistent results across studies, the relationship between intimate partner violence (IPV) and employment was found to be complex. There is evidence that intimate partner violence (IPV) does not always hinder a person's employment opportunities. However, the more a woman works outside the home, the greater her threat to male superiority and likelihood of violence (Morrison & Orlando, 2005).

In both developed and developing countries, there is a growing literature that documents the negative health outcomes associated with GBV (Morrison & Orlando, 2005). Health is considered a human capital. People who are healthy, and have not been exposed to IPV are therefore considered to be more productive at work. Abused women can experience a variety of health effects, including headaches, back pain, abdominal pain, fibromyalgia, gastrointestinal disorders, limited mobility, and poor overall health. Also included among the mental health problems found to occur more frequently among abused women than among those who are not abused are higher rates of depression, post-traumatic stress, and eating disorders. Poor physical health among abused women manifests as chronic conditions such as chronic pain, injuries, gastrointestinal disorders, and generally poor health status among others. Negative health behaviors include overeating, alcohol and drug abuse, and sexual risk-taking (WHO, 2014; Kishor & Johnson 2004), all of which may affect job productivity and efficiency. Duvvury et al. (2013), citing Howitt (2005), posited that a decrease in IPV across the workforce, resulting in improved health, could be represented by an increase in efficiency within a firm or sector's production function, influencing GDP and economic growth. Children of women who experience domestic violence are more likely to suffer from health problems such as diarrhea and anemia (Morrison & Orlando, 2005). This may result in victims spending their savings on medical expenses and preventing them from working to provide for their children.

Gender-based violence has been shown by research to result in women’s financial dependence on men and, ultimately, their poverty. 38% of the 220 respondents surveyed by Otufale agreed that gender-based violence results in the deteriorating living standards of women (Otufale, 2010). Since they cannot engage in economic activities due to violence, they are forced to depend on their partners, who might also rob them of financial support, thus resulting in their poverty. However, it is not poverty itself that results in violence against women, as studies have shown some poor communities have less domestic violence than affluent ones. Firstly, it is the social expectations behind what it means to be masculine that make them violent. An inability to meet social expectations of successful manhood can trigger a crisis of male identity (Jekwes, 2002), which would result in violence. Also, it is evident that couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence due to increased stress and conflicts about finances (Jewkes, 2002; Alokan, 2013).

Tolman and Rosed (2007), cited in lyabo, et al., (2020), reported that domestic violence often sabotages women’s efforts to gain employment, acquire job skills, and acquire education, thus hindering their opportunities to become self-reliant. It may affect economic stability and sustainability.

Gender violence also has an impact on girls' education. According to Duvvury et al. (2013), those with less education are more susceptible to IPV. This was corroborated by Abayomi and Olabode. According to them, women with lower education levels are more likely to be abused than those with higher education levels. The author went on to say that the rate of domestic violence is affected by how much education a person has. In a study by Ndong (2013), it was revealed that most households with illiterate women frequently experienced domestic violence. Several contradictory studies, however, suggest otherwise. The impact of gender-based violence on education is as complex as the impact on employment. According to a study conducted by Project Alert (2016), it was observed that 65% of the educated women surveyed had experienced gender violence compared to their less educated counterparts, which was at 55%. Meaning, the more educated a woman is, the more she experiences violence from her partner.

CONCLUSION

Women are indispensable to the growth and development of any nation and the global community as a whole. However, in Nigeria, as in other developing nations, social norms and values that promote gender inequality, stereotypes, and male dominance over women have prevented women from taking their rightful place politically, economically, and even socially, thereby preventing Nigeria from reaching its full potential. While this article does not provide a cost estimate for gender-based violence in Nigeria, it is able to examine how it affects the country's socioeconomic development. We have also demonstrated that women account for the majority of victims of all forms of domestic violence perpetrated by predominantly male perpetrators who are influenced by personal, interpersonal, community, and social factors. These factors are interdependent and consistently interact, such that one form of abuse frequently leads to others. We have argued that, due to the complexities of the issue, education or employment alone do not determine whether a woman will experience more or less violence, and that other variables must be considered when analyzing its impact, as with any proposed solution. As suggested by this study, women must be liberated from gender-based violence through a comprehensive, planned effort.

RECOMMENDATIONS

International organizations and non-governmental organizations that seek to economically and politically empower women in Nigeria through their various programs must also put in efforts to re-educate the country's male population to accept change as it occurs and reject what they have been socialized to believe.

To support the prevention and control of domestic violence, the government of Nigeria must declare a state of emergency on gender-based violence and expeditiously implement the various global treaties it has signed through its agencies, such as the Federal Ministry of Women's Affairs and Social Development. Religious organizations, in support of government efforts, must demonstrate their disdain for gender violence by conducting information and awareness campaigns aimed at altering cultural aspects that permit gender violence.

Educational institutions should begin educating children in kindergarten through university about the personal and societal dangers of gender violence.

The government should establish welfare institutions and/or support national and international organizations that provide social and economic support to victims of GBV, allowing them to leave violent relationships and abusive partners without fear for their own or their children's well-being.

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