This work describes the anthropological impact on groundwater and its impact on hydrology and morphology across the Murshidabad district. The science of water morphology involves developing conceptual foundations for a better understanding of human impacts on land and water resources. Water is considered one of the earth's most important attributes, and humans use it to move the land according to their wishes.
Murshidabad District: Hydrology, Morphology, and Anthropogenic Impacts - FAQ
What topics are covered in this text?
This text provides a comprehensive overview of the Murshidabad district, focusing on its hydromorphology. It covers the geology, geomorphology, physiographic divisions, soil types, climate, vegetation, and water resources of the region. The text also analyzes the anthropogenic impacts on these aspects, particularly concerning water systems and land use.
What is hydromorphology, and how is it relevant to this study?
Hydromorphology combines hydrology (the study of water) and morphology (the study of form and structure). In this context, it examines the interactions between water systems (rivers, groundwater) and the landscape, including how human activities have altered these systems over time. Understanding hydromorphology is crucial for analyzing the changes in Murshidabad's environment.
What are the major geological formations in Murshidabad?
The district's geological formations are broadly classified into recent alluvium, Pleistocene-recent older alluvium and lateritic clay, and Jurassic Rajmahal Trap. The recent alluvium is found in the 'Baghri' area, while older alluvium and laterite clays dominate the 'Rarh' region. The northern part contains Jurassic Rajmahal Trap formations.
How is the geomorphology of Murshidabad described?
The geomorphology is described through several physiographic divisions, including the 'Rarh' and 'Baghri' regions, separated by the Bhagirathi River. 'Rarh' is characterized by undulating terrain and hard clay soil, while 'Baghri' is low-lying and alluvial. The text details the different plains (Laterite Highlands, Old Delta Plain, Young Delta Plain, Bhagirathi's recent surface) and their characteristics.
What are the main soil types in the district?
The soil types vary across the district. The 'Rarh' region has lateritic clays, while the 'Baghri' area is characterized by recent alluvial soils. The text provides detailed classifications of soil types based on various sources, including the NBSS & LUP and the Department of Agriculture, highlighting differences in fertility and composition across different blocks.
What is the climate like in Murshidabad?
Murshidabad has a tropical monsoon climate with significant rainfall from June to September. The text includes data on rainfall amounts and temperature variations, illustrating the impact of the monsoon season and highlighting instances of severe flooding.
What is the vegetation like, both natural and cultivated?
The natural vegetation is described as deltaic, with a variety of trees, plants, and aquatic species. The text notes a decline in natural forest areas due to conversion to agricultural land. Cultivated plants include rice (various types), wheat, pulses, oilseeds, and jute. Orchards of various fruits are also common.
What are the major water resources in the district?
Murshidabad has abundant surface and groundwater resources. The major surface water bodies include the Ganga-Padma river system and its tributaries (Bhagirathi, Jarangi, Bhairab, Sialmari) and the Mayurakshi-Dwarka-Brahmani river system with its tributaries (Basloi, Pagla). The text describes the characteristics of each river, including their flow patterns and changes over time.
What are the key findings or conclusions of the text?
The text concludes by highlighting the contrast between the 'Rarh' and 'Bagri' regions in terms of geological, topographical, and soil characteristics. It emphasizes the impact of the Green Revolution and the ongoing debate about water resource management in the district, considering the interplay between land use, soil productivity, and available water.
Where can I find the references used in this text?
The text includes a list of references, citing various sources, including research articles, gazetteers, and books, that support the information presented. These references provide further opportunities for in-depth research into the topics discussed.
Table of Contents
HYDROLOGY + MORPHOLOGY = HYDROMORPHOLOGY
GEOMORPHOLOGY
PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION
SOIL
CLIMATE
VEGETATION
WATER RESOURCES
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SURFACE WATER
BAGIRATHI
JARANGI
THE BHAIRAB
SIALMARI
OTHER SMALL RIVERS
BASLOI
PAGLA
BRAHMANI:
DWARKA –BABLA:
CONCLUSION
REFERENCES:
INTRODUCTION
The science of water morphology involves developing conceptual foundations for a better understanding of human impacts on land and water resources. Water is considered one of the earth's most important attributes, and humans use it to move the land according to their wishes. The land is a comprehensive and holistic concept in natural science. It is a specific region and therefore an actual geographical concept. "A region is defined geographically as a particular area of the Earth's surface. Its characteristics include the atmosphere, soil and underlying rocks, terrain, water, plant and animal populations, and past and present human It includes all reasonably stable or predictable periodic characteristics of the biosphere vertically above and below that area, including the results of activity, attributes critical to current and future human land use. influence” (Christan and Stewart in Roy et al., 1968; Man. B. and Smith, 1973). 2 Dressler et al. (2006) jointly defined hydrology and morphology because hydrology addresses problems related to the structure, evolution, and dynamic morphology of hydrological systems over the years, decades, and centuries. Because there is The subject of water morphology has largely highlighted social challenges, increasing population demands, and widespread anthropological impacts on the environment and water systems. Few basins have been in natural or unaffected hydrological conditions over the last decade. Basin dependence is a source of uncertainty and is not stationary. Significant use of land by humans. How to change water systems to suit the landscape through challenges in front of technicians. Water infrastructure and climate, reconfiguring water systems.
At the beginning of Chapter 2, it is clear that fresh, sweet water is nectar on earth. It is like blood in the human body. This work describes the anthropological impact on groundwater and its impact on hydrology and morphology across the Murshidabad district.
HYDROLOGY + MORPHOLOGY = HYDROMORPHOLOGY
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GEOLOGY
Mitra presented a geological classification in the Gazetteer of 1979. The geological formation is broadly classified into three parts viz. a) recent alluvium, b) Pleistocene- recent older alluvium and lateritic clay and c) Jurassic Rajmahal Trap.
Recent alluvium: The 'Baghri' area of the district is occupied by recent alluvium. The soil consists mainly of sand and clay carried from rivers. All kinds of soil are fertile and produce all kinds of plants.
► Pleistocene - Older Alluvium and Laterite Clays: Much of the 'Rarh' region, western of the Bhagirathi River, is occupied by older alluvium and laterite clays. It may be a continuation of the Subvindian area of lateritic clay and nodular limestone. The western part is dotted here and there with 'canceled' (limestone formations).
► Jurassic Rajmahal Trap: The northern part of the district consists of intercalated carbonaceous shale and clay-infused basaltic lava. Basalt is a black, fine-grained amygdala rock. Almonds are rich in chalcedony, calcite, zeolites, and other secondary minerals.
Similarly, Asis Bhattacharya and S.N. Banerjee published a classification of the Ajay Bhagirathi Valley in 1979 in the Indian Journal of Earth Science (Vol. 6, No. 1). Their study area was divided into a) the Lateric highlands, b) the old delta plains, c) the young delta plains, and d) he of the recent surface He of Bagirati four topographical plains.
The Quaternary sediments have been classified as:
TABLE NO: GEOMORPHIC SUBDIVISION AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS
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GEOMORPHOLOGY
Hiuen Tsang reported that the residents were very wealthy from 'Karnasuvarna', just 20 km from Berhampore in present-day Sadar city. Wet plains served normal agriculture, flowers, and fruits. the climate is in temperate climates, and people were well-behaved and facilitated learning (Gazetteer, 1979; by A. Mitra, p.: 32).
Asis Bhattacharya and S.N. In 1979 Banerjee divided the Bhagirathi Valley into his four terrain levels. A) Laterite Highlands or Ilambazar Plain, b) Old Delta Plain or Rampurhat Plain, c) Young Delta Plain or Kandi Plain, and d) Bhagirathi's recent surface. The Murshidabad district generally lies within the Younger Delta Plain or Kandy Plain and the Bhagirathi Basin.
The Bhagirathi River, which flows through the district from north to south, divided the area into almost two halves, 'Lal' and 'Bhagri'. The west side of the river is locally called 'Rarh' and the east side is called 'Bagri'.
East of Bhagirathi is low-lying and alluvial. The climate is humid and flooding the Bhagirathi River and other rivers can flood the land. The soil is surprisingly fertile. The west side is more undulating than the east side, and the surface is wavy. The bottom is hard clay. The climate is drier than in the eastern wing. The western section or 'La' is slightly higher and hillier than the eastern section 'Baghri' but the land is dotted with numerous marshes and paleocanals. The maximum elevation of the western boundary is near the boundary of Babum District, namely the blocks of Kalgram, Bhawan, Nabagram, and Sagardighi.
The Young Delta Plain or Kandy Plain is terraced. The plain varies from 6 kilometers north to 38 kilometers south, with an average slope of 0.6 meters per kilometer. The plain narrows near Jangipur and widens towards Barhan Pole. East of Kandy, patches of the old delta plain merge with the young delta plain, and in some areas, the old delta plain underlies the young delta plain. The fan-shaped young deltas of Mayuraki form terraces. The radial canal pattern is well preserved, and each bank has a natural bank. Interestingly, a large reclaimed valley can be seen near the junction of the old delta plain and the recent surface of Bhagirathi. Sedimentary structures are common in young deltaic plains. River topography such as backwaters, dikes, and meanders is also preserved. Bhagirathi's recent surface is limited to today's canal and its immediate vicinity. The terrace belt is 3 to 5 kilometers wide and has a slope of 0.2 meters per kilometer. The land is very low in some places and has sharp cuts
Between the Young Deltaic Plain and the recent surface of Bhagirathi (e.g. flood plain between Bhagirathi and Dwarka rivers). The surface consists of loose and not fully consolidated sedimentary structures. The Bhagirathi River meanders greatly between Jangipur and Barhampoor Police Station. Geologists believe the
river is an outsider and likely an ancient stream of the Ganges. Large meanders truncated and abandoned canals and dams are examples of landscape conservation. Currently, the river flow oscillates frequently (mainly blocks such as Suti-I, Suti-II, Ragnasganj-I, Larugola, and Bhagawangola-I are affected).
Old terrain is susceptible to erosion. Therefore, the topography of young ones is better preserved. Terrain near rivers is cut to generate topographically younger levels, new levels are filled with sediment, and older levels are gradually closed off through a 'tongue'. In this way, the oscillating flow maintains the oldest to youngest order as the laterite plateau - old delta plain - new delta plain - Bagirati recent surface.
CORRELATION BETWEEN GEOMORPHIC PLAINS AND GEOLOGIC FORMATION IN AJAY
-BHAGIRATHI VALLEY
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PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION
The Bhagirathi River, which flows through the district from north to south, roughly divides the district into two roughly equal parts, which contrast sharply with each other in terms of geology, physical features, and agricultural patterns.
Traditionally the district was divided into four tracts –
a) ‘‘rarh’’ consisting of areas to the south of the Ganga and west of Bhagirathi,
b) “Barendra” lying north of the Ganga and between the Mahananda and Karatoya rivers,
c) ‘‘bagri’’ is the south Bengal and
d) “Vanga” is eastern Bengal.
The Bhagirathi River, which flows through the district from north to south, roughly divides the district into two roughly equal parts, which contrast sharply with each other in terms of geology, physical features, and agricultural morphology.
TABLE: MINOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT
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TABLE: ANOTHER PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION WAS DONE IN MURSHIDABAD GAZETTEER, 2003 DEPENDING ON THE CONFLUENCE OF RIVERS.
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Murshidabad District is now available for discussion with the aforementioned Agricultural Planning Geopolitics Department. Blocks that fall into this category share more or less common physical and cultural characteristics.
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FIGURE: MINOR PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT OF (REDRAWN BY THE SCHOLAR FROM MURSHIDABAD GAZETEER, 2003)
SOIL
The 'Rarh' area is essentially a continuation of the Sub-Indian area with laterite clays and nodular gutting. The soil is grayish or reddish, mixed with lime and iron oxide, and dotted with nodular lime gutting (Lanka).
The most recent surfacing 'Baghri' area of Bagirati has little soil development. The surface is composed of loose and completely unconsolidated sediments, and various sedimentary structures can be seen. In the new plains of the delta, brown-spotted soils about 1-2 meters thick develop with soft, early-stage ferrous concrete. Soil pH is between 6.7 and 7.4.
Plates No. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3 show photographs of different soil profiles in the Murshidabad district.
NBSS & LUP (National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning) of ICAR (Indian Council of Agricultural Research) has produced a soil map of West Bengal including the Murshidabad district at a scale of 1:500,000.
The classification of soil groups in the Murshidabad district was made by the Ministry of Agriculture in the 1986-87 Annual Action Plan.
TABLE: SOIL COMBINATION IN DIFFERENT BLOCK OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT
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PLATE NO: SILTY LOAM SOILS, BHAGAWANGOLA-II BLOCK, MURSHIDABAD
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FIGURE: SOIL MAP OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT (COMPILED BY THE AUTHOR FROM DISTRICT ANNUAL ACTION PLAN, PRINCIPAL AGRICULTURAL OFFICE, 1985).
This figure has been removed by GRIN for copyright reasons.
FIGURE: SOIL MAP OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT
The table above shows that the soils in Murshidabad are mainly attributed to the sedimentation of the Ganges River and its tributaries in the 'Baghri' area, whereas in 'La' the soils are derived from other rivers in the Subbindian Mountains. It's deposited. Morphology indicates that the 'Bagli' soil was not formed in very distant times. Fine sand and silt prevail in the depths. Clay soil is mixed with loamy soil to give the soil good water retention. Occasionally lend a salty stain
Whitish color on the bottom. The soil contains small amounts of potash and phosphorus and is deficient in organic matter and nitrogen. Soil permeability is very high and soil drainage capacity is good.
Sen, J. 1988; proposed a soil classification for the Bagri area and was adopted by the Department of Agriculture (1958-60) as follows:
a) Ganga River Land (Pasture) - i) Flood Season - Gangachar Land: The area is located on the banks of Gangapadma and Jarangi rivers. ii) Highland Stage - Ganges Ridge: These areas occur adjacent to the flood stage. It is located on relatively high terrain.
b) Ganga Plain: This land is located between Ganga River and Ganga Plain. It has a moderate nitrogen content and a very high buffering capacity. It has very high water permeability and water holding capacity. As the soil gets deeper, the proportion of sand decreases and the proportion of clay increases.
c) Gangetic Lowlands: This zone is associated with heavy clay layers, followed by subsoils of sandy material, coarse sand and some concrete. During the rainy season, the soil becomes sticky, and in the winter, the soil becomes dry and cracked. Silt, moisture, carbon and nitrogen percentages decrease with soil depth.
d) Ganga Highlands: This area has relatively high altitude terrain. Bhagirathi seldom swings to the right and erodes the land due to the stable and hard nature of this ground. The soil profile is naturally loamy with a chalky horizon. The trihydrochloride present is immobile. Limescale build-up is seen in the 3rd and his 4th layers, due to the leaching of calcium carbonate from the surface layer. Phosphate and nitrogen content is low, potash content is average.
The northern part of the Murshidabad district (Farakka, Suti-I, Suti-II, Samsherganj, etc. blocks) consists of intercalated carbonaceous shale and clay-bearing basaltic lava flows. This part of the district has very low soil fertility. This area offers the perfect combination of hills, forests and water. During the rainy season, the area becomes a huge lake, making the settlements look like islands. The Basroy River and other streams from the western Raj Mahal Hills flood the area every year.
In Murshidabad Gazateer 2003, the soil of the district is broadly classified into two:
A) Sub- Vindhyan category of alluvial and
B) The alluvial flood plain of the Ganges.
Further minor classes of the soil are:
a) Flood plain just near the Ganga-Padma-Bhagirathi River,
b) Gangetic plain land,
c) Gangetic upland,
d) Gangetic lowland,
e) Rajmahal flood plain area,
f) Rajmahal plain land,
g) Rajmahal upper plain land.
TABLE: MINOR SOIL GROUP OF THE MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT
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It is evident that a sharp contrast in physical features is observed between the 'Rarh' and 'Bagri' areas of the district due to differences in geological, topographical and soil classification. The soil properties of the 'Bagri' region make the underlying blocks more fertile than the 'Rarh' blocks.
CLIMATE
Monsoon rains from late June to September are well experienced. July is the wettest month of the season. In 1990, 392 mm of rain fell. On September 19, 2000, rainfall was 558.80 mm, causing severe flooding throughout the district.
The entire district has a perfect tropical monsoon climate. May has the highest temperature. In 1995, the maximum temperature recorded was 45 degrees Celsius and the minimum temperature was 25 degrees Celsius.
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FIGURE: CHANGING MONTHLY RAINFALL IN MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT SINCE PRE-GREEN REVOLUTION
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FIGURE: MEAN MAXIMUM AND MEAN MINIMUM TEMPERATURE VARIATION IN MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT SINCE PRE-GREEN REVOLUTION.
Some of the district's local station precipitation records are tabulated to identify the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon micro-level periods of the district.
TABLE: STATISTICAL RECORDS OF RAINFALL IN MILLIMETERS IN LOCAL RECORD STATIONS OF MURSHIDABAD DISTRICT
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VEGETATION
The natural vegetation was very rich in Murshidabad. Over time, all forest land and orchards will be converted to agricultural land or used for non-agricultural purposes in sub-districts.
NATURAL VEGETATION
The Murshidabad district comprises of deltaic type of flora. In the swampy areas numerous marshy species are seen. Hycinth, algae are found in ponds and ditches. Bamboos are scattered all over the district. Beside, orchards like mango, jackfruit, guava, lemon and litchis are popular in the district. Segun, Sisoo, Simul, Tentul, Kul, Banyan, Ashwatha, Coconut, Wild Date palm, ‘Sajne’, Eucalyptus etc. are common trees of the district. Babla, Sal and Mahua, Palash are common in the ‘rarh’ region. To check the soil erosion along the bank of the Ganges Babul (Acacia Arabica Willd) were planted. Mulberry trees are common in Berhampore, Islampore and Beldanga for sericulture. Among the flowering plants Champa, Hibiscus, Bougainvilea, Jasmine, Rose etc. are common. Parthenium, Cynodon dactylon Pers., Cyperus rotundus L., etc. bushes are common in any waste land or road side. Jitpur forest in Dumkol block is a notable area of natural vegetation presently under complete negligence.
► CULTIVATED PLANTS
The district cultivates predominantly rice (‘aus’, ‘aman’ and ‘boro’), wheat, and few maize and barley. Common vegetables grown are potato, brinjal, parwal, bitter gourd, bottle gourd, pumpkin, tomato, ‘puin’, raddish, carrot, beet, cauliflower, cabbage, knol-khol, spinach and other leafy vegetables. The pulses grown are kalai, khesari, masur, arhar,matar, gram, and mung. Oilseeds grown are Groundnut, rye, mustard, til. Spices growm are kalajeera, dhania, haldi. Jute is an important fibre crop of ‘bagri’ region.
WATER RESOURCES
The district is rich in both surface water and groundwater. Among the surface water bodies main two rivers channels distributes throughout the district.
A. Ganga- Padma River channel; its distributaries and
B. Mayurashki river channels; its distributaries
The major rivers of the Ganga Padma are the Bhagirathi, Jarangi and their tributaries Siarmali and Bhairab. These rivers flow through the Bagri area of Murshidabad. These tributaries carry water during monsoons and remain dry the rest of the year. Historical evidence indicates that these tributaries were used for boating, but are now flattened by silt. Every year, silt from the Padma River forms a dish on the Bhairab River, and boro rice is now grown on the river bed in winter.
The Mayurakshi-Dwarka-Brahmani River consists of a) the Basloi, Pagla and Gumani Rivers from the northwestern Rajmahal Hills and b) the terminus of the Mayurakshi-Dwarka-Brahmani River in the south.
These paleo-channels (according to Willocks) supplied water to Murshidabad's 'Rarh' block during monsoons that piled up sand and shields to form delta plains.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SURFACE WATER
THE GANGA OR THE PADMA.RIVER
The Ganges divides into two streams at its northernmost point. The southeast-flowing Padma River forms the northern and eastern boundary of Murshidabad. The other tributary, the He Bhagirathi River, flows southwards and, as already mentioned in Chapter 1, almost divides the district into two equal halves: 'Rarh' and 'Bagri'. Padma carries a huge amount of secretions and is very wide in some places.With the exception of the high bank, the main channel is constantly changing. Large islands rise continuously in the strait, some of which are miles long. These islands are inhabited, cleared and cultivated by humans, and disputes over the ownership of 'char'7 are frequent (Sen, J. 1988, p. 5). These herd people live in makeshift huts as the bank is flooded each year. Example: "Nirmal Char" of Raghunathganj Police Station.
BAGIRATHI
Bhagirathi begins on the Ganga River at Nurpur, about 25 miles south of Farakka. The river flows parallel to the Padma River for about two miles and turns south at Viswanathpur, where the Suti Police Station is located. It is very winding near Jangipur and Barhan Pole. The river is called the Hooghly River because it joins the Jarangi River near Swarupganj in the Nadia district before finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal. The general flow of the river is northwest-southeast. Therefore, the North-South Bagirati Canal carries less water than the Padma River.
JARANGI
The Jalangi River is one of the main rivers in the 'Baghri' area of Murshidabad. This river is a tributary of the Padma River. The river begins in the eastern part of the district and branches southwestward into the Nadia district. Silt now blocks the Jarangi estuary in Padma. On certain days of the rainy season, when the Padma River discharge is unusually high, some bogs descend the river bed, but with the Padma River collapse, dry the course about 3 km away from the extraction point. From this point to its confluence with the Siarmali River, it was supplied with water by local drainage (Beel) and infiltration (Sen, J. 1988, p. 6). Siarmali became a completely closed crescent lake and now the area around these streams has been converted to farmland.
THE BHAIRAB
This is a paleo channel, but it has been deprecated for years. It starts from Ganga at Largolla Police Station in this district, opposite where Mahananda joins Ganga Mahananda. The flow of power growing along Padma, its meaning cut off. Mahananda starts pouring water on Padma, making Bhairab's course even worse. During the rainy season this river receives water from the Padma River. It remains dry several times a year. Bhairab now runs through several blocks in the Bagri area of the Murshidabad district.
SIALMARI
This river originating from River Padma moving in between Jalangi river and the Bhairab river. After traveling shortly the river meet Jalangi with a zig- zag way like Bhairab River. In the lower stage of journey it is also known as the Kharia.
OTHER SMALL RIVERS BASLOI
From the Birbhum district the Basloi river enters into the northern boundary of the Murshidabad district near
Hussanpur. This river meets Bhagirathi near Jangipur town in the Murshidabad district.
PAGLA
A little southward from Basloi River, Pagla River runs through Jangipur town and meets Bhairab River in easterly direction.
BRAHMANI:
The source of this river originated from Santal Pargana of Jharkhand state and only a part of this river lies in the Birbhum district and western part of Murshidabad District of West Bengal. The River run through Jharkhand state and enters the Birbhum district near Narayanpur and meets with Tripiti River originating from Santal Pargana and finally meets with the Brahmani –Dwarka near Sakoghat in Murshidabad District.
>DWARKA –BABLA:
This River has many names like the Banka and the Chora Dekra and has many distributaries.Among them the main river enters the district near Morgram from the Birbhum district.At first it flows in an easterly direction until its waters are augmented by those of the Brahmani at Ramchandrapur. It turns towards the south-east and joined on its right bank by the Mor and the Kuiya, another two river flowing down from Birbhum district. Numerous backwaters and side channels connect with the Bhagirathi and c’aus’es many morphological confusion.The main streams also forms the eastern boundary of the Kandi subdivision and quit the district at Raghupur.During rainy season this river turns into rapid current and is liable to sudden flood.
CONCLUSION
Murshidabad's natural parameters facilitate groundwater irrigation. Some researchers argue for increased extraction of water from the ground, while others disagree. Chapter 4 assesses the agricultural gains brought about by the Green Revolution, but lags slightly behind the western regions of India. Forty years later, current land use, soil productivity, and the relationship between irrigation systems and available water are the focus of debate.
REFERENCES:
1. Bhattacharya, A. and Banerjee, S.N. (1979): “Quarternary Geology and Geomorphology of the Ajay- Bhagirathi Valley, Birbhum and Murshidabad district, West Bengal.” Indian Journal of Earth Science. Vol. 6(1): pp: 91-102.
2. Dressler et.al.(2006) in “HYDROMORPHOLOGY” by Richard M. Vogel, Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, in Press; vol.137(2), 2011.
3. Gazetteer of India (1979), West Bengal District, census handbook, Murshidabad district, Government of West Bengal; by A. Mitra pp: 2-20.
4. Mukherjee, A.; Fryay, A. E. ; Howell, P. D.(2007); ‘ Regional hydrostratigraphy and groundwater medelling in the arsenic- affected areas of the western Bengal basin, West Bengal , India’, Journal of hydrogeology, Siringer- Verlag. DOI 10.1007/s10040-007-0208-7.
5. Murshidabad district gazetteer (2003), West Bengal District Gazeteer, Government of West Bengal pp:14-45.
6. Roychowdhury. et. al. (2002): “Arsenic and other heavy metals in soils from an arsenic- affected area of West Bengal, India.” Chemosphere, Vol.49, pp 605-618.
7. Sen, J. (1988), “Land Utilization and Population Distribution A case study of West Bengal 1850- 1985” Daya Publishing House, Delhi, pp: vii-20
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- Asif Iqbal (Author), 2022, Hydro-Morphological Characteristics of Murshidabad District, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1278577
