Encroachments on Urban Green Spaces in Kumasi, Ghana

Bachelor Thesis , 2021 , 108 Pages , Grade: A

African Studies - Culture and Applied Geography

This paper is about the encroachments on urban green spaces in Kumasi, Ghana.

Green spaces offer vital ecosystem services to humans that are essential to plan for in cities. In the wake of global activism on climate, these spaces are among the most recommended means to fight the increasing climate change; however, in the city of Kumasi, the existing green space suffers higher levels of encroachments. Due to this, there are legislations established to safeguard these spaces. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the level of understanding of property owners on this legislation and assesses the level of adherence to these legislations in the city.

A descriptive case study design approach was employed in the study. The study targeted institutions responsible for managing green spaces and property owners. The study found that unawareness of green space protection legislation, ineffective development control enforcement, and the demand for land for commercial activities were the key factors for encroachments on green spaces in Kumasi.

The ineffective collaboration between green space management institutions has led to the change of use of green spaces, lack of participation and community sensitization on the benefits of green spaces has further worsened encroachment in the city.

This study concludes that city authorities should give residents, traditional leaders, and other development agents persistent education on the benefits of green spaces and the regulations that protect them, enforce developments control and relocate activities in nature reserves, and also there should be collaboration among concomitant bodies for the management of green spaces should be improved.

TABLE OF CONTENT

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DEDICATION

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF PLATES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Chapter One
BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Problem Statement
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Objective of the study
1.5 Scope of the study
1.5 Limitation
1.6 Organization of the work

Chapter Two
A REVIEW OF URBAN GREEN SPACE AND ENCROACHMENT
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theoretical review
2.3 Overview of Urban Green Spaces
2.4 Green Infrastructure
2.5 Functions of Green Spaces
2.6 Green Spaces in Kumasi and their distribution
2.7 Urban Land Use Change and causes of encroachment
2.8 Effects of the reduction Greenspaces and legal frameworks
2.9 Conceptual framework for analysing encroachments on greenspaces

Chapter Three
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Design
3.3 Primary data collection process
3.4 Data source and unit of analysis

Chapter Four
GREEN SPACES & LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Awareness of UGS protection laws/regulations
4.3 Relevance of UGS
4.4 Land Cover/Land Use and encroachments

Chapter Five
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary
5.3 Conclusion

REFERENCE

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Observation Checklist/Guide
Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire for Property Owners/Caretakers
Appendix C: Interview Guide for Green Space Management Institutions in Kumasi.

ABSTRACT

Green spaces offer vital ecosystem services to humans that are essential to plan for in cities. In the wake of global activism on climate, these spaces are among the most recommended means to fight the increasing climate change; however, in the city of Kumasi, the existing green space suffers higher levels of encroachments. Due to this, there are legislations established to safeguard these spaces. Therefore, this study seeks to determine the level of understanding of property owners on this legislation and assess the level of adherence to these legislations in the city. A descriptive case study design approach was employed in the study. The study targeted institutions responsible for managing green spaces and property owners. The study found that unawareness of greenspace protection legislation, ineffective development control enforcement, and the demand for land for commercial activities were the key factors for encroachments on green spaces in Kumasi. The ineffective collaboration between green space management institutions has led to the change of use of green spaces, lack of participation, and community sensitization on the benefits of green spaces has further worsened encroachment in the city. This study concludes that city Authorities should give residents, traditional leaders, and other development agents persistent education on the benefits of green spaces and the regulations that protect them, enforce developments control and relocate activities in nature reserves, and also there should be collaboration among concomitant bodies for the management of green spaces should be Improved.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am most grateful to God for guiding me through the four years BSc Programme. I also wish to thank various personalities who supported, assisted, and guided me to go through this study. Firstly, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my father Mr Opoku Asare for guiding, supporting me. He has always been my hero. I am grateful to my elder brother Kennedy Opoku Asare for setting a good path for myself and my siblings to follow. I wish to thank all other members of the Opoku Asare family for always inspiring me to do my best in all my endeavours.

I am also grateful to all the teaching staff of the Department of Planning. Without them, this height would not have been attainable. To the working body of the Physical Planning Department of Oforikrom Municipal Assembly (OfMA) and Asokwa Municipal Assembly (AskMA) and the Resource Management & Supply Center of the Forest Commission, I am appreciative for the time you spent on me and all the information and data they shared with me. Finally, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Justice Owusu-Ansah for the ideas, guidance and also scrupulously reading of my works, providing comments and counselling me to successfully complete this special study.

DEDICATION

To my parents Mr and Mrs Opoku Asare.

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1: Mell’s Typology Categorization

Table 2.2: Functions of Green spaces

Table 2.3: Urban green cover in Kumasi

Table 2.4: Amount of Developed and Undeveloped Lands in KMA

Table 2.5: Land use configuration of Kumasi

Table 2.6: Causes of reduction in green spaces

Table 3.1: Sample size distribution

Table 3.2: Data sources and data collection tool

Table 4.1: Form of education acquired

Table 4.2: Awareness on local regulations for the protection of green spaces

Table 4.3: Examples of local regulations known to respondents

Table 4.4: How respondents knew the local regulations

Table 4.5: Enforcement efficiency of the local regulations by respondents.

Table 4.6: Building acquisition by respondents.

Table 4.7: Education on the benefits of UGS

Table 4.8: Respondents’ perception of UGS benefits

Table 4.9:Respondents’ perception of problems of UGS in Kumasi

Table 4.10: Respondents awareness of community layout plan

Table 4.11: Effect of activities around UGS on the environment

Table 4.12: Land Ownership status and whom the land was acquired from

Table 4.13: Purpose of land acquisition

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Depiction of “Green Spaces” in Urban Scene

Figure 2.2: Categorisations of Green Space and Land Use

Figure 2.3: Classification of Functions and Values of “Urban Green Space”.

Figure 2.4: Vegetative and Non-vegetative coverage of Kumasi in 1986

Figure 2.5: Vegetative and Non-vegetative coverage of Kumasi in 2007

Figure 2.6: Analysing the effect of encroachment on wetlands

Figure 3.1: Enumeration area for the Study

Figure 3.2: Enumeration area A (Kentikrono)

Figure 3.3: Enumeration area B (Ayeduase)

Figure 4.1: Educational level of respondents

Figure 4.2: Reasons for not having building permits by respondents.

Figure 4.3: How respondents got the knowledge

Figure 4.4: Benefits of Green Space

Figure 4.5: Responses on some problems UGS are confronted with

Figure 4.6: Institutions responsible for UGS management to respondents

Figure 4.7: UGS protection mechanisms by respondents

Figure 4.8: Land Use activities around the UGS (100m from water channel)

Figure 4.9: Perception on why people erect structures in UGS areas

Figure 4.10: Effects of performing socio-economic activities on UGS areas

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 4.1:River turned into urban waste water in Ayeduase

Plate 4.2: Wetland turned into a refuse dump in Atonsu

Plate 4.3: Buildings in river course in Kentikrono

Plate 4.4: Abandoned flooded house in Atonsu

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten

Chapter One

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE STUDY

1.1 Introduction

One of the global persistent challenges is the preservation of the quality and quantity of greenspaces (Fuller & Gaston, 2009). Colding (2011) argues that greenspaces offer vital ecosystem services to humans that are essential to plan for in cities. Greenspace, according to Shan (2009), is a relatively new concept that arose from the urban wildlife preservation revolution and European theories on green space design. Green space applies to any vegetated field or water inside and adjacent to an urban area. Per Greenspace Scotland (2008) it encompasses “natural” green space, pedestrian walkways and event space grassland, gardens. Outdoor recreational grounds, football fields, graveyards and allotments, as well as vacant, unused, and polluted land, are also included. According to them, it’s often referred to as the spaces composed of soil surfaces able to sustain plant life.

Green spaces can also be termed as “vegetative cover in cities,” which is described as “a region protected by vegetations within and around cities that are more provided for two key functions: modifying weather, making the air more tenuous, and embellishing cities” (Bowen, 1990; Amirsheakri et al., 2014). The portion of the green spaces planned as well as constructed cities are called the “urban green space”; it is a comparatively large space comprised of vegetations with a tree layout and adequate ecological and environmental returns that are suitable for the environmental requirements that prevail in urban areas (Germann-Chiari & Seeland, 2004).

According to WHO (2017b), “green spaces” and other ecological interventions offer novel ways to boost the excellence of urbanised areas while also increasing resilience and ensuring a sustainable way of life, enhancing equally the health and the welfare of urban residents. It further describes green spaces as playgrounds, parks, blue areas (e.g., lagoons, streams, among others). On the accounts of the European Union (EU), “urban green space” is described as “public green space located in urban areas, mainly covered by vegetation which is directly used for active or passive recreation, or indirectly used by their positive influence on the urban environment, accessible to citizens, serving the diverse needs of citizens and thus enhancing the quality of life in cities or urban regions” (Rodenburg et al., 2004; p. 13 in Booklet 2)

This study defines “green spaces” as any vegetated field or facility, water, and ecological feature which serve as active or passive amusement or serves as a nature-based intervention to improve the condition of existence of inhabitants while also enhancing and ensuring a sustainable way of life, enhancing equally the health and welfare of inhabitants. Urban green spaces, however, are the sorts of spaces that are sited in urbanized areas. Open spaces, parks, recreational centres, graveyards, pathways, wetlands, among others are all an embodiment of green spaces and they are mostly owned by the public rather than private.

Green Spaces are of many benefits to humanity. Individuals use public green spaces for recreation, amusement, and communication with friends, as well as cultural and social events and many more (Amirsheakri et al., 2014). The benefits can also be grouped into environmental benefits, Social benefits, Health benefits, and Economic benefits (Amasa, 2015). Amongst these benefits are; the limitation of environmental hazards such as air pollution, it also enhances the quality of life, ensures protection of biodiversity, and again, mitigates the impacts of intense weather events thus, heavy rainfall, flooding, and heatwaves. These areas are deteriorated by the activities of man such as removal of vegetation and above all placing structures in areas liable to flood, open spaces, and so on which are generally known as encroachments (Kamman, 2017).

As the world strives to attain sustainable cities through the SDG 11 by 2030, Urban green spaces (UGS) in second world countries are mostly encroached as population increases (Brunner & Kaminski, 2012). According to Alabi (2019), this is as a result of the poor management of these areas. The manifestation of these encroachments is fewer “urban green spaces” for recreational, conservation as well as other functions (Oduro-Ofori et al., 2014). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) states that the drivers of the deterioration of the green space services are at the moment persistent and they echo in different indirect causes such as growth of population, socio-political and cultural factors, and per capita consumption. All these factors somehow lead to encroachment or depletion of green spaces.

Encroachment is a term that is used to define the extension of railway, roads, structures, and other development into natural areas among which are wetlands, lakes and ponds, plains, and the buffers surrounding these regions (Kamman, 2017). Among the areas underscored by them are green spaces, and the depletion of the afore can be related to the proliferation of population and the higher increase in smart tools and industrial activities which tends to collapse the mutually sympathetic relationship between human and nature (Opoku, 2013).

Urbanization though has its benefits, also has its effects that tear cities and communities apart if not managed. These effects include encroachment of greenery, ecologically sensitive zones, among others because of the radical alteration of land uses accompanying urbanization (Abass et al., 2019; Wood & Pullin, 2000). The growing population in cities of the developing world mounts pressure on the various land uses especially open spaces and wetlands because of the incapacity of responsible institutions to manage the rising numbers and also implement effectively the legislation or legal frameworks established to protect these spaces (Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2008). Furthermore, instigating critical demises in ecology (Seto et al., 2012).

1.2 Problem Statement

Overexploitation of the physical environment causes changes in the natural operation of the ecology (Opoku, 2013). The manifestation of this is flooding that is experienced in most parts of the world during heavy rainfall, drying of water bodies as a result of encroachment, and others (SANDRP, 2019). Pieces of evidence provided by sources underscore that the worldwide unrestrained encroachment on green spaces has resulted in losses in biodiversity in wetland regions, increasing global warming, and others.

Urbanization is regarded as the major cause of encroachment in Ghana. This is because as the population of Ghanaian cities increases, its resultant effect is the modification of other land uses (Mhawish & Saba, 2016). Kumasi has seen a rising level of urbanization throughout the decades (Tontoh, 2011). The “2010 population and housing census” organised by the GSS disclosed that Kumasi’s population was growing at a growth rate of 5.7 percent. This is due to its strategic location and its function as a commercial hub of West African (Devas & Korboe, 2000). Green spaces suffer encroachment as a result of the aforementioned enumeration (Abass et al., 2018).

According to Amoako (2011), Kumasi, “the second-largest city in Ghana” which gained the praise “Garden City of West Africa” following the effect of the city plan of 1945 has undergone a speedy shift from paradigm during the post-independence era. He further asserts that the post-independence era has seen a higher deterioration of the “green spaces” in Kumasi thereby gradually robbing of its accolade and this is attributed to the rapid urbanization occurring in the city. According to Amasa, (2015), some areas that were delineated on the Kumasi layout have been encroached upon and most of the existing ones are in poor condition.

Preliminary studies show that, most wetland areas in Kumasi are being developed and where there are no structures, the nature reserve to give river and streams shade are removed. It furthermore indicates that most rivers and streams in the city have been polluted with greywater from households thereby turning them into urban wastewater. Opoku (2013) also indicated that there are legal frameworks that protect these green spaces in the country. Meanwhile, they are still encroached upon. How familiar the inhabitants are with the legal frameworks that safeguard “green spaces”, the understanding of encroachers on the relevance of “green spaces”, and the Land Uses that replace green spaces after encroachment has received limited research attention. These have motivated this thesis to analyse the encroachment of the green spaces in Kumasi.

1.3 Research Questions

This study seeks to find solutions to these questions;

1. To what extent are the inhabitants aware of the legal frameworks for safeguarding green spaces?
2. To what extent do the settlers know about the relevance of green spaces?
3. What land uses have replaced green spaces after encroachment?

1.4 Objective of the study

The general objective of the study is to examine the encroachments on Green Spaces in Kumasi.

Specifically, the study aims to;

1. To determine how familiar inhabitants are with the legislations that protect green spaces.
2. To assess the understanding of settlers on the relevance of green spaces.
3. To ascertain the land uses that replace green spaces after encroachment.

1.5 Scope of the study

The study was carried out in Kumasi with the following communities as study areas; Atonsu, Ayeduase, Kentikrono and Susanso because they are the communities within proximity to wetlands or river buffer zone which is been looked at in this study and can help meet the schedule for the study. Again, it is accepted as true that activities of these communities pose more threats or impact deeply on green lands in these areas (Amasa, 2015). The household heads in these neighbourhoods are targeted for the survey. Environmental authorities and other departments targeted to manage these areas are likewise contained in the survey. Individuals who possess properties (farms, houses, commercial facilities, etc) within delineated green space areas and on the borders of “green spaces” are also incorporated in the study.

1.5 Limitation

Several glitches were confronted in the course of the carrying out this study particularly during the data collection for the research. Most respondents were reluctant to provide responses to some question (i.e., pertaining to ownership and acquisition of land and their conformity to layout or zoning guidelines) that was asked irrespective of the fact that the motive behind the research was made clear to them. Respondents were anxious that information shared would be relayed to the MMDA’s and imperil them. However, they were swayed that answers provided were strictly for academic purposes and for that matter their personalities were classified

Again, some problems the researcher encountered during data collection is accessibility to properties or houses, unavailability of respondents to interview and the presence of domestic animals. Some buildings were walled and locked which made it difficult for the researcher to get access to such houses to interview respondents. Also, some respondents were not available to be interviewed during the data collection process. Again, there were dogs in some houses which made it very difficult for the researcher to approach for information.

Also, gaining access to information on the part of some institutions which were crucial to this research was cumbersome. Some respondents to the institutional interview failed to collaborate with the researcher until they were persuaded by explaining to them the rationale of the research. All the above contributed to why the researcher could not interview all respondents who were sampled for the study. That notwithstanding, the discoveries from this study were amply precise and steadfast to make a well-versed generalisation about the encroachment of green space in urban centres in Ghana.

1.6 Organization of the work

The study has been organised into five chapters where every chapter discusses the subject matter of the study. This arrangement is discussed in this section to keep a reader abreast with the organisation of the study. Chapter one of the study presents the background information of the study. The problem statement, the research questions, objectives of the study, the scope of the study and its justification as well as the limitation of the study are discussed in chapter one.

Chapter two reviews conventional literature on UGS and encroachment. Theories to back the research into a way to better conceptualise encroachment of UGS are presented in this chapter. Also, the overview of UGS, green infrastructure and the functions of green spaces as held by researchers are discussed in this chapter two. Again, urban land use change and causes of encroachment on “urban green spaces”, effects of the reduction of “green spaces” and legal frameworks safeguarding green spaces and the conceptual framework for analysing encroachment on green spaces are likewise staged in chapter two of this study.

The discourse in chapter three articulates the research methodologies that were employed in the study. The research philosophy from which the research was adopted, the research design, preliminary study of the research are presented in this chapter. Also, the target population, sample size and sampling technique used for the study together with the primary data collection methods, their processing and analyses as well as data sources and their unit of analysis are presented in chapter three of the study.

Chapter four discusses the analysis of green spaces and LULC change. The awareness of UGS protection laws/regulations, the relevance of UGS and LULC and Encroachment are presented in chapter four of the study. Chapter five of the study on the other hand summarises the entire study and also recommendations for findings as well as the conclusion of the study are presented in chapter five of the study.

Chapter Two

A REVIEW OF URBAN GREEN SPACE AND ENCROACHMENT

2.1 Introduction

Urban green spaces can be better understood through a thorough review of conventional literature to establish the views of different researchers on the encroachments of green spaces. The review is relevant to establish the context of the problem under study, give a good reason for the importance of the problem and the variables required for the study. Also, it helps to identify what is done and what is not done

This chapter discourses the theory that supports the study. Discussions on greenspaces and green infrastructure, the functions of green spaces, green spaces in Kumasi and accessibility and distribution of green spaces, urban land use change and causes of encroachment on green spaces, effects of the depletion of green spaces and the conceptual framework for analysing green spaces encroachment are also included in this chapter.

2.2 Theoretical review

The phenomenon of urban green space encroachment can be explained by adopting organised principles and analyses guide that discuss the issues of encroachment. Since theory attempts to find answers to ideas, it suggests potentials. Thus, the theoretical review gives an array of facts to investigate. In other words, the theory determines what to be studied and also gives you and ideas on the variables to be measured.

The activities of humans (controlled and Uncontrolled) affect the environment both positively and negatively. The study makes use of the “Common Pool Theory (CPT)” (Goetze, 1987) to better understand how the hysterical activities of humans impact negatively on natural resources, common resources and the environment at large. Also, the rationality of inapt use of common resources or goods; for instance, human encroachment are explained using other theories

Runge's (1981) and Wade's (1987) “Prisoner’s Dilemma Strategies” which resulted in the negative assumptions about the feasibility of common property administration regimes, is the basis for the Common Pool Theory (CPT). The theory assembles resources possessed by a community under single cataloguing: open-access property. References can be made to properties or resources such as common lands, forests or green areas, common air and surface underground water sources or water resources where there are no laws or regulations on entry or resource usage and there are no land rights (Dasgupta & Heal, 1979). Also, “common-property resources” are often used to refer to a variety of analytical contexts, including “(1) property owned by a state, (2) property owned by no one, and (3) property owned and defended by a group of resource consumers”. Regardless of the form of land rights concerned, the term is often used to refer to any common-pool assets shared by several individuals (Schlager & Ostrom, 1992). Green space can therefore be known as community-owned properties or property owned by the state because they benefit people in the community, and under the CPT, everyone has rights to them.

Individuals in a group do not express their desires to one another, they mistrust one another, and each party strives to gain very much from community-owned services, according to this theory (Van de Laar, 1990). According to the theory, a person who uses free access or common property resources has an opportunity to follow his interests while ignoring the interests of all other consumers. As a result, the individual would manipulate the resources in such a manner that doing so would maximize his profits at the expense of others’ benefits, reducing their wellbeing (Dasgupta & Heal, 1979).

The theory expresses the method of optimizing one's stake in a property or resources to gain greater benefits as “free-riding” (Schlager & Ostrom, 1992). Individuals in the community adopt unscrupulous tactics to use community-owned property, ensuring lower per capita gain and resource degradation. This is the reasoning for natural resources, particularly green spaces, such as open spaces and wetlands management and conservation.

According to (Shah, 1994, p. 3), “protected areas mean some individuals or organizations may be granted usufruct rights to the protected resource’’. Poachers and encroachers are people who misuse a property without having legal usufruct privileges. Poachers are seen as free-riders who pursue to achieve maximum their gain to the disadvantage of other interested parties as well as the ecology. This is because free-riding favours the free-rider since he gains the benefits of his flawed behaviour alone, while the harm incurred by this conduct is shared by all.

As a result, the free-rider suffers just a small proportion of the risk, and the advantages he receives from free-riding much outweigh the harm he experiences (Saleth, 1994). Any individual resource consumer has an opportunity to overexploit the property until it is depleted under lax security laws. This compromises every environmental goal and leads to Hardin's (1968) “Tragedy of the Commons theory”.

The “Tragedy of the Commons Theory” examines environmental policy from two perspectives. The first defines a situation in which members of the community attempt to optimize their value in a communally held resource, resulting in its destruction. The second philosophical aspect depicts a situation in which community stakeholders fail to fulfil their environmental responsibilities for public property, destroying community-owned properties (Ostrom, 2008).

In the highlighted perspectives, (Fletcher, 1966) states that individuals measure their utility from a logical standpoint. Nibbering (1996) upholds that rationality and opportunistic behaviour are the guiding rules for resource allocation. The Tragedy of Commons, thus, draws on Friedman's (1957) “Rational-Choice Theory” to enlighten individuals’ poaching actions. According to Green (2002), the reasonable man decides to seek his fulfilment because the satisfaction of harvesting from the commons is higher than the opportunity cost of preserving the resource. Since it believes that each person in society is free and acts individually and rationally, the theory generalizes this situation to any member of society. As a result, each member of society is trapped in a loop of stealing from the commons, which eventually leads to its degradation and dissolution.

The above discourse, therefore, reveals green space as a common pool resource and are vulnerable to encroachment if laws are not formulated to protect them. This further pinpoint some keywords i.e., urban green spaces, encroachments and green space protection laws and regulations. These keywords are further discussed in the subsequent sections to determine what's done and what is not done by different researchers.

2.3 Overview of Urban Green Spaces

The integration of “green spaces” into the physical environment of urbanized areas improves the standard of living (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015). Many of the early urban utopian ideas, like Charles Fourier’s dream towns dubbed “phalansteries”, Ernest Callebach’s essay “Ecotopia”, and Ebenezer Howard’s “Garden City”, emphasized the protection of urban natural environments (Roelofs, 1999) and George Cadbury’s “Bournville Village” (Mensah, 2014). These are wholly substantial milestones in the activities of a green city. According to Dunnett et al. (2002) and Swanwick et al. (2003) the word “green space” is a modern phrase that can be largely attributed to the urban preservation revolution and European thought of “green space” design, all of which began in the United Kingdom. “Greenspace” is an essential component of the communal sphere. Aesthetically pleasing, clean, and open parks and green spaces support the health of the population, well-being, and standard of living in substantial human, economic, and environmental ways (Bowman et al., 2009). Mensah (2014) claims that the word “green space” is very often mistaken with other words used in urban planning, such as “open space” and “public open space”, and that both terms are also used as one and the same. He also claims that some scholars originated some interesting words to explain the concept of “green space” and distinguish it from other terms in the urban environment.

Bowen (1990) refer to “green space” as “vegetative cover in cities”, which is described as “a region protected by plants within and around cities that are more provided for two key functions: modifying weather, making the air more tenuous, and embellishing cities” (Amirsheakri et al., 2014, p. 143). The portion of the “green spaces” planned as well as constructed cities are called the “urban green space”; it is a comparatively large space comprised of vegetations with a tree layout and adequate ecological and environmental returns that are suitable for the environmental requirements that prevail in urban areas (Germann-Chiari & Seeland, 2004). Individuals use public green spaces for recreation, amusement, and communication with friends, as well as cultural and social events and many more (Amirsheakri et al., 2014).

Forsyth (2003) maintains that green space is made up of many outdoor areas with significant quantities of foliage, and is often used to represent human measurements. A green space, according to Kit Campbell Associates (2001), is a planted field or infrastructure, aquatic, or ecological element inside urbanised areas. According to Forsyth (2003), these spaces comprise urban parks and some other greenery that can appear to be “natural” and yet are constructed, cultivated, and maintained by humans.

According to WHO (2017b), “green spaces” and other ecological interventions offer novel ways to boost the excellence of urbanised areas while also increasing resilience and ensuring a sustainable way of life, enhancing equally the health and the welfare of urban residents. It further describes green spaces as the playgrounds, parks, blue areas (e.g., lagoons, streams, among others), and Vegetations in public or private places. Green Spaces are of many benefits to humanity. WHO (2017a) conceptualize that Green spaces can also be small green space characteristics (such as street trees and roadside vegetation), “green spaces” that are not open to the public or for amusement use (such as rooftop gardens and edifices, or green space on personal premises), or larger green spaces that serve a variety of social and recreation activities (such as parks, playgrounds or greenways). Any of these broader green space systems (such as green belts, green corridors, or urban forests) can serve many urban areas by providing ecological, cultural, and entertainment benefits.

Greenspace, according to Shan (2009), is a relatively new concept that arose from the urban wildlife preservation revolution and European theories on green space design. Green space applies to any vegetated field or water inside and adjacent to an urban area. Per Greenspace Scotland (2008) it encompasses “natural” green space, pedestrian walkways and event space grassland, gardens. Outdoor recreational grounds, football fields, graveyards and allotments, as well as vacant, unused, and polluted land, are also included. It's often referred to as the spaces composed of soil surfaces able to sustain plant life (Greenspace Scotland, 2008).

On the accounts of the EU, “urban green space” is described as “public green space located in urban areas, mainly covered by vegetation which is directly used for active or passive recreation, or indirectly used by their positive influence on the urban environment, accessible to citizens, serving the diverse needs of citizens and thus enhancing the quality of life in cities or urban regions” (Rodenburg et al., 2004; p. 13 in Booklet 2)

“Open spaces” are described by the US EPA (2006) as an exposed stretch of land that's still undeveloped (i.e., without edifices or other forms of constructions) and publicly accessible. Green space is an example of “open space” (land that is partly or completely covered with grass, trees, shrubs, or other vegetation). Neighbourhood gardens, parks, graveyards, school playgrounds, recreation facilities, public viewing areas, famous tourist destinations, and vacant lots are also examples of green space. According to them, open space offers people outdoor opportunities and contributes to the attractiveness and environmental health of communities. However, with such a diverse variety of recreational opportunities comes an increasingly diverse set of environmental concerns.

In China, the phrase “urban green space” implies “all the green land/area covered by vegetation city-wide” (Chen, 2013; Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development, 2002) Thus, “urban green space” embraces all the vegetation in cities (Gairola & Noresah, 2010). “Urban green space” can likewise be explained as “all publicly owned and publicly accessible open space with a high degree of cover by vegetation, e.g. parks, woodlands, nature areas and other green space. It can have a designed or cultural character as well as a more natural character” (Schipperijn, 2010).

The expression “urban green space” refers to parts of land that are not built on, whether of a personal nature (greenery designed to upsurge the owner’s preference, a particular subject) or a general nature (greenery designed to stimulate community usage by the exercise of duties in favour of ordinary inhabitants), and that coincides with edifices and anthropogenic elements Fratini & Marone (2011).

2.3.1 Major components of Green Spaces

Although there are variations in UGS meanings across nations, Chen (2013) observes that two major components of the design's application are universal. The characteristics are as follows: a) Vegetation prominence; (b) A metropolitan region that has been affected by urbanization (the whole territorial area, not just constructed areas); It has also been discovered that the term "urban green space" is an analogy that encompasses contradictory characteristics. Open space in cities should not alter the intrinsic “authenticity” of the land as compared to a constructed concrete environment that represents “serious” interference in the natural cycle (such as still offering ecology services in addition to supporting environmental procedures). In this respect, green spaces are critical for protecting certain spaces from excessive human influence and activities, as well as for resolving conflicts amongst enclosed concrete areas and unclassified nature reserves (Uggla, 2012).

Despite the slight variations in the meanings mentioned, green space may be described as areas largely protected by nature, whether organic or synthetic. It includes land that is mostly composed of uncovered, absorbent, “soft” surfaces like dirt, turf, shrubbery, and plants, and is either accessible or preserved privately or publicly (Dunnett et al., 2002). Since open spaces may contain houses and other concrete artefacts, the word “predominant” is emphasized. Swanwick et al. (2003) suggested a new definition to help people to understand how to describe open spaces. The built structure and the surroundings around buildings, they demonstrate, make up public spaces. “Greenspace” and “grey space” are the two primary components of the outer environment (see Figure 2.1). The “green space” can be “linear (occurred along transport routes such as roads, railways), semi-natural (wetlands, woodland), functional (allotments, churchyards, school grounds) and amenity (parks and gardens)” (Dunnett et al., 2002; Swanwick et al., 2003).

Grey space, the second element of the outer environment, refers to space that is enclosed, impenetrable, and has ‘tough' surfaces like asphalt, pavement, or concrete. There are two categories of grey space: “physical grey space (which serves a particular purpose, such as sidewalks, roadways, parking lots, as well as other tough spaces associated with various forms of built development) and civic grey space (which serves a general-purpose). The publicly accessible areas ( civic grey spaces) planned basically for public enjoyment such as town squares, plazas and esplanades” (Swanwick et al., 2003).

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Figure 2.1: Depiction of “Green Spaces” in Urban Scene

Source: (Mensah, 2014)

2.3.2 Accessibility Of Green Spaces

The availability of huge quantities of parkland in urban centres is significant, but having parks closer to individuals that are easily accessible to them is also significant (Rigby, 2014). The ease of access to “green spaces” should be taken into account to require users to be closer to nature. The distance between parks and where inhabitants work or live appears to be a major prerequisite for using green spaces. Those who residing close to greenery utilise them most frequently, according to research conducted in Helsinki, Finland, which discovered that in regions with easy access to recreational greenery, people who live nearby use parks (Haq, 2011).

UGS should be situated in the middle of the neighbourhood, not more than a five-minute walking distance away for inhabitants inside the community, so that the distance travelled by walking, cycling, or driving becomes short (Haq, 2011). As a result, the convenience and closeness to parks are critical variables in the placement of “urban green space”. Planning in urban centres should be focused on equality and fairer distribution for everyone in society (Abubakar & Aina, 2006). That is the basis for Tabassum & Sharmin's (2013) argument that accessibility is the most crucial component to take into account during the early phases of the planning process, irrespective of whether it is evaluated in “time, cost, distance, or population”. Individuals must be made mindful of the presence of local green areas as well as motivated to put them into use.

Physical accessibility (i.e., easy mobility to regions) is among the most essential characteristics that entice individuals to utilize facilities (Asibey et al., 2019; Bisht et al., 2010). According to Gregory et al. (2011), physical accessibility, defined as “the ease with which people can reach desired services and facilities”, gives significant information on the number of positive impacts and satisfaction that a certain sector of the community obtains from using parks. These assists policymakers, park managers, and local government in understanding the kinds of individuals within the city environment that are either challenged or privileged in terms of park usage. To promote access, a “public open space” in a neighbourhood should be evenly dispersed or adequately attached to a transit terminal, according to “Ghana’s Zoning Guidelines and Planning Standards”.

In the study of Narh et al. (2020), they examined accessibility on the accounts of the “availability of parks and proximity of users to the parks”. The findings of the survey indicated that concerning closeness, most city people usually journeyed lengthier distances to utilise park services. They discovered that inhabitants in Kumasi, on average, journeyed 50-60 minutes to access a park (i.e., Urban Green Space), compared to inhabitants in Paris as well as Madrid, who travel approximately 15 minutes to utilise a park. According to them, “Park users who had to travel a longer distance to reach a park were, therefore, unable to use the parks regularly despite the availability of requisite park infrastructure thereby discouraging city dwellers from patronising most of the parks. Most of the neighbourhoods, especially the peri-urban settlements within the Metropolis lacked parks which made it difficult for them to patronise existing and functional parks”. This research result reinforces findings in the conventional literature (e.g., Grow et al., 2008; Mowen et al., 2007) that indicate park users recreation in parks near their homes. Furthermore, research conducted in the United States and Europe by (Schipperijn et al., 2017) discovered that parks within 1 km of residences had “greater leisure-time activity,” i.e., individuals visited parks that were 15 minutes away from their houses. As a result, it is possible to conclude that accessibility, in dimensions to closeness and availability, has a favourable impact on the use and quantity of individuals who visit urban parks.

2.3.3 Urban Green Spaces in Ghanaian Context

Urban Green Spaces in Ghana connotes the “unused landscapes in cities or towns such as parks which have sufficient greenery on them to make them ameliorate the harsh conditions engendered by concrete buildings/structures in such areas” (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015; Barnes, 2014). “Green spaces” in this study are vegetated fields or facilities, water, and ecological features which serve as active or passive amusement or as a nature-based intervention to improve the condition of existence of inhabitants while also enhancing and ensuring a sustainable way of life, enhancing equally the health and welfare of inhabitants. Urban green spaces, however, are the sorts of spaces that are sited in urbanized areas. Open spaces, parks, recreational centres, graveyards, pathways, wetlands, among others are all an embodiment of green spaces and they are mostly owned by the public rather than private. This study treats green spaces, greenery, “urban green spaces” and open spaces the same.

2.4 Green Infrastructure

“Green infrastructure” is a phrase that relates to “green space” and is frequently used to equate to connectivity (Saraev, 2012). The theoretical models of Frederick Law Olmsted and Ebenezer Howard, it has been proposed, were crucial to the advancement of the “green infrastructure” theory. The concept of referring to an area’s ecological potential and social opportunities has been well accepted in landscape design, however, Olmsted and Howard were among the first to investigate this connection. Several green infrastructure scholars also point to Olmsted’s work in New York and Boston as early indicators of promoting the convergence of shape and purpose that contributes to landscape multiple functionalities. These are principles that now are widely accepted in the field of green infrastructure. Howard’s role in the United Kingdom upheld principles identical to Olmsted’s (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015). Via his plans, Howard proposed also that putting greenery next to suburban areas can promote the mental and physical life of the local community. Whenever it comes to green infrastructure, the importance of Olmsted and Howard cannot be overstated. “Green infrastructure” study has risen in tandem with a rethinking of what ecosystems should look like and work like. The expression “green infrastructure” refers to the interconnected array of “green spaces” located all across urbanized areas. They have been widely regarded as a term which both policymakers and scholars should rely on because they necessitate a range of alternative advantages for ecological, fiscal, and social realms (Mell, 2008)

There are presently several concepts of green infrastructure as there have been writers focusing on the topic, and such meanings used by an agency or an individual specifically contribute to the emphasis of their take in green infrastructure study, as with most educational and professional research. For instance, conservation group writers would place a heavy emphasis on ecological and biodiversity aspects, whereas planners would examine the topic in relation to policy execution, and recreational greenways and green infrastructure experts would concentrate on the advantages obtained utilizing structure (Mell, 2010). Also, it’s worth noting that a surge in enthusiasm in green infrastructure doesn’t often imply a deeper definition of the idea and that the word “green infrastructure” could indicate a variety of meanings. Despite the differences in the meanings created for green infrastructure, there are similar threads that run through them all (Mell, 2010).

According to Denchak (2019) “Green infrastructure encompasses a variety of water management practices, such as vegetated rooftops, roadside plantings, absorbent gardens, and other measures that capture, filter, and reduce stormwater. In doing so, it cuts down on the amount of flooding and reduces the polluted runoff that reaches sewers, streams, rivers, lakes, and oceans. Green infrastructure captures the rain where it falls. It mimics natural hydrological processes and uses natural elements such as soil and plants to turn rainfall into a resource instead of a waste”.

“Green infrastructure in an urban environment refers to all non-hard and non-built areas, including surface water areas as well as a zone of 1-2 km between town and countryside that are more or less connected to each other. The structure should be organized with an overruling strategy; thus, it must be possible to recognize a system in the structure. Accordingly, green infrastructure is a network of patches of natural character including surface water and greenways, penetrating an urban built-up area. The concept should not be limited by administrative considerations; thus, both public and private lands are included in a green infrastructure” (Sandström, 2002).

According to the Countryside Agency (2006), “green infrastructure” is defined as “the provision of planned networks of linked multifunctional green spaces that contribute to the protection of natural habitats and biodiversity, enable the response to climate change and other biosphere changes, enable more sustainable and healthy lifestyles, improve urban liveability and wellbeing, and improve access to key recreation areas”.

The system of innate and partly natural areas, infrastructure, and green spaces in developing and developed areas, as well as wetlands, freshwater, coastal, and marine areas, that all together improve ecological well‐being and resilience, add to conservation of biodiversity, and support communities thru the improvement of the ecosystem, is known as green infrastructure (Naumann et al., 2011). Green Infrastructure, according to Atkinson et al. (2010), is interpreted as the “combined structure, position, connectivity, and types of green spaces which together allow delivery of multiple benefits as goods and services”. TEP (2005, p. 1) defines it as the physical climate of cities, towns, and villages. The grid of open parks, rivers, forests, woods, green pathways, street trees, and open fields provides residents and neighbourhoods with numerous social, economic, and environmental benefits.

A sub-regional system of designated areas, nature reserves, open fields, and greenway interconnections is known as “green infrastructure”. Green Infrastructure should be able to serve many purposes. It should be able to function throughout all spatial scales, including city centres to open rural areas (TCPA, 2004). “Green Infrastructure” is a system of connected “green spaces” that preserves akin environmental ideals and processes while also providing the fore deal to human communities. The ecological system required for “natural, social, and economic sustainability” is known as green infrastructure (Benedict & McMahon, 2002, p. 12).

“Our nation’s natural life support system - an interconnected network of protected land and water that supports native species, maintains natural ecological processes, sustains air and water resources and contributes to the health and quality of life for America‘s communities and people” (Williamson, 2003, p. 4).

Despite the variations in the aforementioned meanings of green infrastructure, the various definitions are shared: “access, spatial variance, multi-functionality, natural and human benefits, biodiversity, sustainability, and connectivity”. “Green infrastructure” is, or ought to be, part of a larger green system that connects various ecological elements, according to the apiece concept (Mell, 2010).

2.4.1 Green Infrastructure Typologies

In the work of Davies et al. (2006), they developed a typology based on stakeholder input that they believe could be considered “green infrastructure”. The typology demonstrated that “green infrastructure” is consist of a variety of landscape qualities, as well as a variety of categorizations that have been suggested to have a “green” attribute. Davies et al. (2006) created a typology scheme that is based on Ahern's Greenway categorizations. Ahern (1995) established his typology categorizations on concerns of size, priorities, landscape meaning, and planning policy, instead of on elements or issues previously addressed in the formulation of the “green infrastructure” definition.

Ahern’s typology in evaluating green infrastructure, according to Mell (2010), provides an incentive to investigate the challenges of categorizing green spaces. He goes on to say that numerous landscape elements, such as a graveyard, may have succeeded in providing a place for thinking and spiritual recess while also being situated in an ecologically significant landscape. As a result, acknowledging the differences between land usage and real land categorisations can be critical in the implementation of green infrastructure.

According to Mell (2010), an effort to create a green infrastructure typology once more was made by RCEP (2007). The RCEP described official, unofficial, green space pathways, strategic green spaces, sports fields, and public-private spaces as a broad classification of what entails green infrastructure (See Figure 2.2). As compared to Davies et al.'s stakeholder examination, this scheme performs well.

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Figure 2.2: Categorisations of Green Space and Land Use

Source: Mell (2010) in Addo-Fordwuor (2015).

On the accounts of Mell (2010), it’s worth remembering that it’s impossible to debate the various semantic and operational concepts of green infrastructure without a clear understanding of what it entails. “Green infrastructure” typology should be discussed in accordance with the literature, which should be evaluated for both its scientific origin and its importance to scenery maintenance activities. An appraisal of this nature allows for a study of the basic concepts (for example, connection, multi-functionality, and accessibility).

In the view of Mell (2010), a systematic classification for green infrastructure includes shape, purpose, and meaning, and can be divided into ecological, economic, and social parameters for evaluating the importance of particular green infrastructure components (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Mell’s Typology Categorization

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2.5 Functions of Green Spaces

“Green spaces are the core of the urban advantage” according to UN-Habitat (2021). Green spaces, according to them, contribute to the opulence of urban areas by promoting social solidarity and integration, quality of life, city productivity, and civic distinctiveness. Through its multi-functional and multi-disciplinary features, green space presents an all-inclusive view of the city, with social inclusion, control, regulation, wellbeing, security, edification, climate change, transportation, energy, and the urban economy (UN-Habitat, 2013). “It also increases the quality and quantity of local water supplies and provides myriad other environmental, economic, and health benefits - often in nature - starved urban areas” (Denchak, 2019).

There have been several studies on the purposes of green spaces. “Green spaces”, according to Amirsheakri et al. (2014), have a special identity in terms of residents' environmental concerns, offering recreational spaces, and serving as a venue for contact and social connection. The basic functions of “green spaces” in communities can be outlined as follows: “ entertainment, hygienic, communication, instructional, and transactional functions ” (see Table 2.2).

Table 2.2: Functions of Green spaces

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Source: Adopted from Amirsheakri et al. (2014)

The ecological role, socio-cultural standards, economic merits, and structural functions are the most common categories, according to Chen (2013). The ecological role has been prioritized in most cities today, at minimum in government political goals (see Figure 2.3).

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Figure 2.3: Classification of Functions and Values of “Urban Green Space”.

Source: Chen (2013)

2.5.1 Ecological Functions

“Green space” in cities serves a variety of direct ecological purposes. Trees in the urban setting, for instance, help to improve the quality of the air by trapping air pollution (Nowak, 2006). By sequestering in the atmosphere, urban vegetation also aids to lessen levels in the atmosphere (McPherson, 1998; Nowak & Crane, 2002).

Parks and gardens, Forests and other open spaces in and throughout communities, according to Caspersen et al., (2006), offer appealing areas for “both every day (short-term) and longer-term” recreational activities. They also argue that residents' happiness with their living conditions is dependent on residing in a “green environment” and/or being adjacent to “green spaces”.

UGS can perfect the UHI effect by “averting incoming solar radiation from heating the nearby buildings and surfaces, cooling the air by evapotranspiration, and reducing wind speed” (Akbari et al., 2001). Again, the existence of UGS “limit surface runoff (resulting from obstructing rainfall), imbibe pollutants and emanate hydrocarbons and again alter solar radiation, the temperature of the air, speed of the wind and relative humidity” (Pauleit & Duhme, 2000; Choi et al., 2012). The approach identified according to Jonsson (2004) to attain cooling effects of urban centres is to upsurge the “vegetative cover and higher albedo surface materials”. In mitigating UHIs in this period of global warming, green spaces are crucial (Lee et al., 2009).

In the accounts of Deng et al., (2008), cities and their residents regard four key aspects of the ecological contributions of UGS. Thus, “Urban biodiversity Maintenance; improving the microclimate and alleviating urban heat island effects; reducing air pollution and purifying air; urban natural disaster prevention and refuge provision”.

2.5.2 Socio-Cultural Values

Green spaces can make available venues where individuals can meet and foster social ties (Sullivan et al., 2004). Coley et al. (1997) argue that “the presence of trees consistently predicted greater use of outdoor spaces by all people, young and older, as well as groupings of people consisting of both youth and adults together”.

Parks in the urban area provide inhabitants living in them “a reprieve from their stressful lives, fast-track repossession from disease, and can promote energetic living, fighting dormant way of life allied with obesity, cardiac diseases and several forms of cancer” (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015). A current characteristic of most inner-city parks, that is, community gardens, can provide inhabitants spaces for interaction socially and allow people to add to their diets fresh vegetables and fruits. They also can enhance community ties. Parks nurture the development of children and control vulgarity. The majority of children would be fond of playing in open-air spaces that offer them an array of sensory knowledge which support them to enhance their motor ability (Byrne & Sipe, 2010).

When a dense number of people, traffic noise, and pollution are combined, residents are exposed to a high level of stress-inducing elements. As a result, in an urban setting marked by an intense style of living and elevated environmental exposure to pollution and other stressors, the need for access to green areas is heightened (Caspersen et al., 2006).

UGS make available a chance for interaction and connection for native inhabitants and enhances neighbourhood relationships and improves interior unity inside the community (Chen, 2013; Yu, 2002). “Working-class” individuals benefit from some health reimbursements with respect to the quantity of “green space” present in their locality and this condenses “health inequalities” (Hartig, 2008). Groenewegen et al. (2006) argue “green space” as “Vitamin G” aimed at social welfare.

According to Van der Ryn & Cowan (2007), the care offered to the educational purpose and importance of UGS from the probability of utilizing nature for the thoughts for sustainability. Chen (2013) likewise maintains that inhabitants of cities full of concrete and persistent structures have a slight chance to move closer to inaccessible nature. “Greenspace” in the urban centres offers such an area for individuals predominantly youngsters to comprehend nature and obtain a vivid eco-friendly edification (Rodenburg et al., 2004).

2.5.3 Economic Aspect

The economic merits of UGS stem from its output and job prospects. Products (such as firewood, fibre, fruits, and mulch) and job prospects (such as new planting initiatives, maintenance, and administration of specific regions) are instances of the concrete economic rewards of “green space”. Urban agriculture, for one, is gaining popularity. “Vegetable gardens, food gardens, herb gardens, and fruit gardens have grown in popularity in western nations where city inhabitants own home gardens and communal gardens”. Backyard gardens, particularly in metropolitan areas, serve to ease scarcity and save money on family expenditures (Chen, 2013).

According to Derkzen's (2012) argument, the ecological, or manufacturing and employment roles of UGS are easily measurable and may contribute to economic advantages, such as on the communal level, whereby temperature regulation, run-off absorption, and dust filtering can cut costs for families and local governments. A five-degree Celsius disparity in temperature may significantly cut air-conditioning expenses, and permeability soils of green areas minimise flood danger and the expenses of fixing, reconstructing, and insurance claims (Baycan-Levent et al., 2009). Derkzen (2012) observes that the organic produce of UGS such as “wood, young trees, and compost”, as well as the capability for energy generation, have a market value.

Moreover, the administration and upkeep of greenery generate local jobs as well as a task for planners and policymakers, as well as for connected amenities like bicycle rental and food services (Rodenburg et al., 2001). UGS can be investigated for research objectives in fields such as "geology, environmental economics, human geography, urban forestry, environmental and landscape planning, and genetics" (Derkzen, 2012).

According to Muhammad & Breuste, (2008), another major financial benefit that may be gained from UGS is tourism income, since it has been proven that the availability of “green space” is distantly tied to the beauty of a city for inhabitants and also others outside, and “urban green spaces” also have the ability to entice business establishments and institutions that desire to be located there.

According to Chen (2013), there is also another intangible kind of economic benefit linked with greenery: properly-planned and maintained UGS may substantially advance a city’s performance and efficiency, and also aid to boost the price of the property as well as promote further investment. Greenspace, such as “public parks, natural areas, and golf courses, can also have a statistically substantial impact on the sale values of residences near such assets” (Bolitzer & Netusil, 2000).

2.5.4 Structural Functions

Vegetation, UGS, and natural areas are architectural constructs for urban space in the same way that built-up areas are. The structural functions of UGS are frequently employed in urban development through defining urban form and shape, controlling urban growth, buffering amongst city zones, arranging traffic, and architecture used for development and design (Liu, 2008).

Parks and UGS are frequently employed in urban design to divide urban zones on a lower scale. Greenery is extremely valuable in compact city forms because they provide an ecological balance to the building form and may be created as a green system to aid connectivity with nature ( Rodenburg et al., 2004).

Urban green spaces perform very important functions in organising traffic. For a significant period, the planning of “urban green space” has been attributed to traffic networks. It is critical that the design and administration of public space balance the requirements of these sometimes competing forms of transportation. Vegetation and “green areas” contribute to high-grade cityscapes and community spaces. Properly planned pathways and public areas encourage cycling and walking while also promoting a secure environment by lowering car speeds and usage (CABE Space, 2004).

The architectural qualities connected with UGS, vegetation, and natural environments cannot be overstated. “Vegetation is used in defining open space and integrating the buildings to the surrounding environment. Plants form walls, canopies or floors of varying heights and densities; these are architectural characteristics. Landscape variation is created through different colours, textures, forms and densities of plants. Urban trees can direct vision, break up large spaces, and define space. They can be used to frame scenes and to provide foreground and backgrounds for landscape features” (Tyrväinen et al., 2005, p. 89).

“Urban green spaces, vegetation and natural landscapes give local character and identity, provide distinctive landscape and give legibility and structure to the urban fabric” ( Rodenburg et al., 2004, p. 14).

According to Chen (2013), UGS not only forms the physical structural foundation of urbanisation but also enhances a city's entire look and develops a distinctive branding and feeling of self. According to research, natural spaces in a city are among the important elements that make the city aesthetically pleasing (Swanwick, 2004).

Cities nowadays fight fiercely with one another on a national and global scale to acquire more brains and investments (Chen, 2013). A favourable city image established by urban green space may considerably enhance its facilities and quality of life, attracting people to live, stay, or tour a city, as well as encouraging investment and job creation (Chiesura, 2004).

2.5.5 Downsides of Urban Green Space

Green space might not necessarily provide societal advantages. According to Jorgensen et al., (2007), “urban green areas” are viewed as hostile environments, generally if they are not effectively maintained and safeguarded. According to Jorgensen & Anthopoulou (2007), UGS can be utilised as criminal hideouts, and individuals may be afraid of utilising them. Ribeiro et al. (2009) argue that “a large number of individuals suffer from pollen allergies, and urban vegetation is a significant source of allergenic pollen in urban areas”.

2.6 Green Spaces in Kumasi and their distribution

In front of residential neighbourhoods in Kumasi, there were a variety of plants and flowers. Along the various waterways, there were also trees and greenery. Windbreaks were created by some of these green areas. It was indeed well-endowed with trees of all forms and sizes, which adorned its streets. These trees created canopies, which offered natural shade and ample shelter from inclement weather for both inhabitants and tourists (Oduro-Ofori et al., 2014). He further affirms that “Some green areas and ‘gardens’ in the city during the 1960s were the Adehyeman Gardens, directly opposite the Kejetia Lorry terminal and Kejetia Roundabout Gardens. The others included the Asafo Tennis Court, which has now been transformed into a lorry terminal and the Kumasi Children’s Park, located behind the SDA Church at Amakom, along the N6”.

As far as converting recreational grounds and green spaces into commercial centres in Kumasi is involved, these may be the sole gardens that appear to have withstood the test of time and remain untouchable. “The Prince of Wales Park, adjacent to the Kumasi Zoological Gardens; the Abbeys Park in Ash-town; the Jackson Park near the Prempeh Assembly Hall; the Kotoko Park, also known as Cricket, behind the Manhyia Hospital; the Addo's Park behind the Manhyia Palace; the Dogo Moro Park in Asawasi; and the Rivoli Park in Bantama” were all parks that functioned as green areas in the city throughout this era (Arku, 2013). Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014) argue that “Approximately 90% of these parks have lost their greenery, and many have been rezoned for other purposes. The Kumasi Zoological Gardens and its surrounds, the Residence (between the Golden Tulip Hotel and the residency and its surrounds), and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology campus are some of the city's big green spaces at the moment”.

2.6.2 Distribution of green spaces.

The study on the subject of the size of urban parks differs. Developed economies have set a standard UGS criterion of 20m² park area per inhabitant (Singh et al., 2010). The worldwide minimum guideline established by the WHO and accepted by “UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)” articles published is a minimum availability of 9m² of greenery per city person (Kuchelmeister, 1998). The extent of public spaces is an essential metric for measuring sustainability (Chiesura, 2004) and their presence reflects the standard of living (Loures et al., 2007).

According to Amasa (2015), the Kumasi Metropolitan area has a total land area of 254km². The Asawasi sub-metro region (Asokore Mampong Municipality) whose land area now amounts to roughly 203.76km² was excluded from his studies. The metropolis’ current estimated green covering, apart from the Owabi Natural Reserve, is around 59.48km² (See Table 2.3).

Table 2.3: Urban green cover in Kumasi

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Source: (Amasa, 2015)

2.7 Urban Land Use Change and causes of encroachment

As the metropolis of Kumasi grows at an exponential rate, land uses the shift in size and green spaces shrink. According to secondary data analysis, open spaces occupied a total surface area of 28.8km² in 1995, accounting for 11.5 percent of Kumasi's total surface area. Nonetheless, this has decreased to 23.9km² in 2013, constituting 9.6 percent of the overall land area. Table 2.4 depicts the distribution of various land use patterns and their changes over time since 1995. Residential land use, on the other hand, has grown from 109.3km² (43.7 percent) in 1995 to 115km² (46 percent) in 2013 (Oduro-Ofori et al., 2014). Furthermore, while the share of built land rose by 17km² from 1995 and 2010, the percentage of undeveloped land, which includes parks, nature reserves, and open areas, declined by the same amount (see table 2.5). This is because many individuals in the city have recently started cutting trees, filling swampy territories with sand, and impeding the course of river bodies with various things in order to begin residential and other types of physical development.

Table 2.4: Amount of Developed and Undeveloped Lands in KMA

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Source: Town and Country Planning Department of KMA, 2014

Table 2.5: Land use configuration of Kumasi

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Source: TCPD of Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly, 2014.

⃰ Projected

2.7.1 Modifications in the Green Space in Kumasi

According to the work of Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014), Approximately 80% of respondents in their study had seen a decline in the area of the city's UGS but could not offer a definite number to that effect, whereas the rest could not determine if there had been a decline or otherwise. A comparative analysis of Figures 1 and 2 (representing Kumasi's vegetative cover from 1986 to 2007) demonstrates unequivocally that the city's green area has been shrinking at a faster pace since 1986.

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Figure 2.4: Vegetative and Non-vegetative coverage of Kumasi in 1986

Source: Adopted from Campion & Venzke (2013)

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Figure 2.5: Vegetative and Non-vegetative coverage of Kumasi in 2007

Source: Adopted from Campion & Venzke (2013)

The vegetation cover of Kumasi has declined substantially between the years 1986 and 2007, supporting the conclusions of Campion & Venzke (2011) that the attractive landscape of Kumasi is being displaced by the installation of urban infrastructure. Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014) presented those who identified a decline in green areas change-related it to the accompanying components, in a table as listed in table 2.6 below.

Table 2.6: Causes of reduction in green spaces

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Source: (Oduro-Ofori et al., 2014)

From the aforementioned, it is possible to conclude that the main reasons for the decline in UGS are the city's land ownership make-up, residents' comprehension of the significance of green areas, business interests overshadowing environmental concerns, and an absence of sufficient plans for the management of all these areas. Further interviews with officials by Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014) indicated that insufficient funds, a lack of teamwork among land management agencies involved in preserving greenery, and a lack of rigorous regulations to safeguard these places are among the drivers of their decline. A conversation by them with a representative of the TCPD of the Kumasi Municipal Assembly showed that the challenge of sprawl was sabotaging the conservation and upkeep of green areas in the city. The TCPD lacks resources and is unable to observe physical developments regularly.

In the work of Addo-Fordwuor (2015), the depletion of the green land cover or UGS in Kumasi was attributed to “high land rent for other land uses in the city, negligence in the enforcement of development controls, obstinate attitudes of the general public towards the protection of green spaces, problem of ownership of green space lands, low priority to green spaces by city authorities”. In his study, he uncovered that most people in Kumasi are prepared to offer higher rents for houses, hotels and schools. This has resulted in the development of the aforementioned facilities at the expense of green spaces thereby resulting in the encroachment of them. He asserts that the green spaces that were in the planning scheme of the city have mostly been encroached due to laxity in enforcement and development controls. Poor familiarity with the relevance of green spaces and poor participation of inhabitants on initiatives in “green spaces” has resulted in the uncooperative behaviour of dwellers in green spaces conservation. He further stated that there are problems associated with the ownership of greenspaces lands and also city authorities do not give much priority to green spaces.

2.8 Effects of the reduction Greenspaces and legal frameworks

The decline of green spaces brings an array of negative impacts and according to Addo-Fordwuor (2015), this problem can be classified as “Ecological effects (Loss of urban biodiversity, Urban Heat Island, Air pollution, and Reduction of carbon sink), Socio-cultural effects (Depletion of open spaces for social interaction, High exposure of urban dwellers to environmental pollution), Economic effect (Reduction in urban agriculture resulting in loss of income and loss of revenue from tourism) and Structural effects (Reduction in legibility and structure of the urban fabric)”.

In the work of Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014), among the effects they identified in Kumasi are; Loss of the garden city status of the city, Climate change and its consequences such as flooding and rainstorms causing disasters, lack of places of recreation, parties and relaxation and poor air quality in the parts of the city. Authorities and ordinary inhabitants have recently complained about the city's decline of UGS and the implications for its garden city title accolade. The parks and trees that prompted Queen Elizabeth II to recognize the city as such are nearly gone. Although there are a few disasters in the city, such as floods, not all of them can be ascribed to this. Some of them are the result of construction in rivers and indiscriminate rubbish disposal. Based on the above research, it is clear that the decline of “green spaces” has a detrimental impact on the city, its inhabitants, status, and progress, and that solutions to the problem must be developed. Some of these problems or effects, the national policies and legal frameworks that were formulated to curb these problems are further explained in the subsequent sections.

2.8.1 Heat Generation and Urban Air Pollution.

It is general knowledge that “the air temperature in an urban thermal environment is greater than in the surrounding area”. According to research, the fundamental cause for urban environment change is the removal of a significant amount of its greenery and the rise of impenetrable paved surfaces in urbanized centres (Sarat & Eusuf, 2012). As cities grow in size, additional social infrastructure, particularly circulatory infrastructures such as roadways, parking aisles, and bus stops, are built to help with mobility. Per Morgan (1993), this infrastructure alters the urban climate in a way of absorbing and reflecting solar radiation, causing the surrounding region to become dry and hot. A study done in Kumasi between 1971 and 2000 found a C increase in daytime temperature. Again, the sprawl of urban settlement has increased the usage of vehicles in Kumasi, resulting in “an excess of vehicular emissions such as carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere”. Because the removal of vegetation diminishes “the net carbon sink, the emitted gases from automobiles, which are crucial greenhouse gases, become trapped in the atmosphere, creating pollution and an increase in the ambient air temperature. The increase in temperature in the city exposes urbanites to extreme heat radiation and raises the prevalence of illnesses such as malaria and cholera” (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015).

2.8.2 High Occurrence of Floods in the Metropolitan area

Most “green areas” are being transformed into hard impermeable concrete surfaces in Kumasi. Flooding occurs as a result of the loss of previous regions in the Metropolis, combined with poor drainage infrastructure. Flooding in the city is mostly caused by the outcome of a rise in impermeable catchments, which result in an increase in catchment yield in a shorter period of time. Since concrete surfaces do not drain rainwater, the recurrence of floods in urban centres rises when UGS are transformed into hardscape surfaces. The rapid change of wetlands in the city to other land uses (commercial and residential) diminishes the interconnectivity of water bodies in an undulating landscape. The primary causes of flooding even under regular rainfall are an encroachment on natural drains, elimination of vegetative cover, and reclaiming of wetlands.

2.8.3 Declined Biodiversity and Damage of Habitat

The woodlands and marshy area of Kumasi act as a biodiversity storehouse. Deforestation and the degradation of wetlands threaten wildlife and the habitat of migratory species, particularly extinct animals. Most of those rare species of flora and fauna are of tremendous medical and economic significance to the citizens of the City (Addo-Fordwuor, 2015).

2.8.4 Reduction in Areas for Social Interaction and Leisure

The decline of green areas like playgrounds and gardens in the City has resulted in fewer opportunities for leisure and social contact. According to Addo-Fordwuor (2015), “Parks such as the Amakom (Children's) Park, the Fanti New Town Park, and the Adehyeman Gardens, which were once utilised for recreation and relaxation, have been depleted and are now used for different reasons. Aside from Amakom Park, there is no other particularly constructed area in the Metropolis that functions as a playground and leisure park for children”.

2.8.1 Legal frameworks and National policies on urban green spaces in Ghana

There are several regulations and legislative acts which were formulated to help manage the environment. Among them according to NA (2019) are; Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490), Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1999 (LI 1652), EPA Environmental Guidelines, Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925), Land Use and Spatial Planning. Regulation, 2019 (LI 2384), Lands Commission Act, 2008 (Act 767), Water Resources Commission Act, 1996 (Act 522) and Water Use Regulations, 2001 (LI 1692), Wild Animals Preservation Act, 1961 (Act 43) and Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulations, 1999, Forest Protection Act, 2002 (Act 624), Forestry Commission Act, 1999 (Act 571). These are the legislations that established the various institutions that are in charge of the management and conservation of “green spaces” in the Republic of Ghana. Some of these legal frameworks are further explained in the subsequent paragraphs.

Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490) inaugurates impact assessment as a legal prerequisite and assigns the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as decision-making authority. Part I of the Act authorizes the EPA with “the advisory role for the formulation of environmental policy, issuing of environmental permits and pollution abatement notices and prescribing standards and guidelines”. The Act states the condition for and roles of the Environmental Protection Inspectors and authorises the EPA to request that an EIA process be undertaken.

The Environmental Assessment Regulations, 1999 (LI 1652), the main enactment under the Environmental Protection Act, 1994, govern the EIA process (Act 490). According to the Environmental Assessment (EA) Protocols, any actions that are prospective to have a negative impact on the environment must be submitted to an impact assessment and the issuing of a permit before the activity may begin. The EPA has developed a number of documents that provide information on regulatory requirements for environmental protection, particularly the EIA process. Within the paper Environmental Assessment in Ghana, a Guide to Environmental Impact Assessment Processes, the EPA specifically gives guidelines and explains procedures to be followed by the operator during the EIA process (EPA, 1996).

Land Use and Spatial Planning Act 2016 (Act 925) is another legislation that is linked to green spaces. The Land Use and Spatial Planning Act seek “to provide for sustainable development of land and human settlements through a decentralised planning system. It establishes processes to regulate national, regional, district and local spatial planning, and generally to provide for spatial aspects of socio-economic development”. The Act serves as the legal basis for the establishment of the Land Use and Spatial Planning Authority (section 2), funded by a Fund of the same name (sections 20-24). One of the Authority’s objectives is to “ensure the control of physical development in less controlled but sensitive areas such as forest reserves” in partnerships with pertinent agencies such as the Forest Commission.

The Act substantiates that “planning at a regional level (sections 25-29) and district level (sections 30-41) is coordinated by Spatial Planning Committees, Councils and Authorities. The Act contains Spatial Development Frameworks at national (sections 49-51), regional (sections 52-54) and district (sections 55-60) levels, all of which include a strategic environmental assessment. The Act includes sections on structure plans (sections 61-70), local plans (sections 71-82), zoning schemes (sections 83-103) and permits (113-125)”.

In addition, Water Resources Commission Act 1996 (Act 522) and Water Use Regulations 2001 (LI 1692). “The Act establishes a commission to regulate and manage national water resources. The commission is tasked with establishing comprehensive plans for the use, conservation, protection, development, and improvement of Ghana’s water resources and is able to grant rights for the exploitation of water resources. The Water Use Regulations 2001 requires all persons to obtain Water Use Permits from the Water Resources Commission for commercial water use. The Commission is also mandated to request for evidence that an EIA or EMP has been approved by the EPA before issuance of the Water Use Permit, where required” (NA, 2019).

Also, Wild Animals Preservation Act 1961 (Act 43) and Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulations, 1999. “The Wild Animals Preservation Act makes provisions for the preservation of birds and fish, as well as other wild animals. The Wetland Management Regulations ratify the 1971 Wetlands Convention and provide for the establishment of Ramsar sites within Ghana. There are five designated Ramsar wetland sites along the coast of Ghana. Articles 6 and 7 of the Regulations establish the activities that are not permitted or restricted in the designated sites such as pollution of water, removal of vegetation, disposal of waste, hunting wild animals and grazing livestock, fishing using certain gear and in certain seasons, and other activities that may have an adverse effect on the environment. The Act requires that potential impacts on coastal wetlands and marine fauna should be fully assessed and appropriate mitigation measures should be put in place to prevent, reduce and remedy any such effects” (NA, 2019).

According to the Ghana National Policy Action Plan (2020), dwellers in urban centres have the right to sustainable human settlement development, quality environment, good health and wellbeing which is a core guiding principle according to the Environmental Policy of Ghana. Among the numerous benefits of parks or UGS to inhabitants of the urban setting are well-being and health. The National Urban Policy (2012), also pursues to safeguard “open spaces, green belts, forest reserves, water bodies, wetlands, water catchment areas and other ecologically sensitive areas” from the invasion of physical infrastructure development and urban encroachment as a fragment of the avenues to enhance the environmental eminence of urban life. This policy also seeks to ensure “effective planning and management of urban growth and sprawl, and ensure adoption and implementation/ enforcement of relevant recommendations and land use controls as well as strengthen the use of remote sensing (such as aerial photographs and satellite imageries) and a Geographic Information System (GIS) to enhance urban development and management”. Advocacy for providing services and ways for the entirety of the population to take part in the management of the environment was done by the Ghana National Environmental Policy (1995).

Aside from the pluses of leisure and stress alleviation, urban parks have been demonstrated to be largely for environmental management in urban environments. Education of these policies and legal frameworks, as well as their application, will aid in the preservation of UGS in Kumasi.

2.9 Conceptual framework for analysing encroachments on greenspaces

The conceptual framework posits that UGS conservation can be implemented by imposing a total restriction on building within a set distance from greenery, or by granting some specified users limited usufruct entitlements (state institutions). Diverse activities of humans on greenery may be fostered in the lack of protection or in the face of inadequate conservation legislation. Weak conservation regulations, as indicated by the Tragedy of the Commons theory, may encourage free-riding. As a result, people would unlawfully remove resources from the greenery or exploit them for other reasons, such as estate development. This can result in substantial harm and consequences for the UGS.

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Figure 2.6: Analysing the effect of encroachment on wetlands

Source: Author’s construct, 2021

Human action, according to the Rational Choice theory, happens as calculated rational behaviour to maximise individual gain. As a result, the causes of encroachment are believed to be diverse and non-uniform. However, the conceptual framework includes change caused by natural phenomena such as climate change. Encroachment on UGS, on the other hand, can be regulated through proper environmental laws, legislations, the preservation of environmentally sustainable norms, and cultural practices that strengthen the proper preservation of the natural environment. This Laws and Legislation must not only exist but also be made known to the individuals through participation, education, and so on, and also be implemented effectively. These are expected to curb the possible encroachments on green spaces and also protect them.

Chapter Three

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

The chapter outlines the methods used in conducting this research. The relevance of conventional literature review to this chapter is to know the methods used by other researchers in their study and also help to assess how reliable the approaches were. This helped in choosing the methodology or approach that best fit the research and also, how to apply it in this study.

The discourse in this chapter is geared toward the techniques that were practicalized in the study. This is to help readers understand the approaches and also be able to test or assess the validity of the research. The research methodology (research philosophy, research design, preliminary studies, data source, target population/sampling frame, sample size, sampling technique, data collection methods and data processing and analysis) is elaborated.

3.2 Research Design

A well-chosen blueprint to research is steered by the phenomenon under study, their point of view or comprehension of what constitutes expertise, as well as the extent of the researcher's bias or learnings (Doe, 2015, p. 84). A research design is a structural concept on which a study or research was done; it encompasses the plan upon which data is collected, measured and analysed (Kothari, 2008). According to him, a good research design must be able to ensure value for money (economical), flexible, reliable and above all must aid the gathering of maximum research information as possible (efficiency). He further maintains that it constitutes a firm basis of the whole edifice of the study.

This study employed a descriptive design approach. Descriptive design or study on the accounts of Babbie (2005) is aimed at describing the variable that was studied, minus the causal or other hypotheses. Descriptive research on that basis answers five questions i.e., “who, what, why, when, and where and an implicit sixth question, so what?” (Kothari, 2008).

Also, Temporal relations existing between assumed roots and effects might be indistinct and researchers may draw causal interpretations when none is possible. For this reason, the research seeks to describe the issue of encroachments on “green spaces” in Kumasi at the end of the study and hence, the adoption of descriptive design to steer the study. The afore discourse made it appropriate to describe the issues of encroachments and other variables that were studied.

3.3 Primary data collection process

The eminence of the output of a study can be determined by the design used for the research. The design adopted determined the methodology or approach the study used. This further guided the data that were collected, where and how they were collected and analysed.

The subsequent subsections discuss the preliminary investigations that were undertaken. Also, they highlight the group that was targeted for data to be analysed for the study. How members from this target group were selected to answer questions and also for interviews are likewise discussed in the subsequent sections. Again, how questionnaires were developed and administered, the processes that were used in data processing and their analysis are also discussed. Lastly, where data were obtained from and the unit of analysis are also elaborated in the subsequent sections.

3.3.1 Preliminary Investigations

Identifying stakeholders by researchers and establishing a rapport with them is key to data collection. In an attempt to identify the happenings on grounds, to know when the population in consideration would be available for data collection exercise and again be acquainted with whom to contact for specific data, a visitation was made to the green areas (buffer areas or wetland areas in the scope of this study). This visitation was also aimed to ascertain the profile of these areas and identify respondents to research questionnaires. Inhabitants were contacted to know the time where most residents are available.

Apart from the visitation to the areas under study, documents (Medium-Term Development Plan inclusive) were reviewed to determine the situation of “green spaces” in Kumasi. With regards to how these green spaces are managed, articles and reports of green space management in the city were also reviewed. In totality, they helped to know information pertaining to this study which existed on green spaces, how current they are and also aided to develop research instruments to acquire those that were not discovered.

3.3.2 Target Group

The targeted the Physical Planning Departments (PPD) comprising of the TCPD and the DPG. It also targeted the Resource Management and Supply Centre of the forestry commission responsible for these communities. A portion of 500m long and 100m wide along the wetland area or a buffer zone for water bodies in Kentikrono, Ayeduase, Susanso and Atonsu communities were targeted (refer to Table 3.3). This was because these areas were the places where greenspaces/wetlands encroachments mostly occur.

The portions which were zoned for the study captured 320 total structures which were regarded as properties in this study. These structures comprised commercial, civic and culture, residential, among other structures. The zoned areas served as the enumeration area of the study however, the study targeted 320 property owners/caretakers.

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Figure 3.1: Enumeration area for the Study

Source: Author’s Construct, 2021

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Figure 3.2: Enumeration area A (Kentikrono)

Source: Author’s Construct, 2021

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Figure 3.3: Enumeration area B (Ayeduase)

Source: Author’s Construct, 2021

3.3.3 Sample size, sampling technique and questionnaire administration

The directors of the Physical Planning Department and the Forestry Commission of the areas under scope were purposively sampled. This is because they were assumed to have data pertaining to legal rights and usage of these areas. Again, an assumption was made that the directors have data relating to the management practices and challenges related to curbing encroachment in these areas. Respondents’ sample size for this study was determined using Slovin's (1960) sample derivation formula given as:

Where, n is the sample size,

N is the Population size, and e is the precision level (error margin) of the population proportion.

The study adopted a margin of error (e) of 0.1 or 10%, which indicates the level of precision. It also indicates that there is a 90% chance to achieve the same results from the study if the method is used or followed to conduct an identical study by a different person or team in the area under the scope. The population (N) from which the sample size (n) was calculated was 320 Structures. The sample size (n) that was determined using Slovin’s formula was 76 structures. indicating that a total of 76 property owners/Caretakers were to be talked to during data collection.

A simple random sampling technique was employed to select the sampled household. All the sampled households in each community were digitized and numbered using google earth imagery and ArcGIS. This formed the sample frame for this study. The numbering was done from 1 to the last number of the sample size of each community (see Table 3.2). With the number of the sampled houses and the help of software i.e., Random Numbering Plus (RNG Plus), sampled numbers were generated (from 1 to the last number) using sample size distribution for each community.

Table 3.1: Sample size distribution

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Source: Author’s Construct, 2021

The study employed questionnaires as well as interview schedules to gather data from household heads. These interview schedules were made up of open-ended and close-ended questions soliciting data on the understanding of community members on “green spaces”. Data on the acquisition of permits that authorises settlers to develop land, the relevance of green spaces as well as the legal frameworks that safeguard them were also solicited.

The interview guide was used to collect data from the Directors of the PPD and DPG on the restrictions and practices. The legal frameworks and bye-laws that make the former possible as well as the challenges related to conserving and protecting green spaces from poachers.

3.4.4 Data processing and analysis

Descriptive statistical tools from Statistical Package for Service Solutions (version 21) was used to describe the legal frameworks that safe green spaces and processes concerning the description of land-use practices. Relationships between educational levels and understanding of “green spaces” and the relevance of “green spaces” to household heads in selected communities were established using appropriate tools, such as frequencies and graphs. The results from the analysis of interview schedules were presented in tables, charts and figures. The analysis of interview guides was presented in narrative and discourse discussions. Secondary data were reviewed, summarised and presented in discussions, tables, and figures.

3.4 Data source and unit of analysis

This research employed primary and secondary data. Primary data were sought from heads of households and other populations of interest on the understanding of community members on urban green spaces and how much they know the legal frameworks that serve as a guard to them. Aerial photographs of green spaces were taken with the help of google earth and article and other researches on green spaces in Kumasi and also these photographs or imagery as well as Land Use Plans by the Physical Planning Department. This informed the study on changes or encroachments that have occurred over time.

In all, the following data were gathered; land use distribution, green space coverage in Kumasi, bye-laws and legal frameworks for the safeguard of green spaces concurrently with the factors that sabotage the effective implementation of these frameworks and policies, stakeholders’ contributions to chosen institutions dealing with environmental and green space issues. Other important data collected include; educational levels of the property owners/caretakers and their knowledge on the merits of green spaces (see Table 3.1).

Table 3.2: Data sources and data collection tool

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Source: Author’s Construct, 2021

Chapter Four

GREEN SPACES & LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

This chapter analyses the output of the preceding chapter and thus, results and discussions of this study are presented in this chapter. They are presented in relation to the specific objectives this research sought to realize. Results of the study which are substantial statistically and also have importance practically are elaborated in line with the encroachment of urban green spaces in Kumasi.

Forty interview schedules were executed or completed efficaciously out of a mark of seventy-six which was calculated as the sample size for the household data collection. The Physical Planning Department and the Resource Management and Supply Centre of the forestry commission were likewise interviewed with the use of an interview guide. The interview of the stipulated institutions was to back the interviews of property owners/caretakers.

This chapter also, reports the educational importance and practical implication. The results on the awareness of property owners/caretakers on urban green spaces protection laws/regulations are presented in the first section. The second, reports the results on the relevance of green spaces and the third also illustrates the results on LULC and encroachments.

4.2 Awareness of UGS protection laws/regulations

According to Wuver & Attuquayefio (2006), the educational background of an individual can have a great impact on his/her responses and their understanding of urban green space, their protection, awareness of their protection laws and regulations and their conformity of these laws and regulations. The current study, therefore, orbited around the awareness of respondents on Urban green spaces protection laws and regulations. With the above highlighted, it is important to report that the educational background of respondents, laws and regulations and also, building permit acquisition were the variables that were studied.

4.2.1 Educational background of respondents

The study showed that most of the respondents have acquired education where 90 percent of them had received a formal education. The remaining 10 percent of the respondents also, attained non-formal education (refer to Table 4.1). non-formal education in this case includes all other people who learnt a trade or craft rather than going to school. Examples of these include tailoring, masonry, shoemaking, barbering, mechanics, among others.

Table 4.1: Form of education acquired

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The above shows that the responses given would be highly representative of a population with formal education. Again, within the 90 percent who acquired a formal form of education, respondents with basic education level of education which in this scope starts from primary to the Junior high school was 58 percent representing more than half of the formal educationalists. Additionally, 33 percent of the respondents in the formal education group acquired a secondary level (i.e., Senior High School and Vocational/Technical Schools) of education and 8 percent attained a tertiary level of education (refer to Figure 4.1). As reported by Opoku (2013), educational exposure is most likely to lead to an obvious appreciation of protected areas, leading to more extended support for the conservation of biodiversity. One may therefore anticipate that the level of education of respondents in the current study is most likely proportional to their level of knowledge on the subject of the study.

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Figure 4.1: Educational level of respondents

Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.2.2 Respondents Awareness of Local regulation or laws

Contrary to Wuver & Attuquayefio (2006)’s finding, the affirmation that the educational background of an individual or a population of study can have a great impact on their awareness of green space protective laws and regulations gained no reflection in the current study. This is so because, although the educated respondents were 90 percent out of the 40 respondents who were interviewed for households in this study, more than half; representing approximately 63% of these respondents said they were not aware of the green space protection regulations or laws. Only 38 percent (approximately) of the respondents said they were aware of some of the green space protection local regulations or laws (refer to Table 4.2). This indicates that, contrary to the findings of Opoku (2013) and Wuver & Attuquayefio (2006), the educational background of a population alone cannot be the only basis for one to conclude that a population under study have adequate knowledge on the subject of this section of the paper.

Table 4.2: Awareness on local regulations for the protection of green spaces

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

Also, among the 15 respondents (i.e., approximately 38 percent of the respondents) who said they are aware of some of the local regulation and laws which seeks to protect green spaces, 66 percent said they were aware of Local nature protection areas which seek to guard wetlands, forest, water bodies, among others. Approximately 27 percent said they were aware that the zoning regulations for green spaces seek to outline that the green spaces should be planned and protected. Additionally, approximately 7 percent said that they know the forest prevention laws which seeks to safeguard the forests (see Table 4.3).

Table 4.3: Examples of local regulations known to respondents

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The conceptualisation of respondents’ awareness of local regulations and laws safeguarding green spaces cannot be beheld leaving the organisation or media which gave respondents the knowledge. Approximately 13 percent of the 15 respondents with knowledge of green space protection regulations got to know them through community sensitisation by the traditional authority in their communities. Approximately 7 percent also got to know the green space protection regulations during their time in school. Moreover, approximately 7 percent got to know the regulations through the education given to them by the Natural Disaster Management Organisation (NADMO) and approximately 27 percent got to know the regulation on radio stations. 20 percent got to know the regulation on television stations and a further 20 percent got to know the regulation on both radio and televisions (refer to Table 4.4).

Table 4.4: How respondents knew the local regulations

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

An interview held with some residents of the community revealed that due to the occurrence of flood incidence in some settlements in Kumasi and other parts of Ghana, the traditional leaders through community information centres educated its people on some of the local regulations. As part of their functions, the NADMO goes to churches and other social gatherings to educate people about floods and the importance of preserving wetlands and green spaces along river banks using the local nature protection areas regulation. Moreover, radio and television stations also play a huge role in information dissemination by educating people through the interviewing of officials responsible for green space management. This implies that these media can help in the sensitisation of information to a greater percentage of the communities in Kumasi on why it is crucial to protect green spaces.

Again, the respondents maintained that the implementation of these regulations to them have not been successful. Approximately 13 percent of the respondents who knew the regulations agree that the implementation of these regulations has been effective. In contrast, approximately 87 percent disagreed that the regulations have been implemented effectively (see Table 4.5). This signifies that the people do not abide by these local regulations and laws meant to protect or safeguard green spaces.

Table 4.5: Enforcement efficiency of the local regulations by respondents.

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

Moreover, the interview with the institution which was observed in this study, other legislations and regulations which establishes these institutions and guide their activities this sentence is incomplete; an interview with them have done what? According to the director of the Resource Management and Supply Centre of the Forestry commission hinged on the Timber Resource Management Regulation, 1998 (LI 1649) which was later amended to the Timber Resource Management (Amendment) Regulation, 2003 (LI 1721) and then the Timber Resource Management and Legality Licensing Regulation, 2017 (LI 2254). The Physical planning director also centred on the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925) which gives this officer the right to refer to Local Plans or Land Use Plans and also perform more other functions as specified in the act.

4.2.2 Building Permit Acquisition by Respondents

The study showed that 70.0 percent of the respondents acquired a permit from the appropriate institutions before erecting their edifices whereas 30 percent of the respondents did not acquire a permit before erecting their structures (refer to Table 4.6). It was quite astonishing that 70.0 percent of the respondents had obtained building permits because of the disorganised nature of structures in some parts within the study areas, and buildings being erected in areas that were zoned to green spaces in the approved Land Use Plan by the Physical Planning Departments of the study communities most especially Ayeduase, Susanso and Atonsu in that order.

Table 4.6: Building acquisition by respondents.

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The implications from the responses of the respondents and the observation made during the study are that the institution responsible for the issuance of permits for building and putting up those temporal structures did not intensify their activities and do them as directed by the zoning guidelines. Also, out of the 30 percent who said they have not acquired building permits, the study indicates that approximately 67 percent have not acquired the permits because they have no site plan which is a prerequisite for building permit acquisition. Alternatively, approximately 33 percent answered they have not acquired a building permit because of the cost involved (refer to Figure 4.2).

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Figure 4.2: Reasons for not having building permits by respondents.

Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.3 Relevance of UGS

According to the work of Caspersen et al. (2006) and Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014), green spaces are regarded as areas for relaxation, providing shade, a means of beautifying the city, protecting micro-climate and water bodies and wild animals in the city. This section of the study observed the relevance of “Urban Green Spaces”. The variables studied were the benefits and the preservation of Urban Green Spaces to respondents.

4.3.1 Benefits of green spaces by respondents

The study inquired from the respondents if they have been educated on the benefits of UGS. The responses to the enquiry are presented in Table 4.7. Approximately 58 percent of the respondents indicated that they have not received any education on the benefits of UGS whereas approximately 43 percent also specified that they have been educated on the benefits of the “green spaces”. It is realised that the majority of the respondents have no education of how beneficial green spaces are.

Table 4.7: Education on the benefits of UGS

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The 43 percent of the respondents who have been educated on the benefits of green spaces also specified where they got their education from. In line with the above highlighted, approximately 6 percent of the respondent got the education from community sensitisation by assembly members of the community. 18 percent approximately, got their education during their times in schools as a student. Approximately 12 percent got their education from the NADMO. Respondents who got their education on radio contributed 29 percent whereas television stations were 24 percent. Approximately 12 percent of the respondents all got their education from both TV and Radio (refer to Figure 4.3). It can be realised that radio and television stations are doing very well in educating respondents on the benefits of green spaces.

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Figure 4.3: How respondents got the knowledge

Source: Field Survey, 2021

Irrespective of the education some respondents have received and others not, some happenings (i.e., socio-economic activities, issues of disasters, among others) have thought the respondents the need and how important green spaces are. Approximately, 98 percent of respondents thought “green spaces” were significant whilst 3 percent consider “green spaces as non-beneficial (see Table 4.8). The respondents who thought green space was of no benefit also wanted these spaces in their communities to be transformed into other more gainful land uses such as residential and commercial. These findings are in line with that of Addo-Fordwuor (2015).

Table 4.8: Respondents’ perception of UGS benefits

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The respondents further highlighted some of the benefits of green spaces in their communities in their view. 59 percent of the respondents had the opinion that greenspaces are beneficial because they prevent flooding. 32 percent of the respondents were of the view that “green spaces” are advantageous because they aid the beautification of the environment. Green spaces help the maintenance of the micro-climate. This was opined by only 3 percent of the respondents. Also, 2 percent of the respondents held that green spaces are important because they reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide whilst 2 percent thought UGS are valuable because they support wind speed reduction. Again, 2 percent of the respondents were of the view that green spaces help water from drying out (refer to Figure 4.4). The flooding incidents in Kumasi as reported by Campion (2012) and Abass (2020) could be the reason why most of the respondents are of the view that green spaces are beneficial for the prevention of flooding.

Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthaltenFigure 4.4: Benefits of Green Space

Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.3.2 Preservation of green spaces by respondents

The respondents specified that to effectively preserve green spaces in Kumasi and upsurge their area, there is the need to identify the problems associated with “green spaces” in the city and how the respondents and their communities are preventing or managing these problems. According to the retort of the respondents, as indicated in Table 4.9, 95 percent of them strongly agree that the green spaces in their communities are associated with problems whilst few (the remaining 5 percent) disagreed that there were problems associated with green spaces in their communities.

Table 4.9:Respondents’ perception of problems of UGS in Kumasi

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The respondents further revealed the problems associated with the green spaces in their communities. The specified problems by respondents are presented in Figure 4.5 below. 15 percent of the respondents indicated that green spaces provide a breeding place for dangerous animals. 6 percent, on the other hand, specified that green spaces in their communities operate as a hiding place for criminals. Green spaces are mostly used as places for dumping domestic waste (i.e., Liquid and Solid Waste). This opined around the thought of 79 percent of the respondents. It was therefore not surprising that the water bodies in most of these communities that the green spaces were zoned to protect are turned into urban wastewater. It can also be realised that the dumping of these domestic wastes has also contributed to the seasonal flooding in the city as indicated by Owusu-Ansah (2016).

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Figure 4.5: Responses on some problems UGS are confronted with

Source: Field Survey, 2021

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Plate 4.1:River turned into urban waste water in Ayeduase

Source: Field Survey, 2021

Moreover, the institutions responsible for green spaces are vital in their management. The respondents give their perception of the institutions which in their knowledge are responsible for the management of green spaces. More than half i.e., 61 percent of the respondents were not aware of any institution responsible for green spaces management. 14 percent believed the PPD is responsible for the management of green spaces. 5 percent were of believe that the DPG are responsible for the management of green spaces whereas 20 percent thought the institution responsible for green spaces management in their community is the Environmental Protection Agency (see Figure 4.6). It can be realised from the afore discourse that most respondents did not know the institutions responsible for green space management.

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Figure 4.6: Institutions responsible for UGS management to respondents

Source: Field Survey, 2021

An interview with the director of the PPD and Resource Management and Supply Centre of the Forestry Commission which is among the institutions for green space management revealed that in the performance of their onuses, there are other Commissions/Institutions they collaborate with. The Commissions/Institutions they work together with are; the Survey Department, the MMDA’s, the EPA, the Lands Commission, the DPG, and the Traditional Authorities.

The director of the PPD indicated that this institution is responsible for the preparation of proposals for green spaces i.e., preparation of Spatial Plans (SDF, Land Use Planning, among others), protection of reserves in the Development Planning of MMDA’s. He further stated that the institution performs other functions as specified in Act 925 which has been elaborated in the previous chapters.

The study showed that all of the respondents thought green spaces should be protected. However, about 56 percent of the respondents and their community are not doing anything to protect them. About 17 percent held that they have stopped waste disposal on green spaces in an attempt to protect the green spaces in the communities. About 5 percent were also of the thought that they have stop building too close to green spaces in their communities. Create channels for easy flow of water was opined by about 7 percent of the respondents. About 2 percent said they dredge streams to enable free flow of water whereas about 10 percent said they report poachers to authorities (refer to Figure 4.8). It can realise that 60 percent of inhabitants do nothing to protect green spaces and this proves why there are seasonal flooding in the city.

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Figure 4.7: UGS protection mechanisms by respondents

Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.4 Land Cover/Land Use and encroachments

According to Opoku (2013), Ghana has seen rapid depletion of its green space over the past three decades than before. The study maintains that the vegetal covers are being replaced by the built environment. This section of the study revolves around the land cover/land uses that replaces green spaces in Kumasi. The awareness of respondents on the community’s Land Use Plans was studied. Likewise, land acquisition by respondents and issues of encroachments were the variables that were studied in this section.

4.4.1 Respondents awareness of Land Use Plans

Contrary to the work of Addo-Fordwuor (2015), this study indicated that 80 percent of the respondents were aware of their community’s Land Use Plan. Only 20 percent were not aware of their community’s Land Use Plan (see Table 4.10). This study, therefore, is not in conformity with that of Addo-Fordwuor (2015) since he reported the opposite. It is realised that most respondents are aware of the community’s layout plan. It is however surprising that irrespective of the fact that, most of the buildings were in areas zoned as buffer areas or green spaces in these communities. This was confirmed by 84 percent of the 32 respondents who were aware of the community layout that it does not conform to the plan. This study, therefore, is not in conformity with that of Addo-Fordwuor (2015) since he held the opposite.

Table 4.10: Respondents awareness of community layout plan

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

The study further indicated that among the activities located around the green spaces (100 meters from the water channel) in the communities under study, agricultural purposes or activities (i.e., planting and grounding of crops) consisted of 18 percent, waste disposal consisted of 26 percent, car washing bays consisted of 13 percent, car fitting shops consisted of 12 percent and Animal rearing consisted of 8 percent. Likewise, shoemaking and carpentry/sawmills consisted of 8 percent each whereas churches consisted of 7 percent. Indicating that among all the activities that happen around the green spaces, waste disposal is the dominant followed by car washing bays (refer to Figure 4.7). This answers the question of why most rivers in the city have been turned into urban wastewater

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Figure 4.8: Land Use activities around the UGS (100m from water channel)

Source: Field Survey, 2021

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Plate 4.2: Wetland turned into a refuse dump in Atonsu

Source: Field Survey, 2021

As a result of the activities specified, the study unearths that there are some negative impacts that are likely to affect the green space and environment at large. Approximately 98 percent of the respondents indicated that immediately after rainfall, the river outflows its banks. Only 3 percent were of the view that these activities affect the suitability of water bodies for domestic or industrial purposes (refer to Table 4.12).

Table 4.11: Effect of activities around UGS on the environment

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.4.2 Land Acquisition by respondents

The study indicated that 35 percent of the respondents purchase the land lawfully from either the previous owner or the landlord. About 65 percent of the respondents who occupied the lands were hired to them by the owners (see Table 4.12). Addo-Fordwuor (2015) found out that the majority of the people who acquired lands in the city, obtain them from chiefs other than other sources due to the fact that the majority of lands were owned and controlled by the chiefs.

Table 4.12: Land Ownership status and whom the land was acquired from

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

From Table 4.12 above, 55 percent of the respondent acquired their lands from the chiefs of their respective communities, 15 percent of the respondents built on family lands or acquired them from families. 5 percent of the respondents inherited the lands from which they occupied whereas 25 percent of the respondents occupied government lands that have been leased to them by the various MMDA’s which they fall. It can be comprehended from this study that the majority of the lands were acquired from the chiefs since they hold the ownership right in the care of their people thereby confirming the work of Addo-Fordwuor (2015).

Again, according to the Land Use Plan of these communities, the Land Use/Land Cover at the time of purchase were green spaces but many have been replaced with other uses. The study revealed that about 38 percent of the respondents have used these lands for residential purposes. About 58 percent of the respondents have used these lands for commercial activities such as car washing bay, car fitting shops, hostel, petrol filling stations, among others at the same time as 5 percent been used for civic and cultural activities i.e., places of worship (refer to 4.15). It can be realised that green spaces are mostly replaced with commercial activities.

Table 4.13: Purpose of land acquisition

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Source: Field Survey, 2021

4.4.3 Issues on encroachments

The respondents in an interview held with them revealed building in areas zoned as green spaces is a major problem in the city and due to that, they have observed changes in the plant cover of the green spaces in their communities since they settled. This was further explained by the director of the Resource Management and Supply Centre of the Forestry Commission that there is no coordination between institutions and also some institutions change green spaces for other uses. The PPD also specified in an interview held with the director of the institution that for the past ten years, the UGS has reduced drastically, therefore, confirming the assertion of Campbell (2001), Oduro-Ofori et al. (2014), Amasa (2015) and Narh et al. (2020).

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Plate 4.3: Buildings in river course in Kentikrono

Source: Field Survey, 2021

The respondents further maintained that people erect structures in green space areas because they are cheap. This was opined by the responses of about 36 percent. About 7 percent of the respondents held that people erect structures in green spaces because they want to live close to social amenities. Approximately 2 percent said people want to have direct use of water for domestic purposes that the reason they erect structures in green spaces whereas 17 percent want to live close to their family. About 43 percent construct structures in green space because they want somewhere to do their businesses. About 7 percent held that there are not many spaces in the city so they use whatever is available (refer to Figure 4.10).

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Figure 4.9: Perception on why people erect structures in UGS areas

Source: Field Survey, 2021

The study also indicated that the socio-economic activities performed by people in green spaces have a negative impact on the community and the city at large. 77 percent of the respondents thought the socio-economic activities performed on green spaces areas causes flooding. About 19 percent thought the activities make the environment dirty whereas 4 percent thought the socio-economic activities performed on green space areas does not make the city aesthetically pleasing (refer to Figure 4.11). This confirms why river overflow their banks during the rainy season as proven by Abass (2020)

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Figure 4.10: Effects of performing socio-economic activities on UGS areas

Source: Field Survey, 2021

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Plate 4.4: Abandoned flooded house in Atonsu

Source: Field Survey, 2021

Chapter Five

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY

5.1 Introduction

The discourse in this chapter emphasizes the summary of the preceding chapter. This summary is based on the objectives as highlighted in the first chapter. It summarises the awareness of UGS protection laws/regulations, the relevance of UGS and the Land Cover/Land Use and Encroachments. Also, based on the findings of the research, this chapter highlights the recommendation of the discoveries. Moreover, the conclusion of the entire work is likewise presented in this chapter.

5.2 Summary

The study sort to examine the encroachments of UGS in Kumasi. The study focused on wetlands or buffer areas along rivers in Kumasi. Descriptive design was used to study 40 property owners/caretake from Ayeduase, Atonsu, Kentikrono and Susanso as well as the PPD and the Forestry Commission. Interview schedules were used to solicit quantitative data from household heads, while the interview guide was used to collect qualitative data from the Manager of the PPD and the Forestry Commission. The quantitative data were analysed using descriptive statistics, such as means, modes, medians, percentages. The qualitative data were presented as discussions.

5.2.1 To determine how familiar inhabitants are with the legislations.

The first objective of the study was to determine how familiar inhabitants are with the legislations that protect green spaces. Under this objective, the study revealed that the majority of the respondents have been educated where 90 percent of them had received a formal education. With the 90 percent who have acquired formal education, most of them had received a basic education.

Notwithstanding the affirmation made by some researchers that the education of respondents can have a great impact on their awareness of green spaces, their protective regulation/laws and their conformity, the study revealed that 63 percent of the respondents are not aware of the local regulation for the protection of green spaces. Only 15 percent of the respondents were aware of the regulation. Some of the regulations known to the 15 percent were the local nature protection areas regulation, zoning regulations for green space and forest preservation laws. Also, among the organisation or media that made respondents aware of the local regulations were the NADMO, the Town Council or the Environmental Department and again, some got to know the regulations during their days in schools as students, community sensitisation whereas others had their knowledge through television and radio station. These regulations according to 87 percent of the 15 respondents are not enforced efficiently.

The study also revealed that 70 percent of the respondents received a permit before erecting their structures or properties. Observations showed that respondents irrespective of indicating they acquired permits yet their building does not conform to plan. 30 percent of the respondents who have not acquired a permit have not done so because of the cost of permit acquisition and also others do not have site plans which is a requirement for permit acquisition.

It is therefore recommended that residents, traditional leaders and agents of development should be given persistent education on the benefits of green spaces and the regulations/laws that protect them by the Physical Planning Department. Green spaces in Kumasi and beyond can be preserved through the education of the traditional authorities which is an agent that aid the implementation of the community’s layout plans on the benefits of green spaces and why there is the need to reserve them. Also, residents and other development agents must be educated by the PPD with the help of the mass media on the benefits of UGS and the regulation that protect these areas to desist them from acquiring lands zoned for green spaces.

5.2.2 To assess the understanding of settlers on the relevance of UGS.

The second objective of the study was to assess the understanding of settlers on the relevance of green spaces. Under this objective, the study revealed that 58 percent of the respondents have not received any education on the benefits of green spaces. Only 43 percent had received education on the benefit of green spaces. The organisation or media that made the education available to the respondents were the NADMO, others received their education during their days in school, community sensitisation whilst others acquired their education from television and radio stations.

As a result of some experiences that respondents have had, they strongly agree that green spaces are beneficial. Among the benefits of green spaces to respondents, their respective communities are beautification of the environment, prevention of flooding, reduction of atmospheric . They also reduce the wind speed, maintenance of microclimate and the protection of water bodies from drying.

The study again revealed that it is important and very crucial to protect green space. Meanwhile, the study uncovered that green spaces especially wetland and buffer areas have been faced with a lot of problems. Prominent amongst them is green spaces turned into domestic waste (i.e., solid and liquid) disposal sites. The study showed that the PPD and the Resource Management and Supply Centre of the FC. These institutions work or collaborate with the Survey Department, the MMDA’s, the EPA, the Lands Commission, the DPG and the Traditional Authorities. The study indicates that the respondents and the communities are not doing anything to protect green spaces in the community.

Suggestion for this finding is to enforce developments control by the PPD and PWD. The negligence in the implementation of development controls in the city can be solved by enforcing existing laws or formulation of bylaws and implementing them swiftly to deter developers from encroaching on UGS. Thus, the public can restrain from disregarding the preservation of green space through a judicial support system that will help sanction people who fall victims.

5.2.3 To ascertain the land uses that replace UGS after encroachment.

The third objective of the study was to ascertain the land uses that replace green spaces after encroachment. Under this objective, the study indicated that 80 percent of the respondents are aware of the layout plans of their respective communities yet there are issues of encroachment. The research made known the Land Use activities around the UGS (100m from water channel) are churches, shoemaking, animal rearing, carpentry/sawmill, car fitting shops, car washing bay, waste disposal and agricultural purposes (planting and growing of trees).

The study also revealed that 65 percent of the respondents have erected their structures on lands hired to them by owners. Most people purchase land from the chief of their respective community due to the fact that most lands are controlled by the chiefs. Some respondents also living in green space areas have been permitted by the MMDA’s. The study shows that green spaces are being replaced with commercial, residential and civic and cultural Land Uses.

Moreover, it reveals that there is no coordination within institutions responsible for green spaces management and also some institutions change the use of green spaces. The study also indicates that green spaces have reduced drastically. It reveals that people erect structures in green spaces because people want somewhere to do their economic activities. People also acquire green space areas because they are cheap according to the respondents whereas others want to live close to social amenities and their families. People live in green spaces because there are no available lands in these communities. As a result of the above, the communities mostly experience seasonal flooding.

Recommendations for this finding are to relocate activities in nature reserves by the PPD. Trees falling without a permit should be avoided and intensifying afforestation by the Forestry Commission. All activities encroaching green spaces must be relocated to give space for strengthening afforestation. Afforestation must be a government agenda and likewise, persons without permits or concessions from the FC and the EPA must be permitted to fall trees and the trees must be replaced with ones after the process.

Also, there should be an improved level of collaboration among concomitant bodies for the management of “green spaces”. The institutions and other stakeholders entrusted with the management of UGS should enhance the collaboration between them. A roadmap for the management of “green spaces” in the MMDA’s should be developed or prepared, communicated to all the stakeholders of UGS and should be implemented swiftly.

5.3 Conclusion

The diminution of UGS according to Diamond (2011) is amongst the means by which society flops. UGS encroachment in Kumasi should be curbed because of the role of the city and the catastrophic impacts of green space encroachments which can affect the globe. The implication of the findings from this research on encroachments of UGS in Kumasi is that city authorities and policymakers should identify and manage the issues of encroachment of land uses before they get to a stage of creating a nuisance or affecting the development of the nation at large. Policymakers should borrow the success of the Scandinavian countries such as Norway, Finland, Sweden, among others on the preservation of green areas and devise ways and means to fuse them into the Ghanaian system or the African system at large. This can be achieved if all stakeholders on green spaces management and the general public dedicate enormous exertion to prevent our cities from growing grey rather than green.

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APPENDICES

Appendix A: Observation Checklist/Guide

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Appendix B: Survey Questionnaire for Property Owners/Caretakers

The researcher is a student of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology working on urban green spaces in Kumasi. The information is required to assess the case of encroachments of green spaces in Kumasi, Ghana. Please, I assure you that any information provided would be treated with the deserving confidentiality and will be used purely for academic purpose.

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Appendix C: Interview Guide for Green Space Management Institutions in Kumasi.

The researcher is a student of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology working on urban green spaces in Kumasi. The information is required to assess the case of encroachments of green spaces in Kumasi, Ghana. Please, I assure you that any information provided would be treated with the deserving confidentiality and will be used purely for academic purpose.

SECTION A: Background Information of Respondent

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SECTION B: General Perception of Green Space Management

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Frequently asked questions

What is the "TABLE OF CONTENT" section about?

This section lists the chapters and key sections of the document, including the abstract, acknowledgements, dedication, list of tables, list of figures, list of plates, list of abbreviations, and the titles and sections of each chapter. It provides a structural overview of the entire document.

What is the main purpose of the ABSTRACT?

The abstract summarizes the study's purpose, methodology, key findings, and conclusion regarding encroachments on urban green spaces in Kumasi. It identifies key factors such as unawareness of greenspace protection legislation, ineffective development control, and demand for commercial land as drivers of encroachment.

What is the focus of Chapter One, "BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON THE STUDY"?

Chapter One provides an introduction to the study, including the problem statement, research questions, objectives, scope, limitations, and organization of the work. It defines "green spaces" and highlights the issue of encroachment on these spaces in Kumasi.

What topics are covered in Chapter Two, "A REVIEW OF URBAN GREEN SPACE AND ENCROACHMENT"?

Chapter Two offers a literature review on urban green spaces and encroachment, covering theoretical reviews, the definition and functions of green spaces, green infrastructure, green spaces in Kumasi, urban land use change, causes and effects of encroachment, legal frameworks, and a conceptual framework for analyzing encroachments.

What is the subject of Chapter Three, "RESEARCH METHODOLOGY"?

Chapter Three details the research methods used in the study, including the research design, data collection process, data sources, units of analysis, sampling techniques, and data processing methods.

What type of analysis is conducted in Chapter Four, "GREEN SPACES & LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE ANALYSIS"?

Chapter Four presents the analysis of land use and land cover change in relation to green spaces. It covers topics such as awareness of green space protection laws, the relevance of green spaces, land cover/land use analysis, and encroachments.

What is the main focus of Chapter Five, "SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE STUDY"?

Chapter Five summarizes the study's findings, provides recommendations based on the research, and presents the overall conclusion regarding encroachments on green spaces in Kumasi.

What are some of the key benefits of green spaces mentioned in the document?

The document emphasizes that green spaces offer vital ecosystem services, environmental benefits (such as air purification and climate regulation), social benefits (recreation and social interaction), health benefits, and economic benefits.

What legal frameworks are mentioned regarding the protection of green spaces in Ghana?

The document lists several relevant legal frameworks, including the Environmental Protection Agency Act, Environmental Assessment Regulations, Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, Water Resources Commission Act, and Wild Animals Preservation Act.

What are the main causes of encroachment on green spaces in Kumasi, according to the study?

The study identifies factors such as unawareness of greenspace protection legislation, ineffective development control enforcement, high demand for land for commercial activities, poor collaboration between management institutions, and a lack of public participation and sensitization as key factors for encroachments.

What are some of the effects of reducing green spaces, as noted in the document?

The document notes several negative impacts of green space reduction, including heat generation, increased urban air pollution, high occurrence of floods, declined biodiversity, habitat damage, and a reduction in areas for social interaction and leisure.

• College: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
• Grade: A
• Author: Godwin Opoku Asare (Author)
• Publication Year: 2021
• Pages: 108
• Catalog Number: V1268343
• ISBN (PDF): 9783346715951
• ISBN (Book): 9783346715968
• Language: English
• Tags: Encroachments, Greenery, Kumasi, Urban Green Spaces, Wetlands