The scope of the book is to examine developing nations deep isolated rural communities’ information exchange environment, some models that explain information search patterns, information needs, and perception on ICT is needed. The book begins by examining several models on information needs, information sources, patterns of seeking information, uptake, and use of technological innovations to establish and explain the constructs of the conceptual framework in chapter one.
Chapter two introduces the constructs underpinning the framework. The constructs include information needs, information seeking patterns and perception of ICT. Maepa (2000) assert that once individual outlined his or her needs with regards to the required information, then directly or indirectly the individual positions themselves to identify the source(s), media, or channels to access the information require. The framework give insight that by examining developing nations deep isolated rural communities’ information needs, information seeking patterns will define the behavioural intention as to access to the types of ICT and usage. Again, assessing perception on ICT and whether they perceive its use to beneficial will lead to individual intention to access certain ICT innovation.
Chapter three details of the technical stages of the framework are given. It covers the generalisation of the framework, theorising the framework as well as the use of Design Science research paradigm in the development and evaluation of the framework. In chapter four detailed explanation of the practical implementation of the framework in rural communities’ communication strategies designs are outlined, along with empirical case studies of rural small-scale farmers in Amathole District Municipality (ADM) of South Africa.
This book has been derived from the author PhD work submitted to Nelson Mandela University South Africa. The book can be used as a support course material in graduate and undergraduate research work around conceptual frameworks design and analysis.
The contemporary era information streaming and developing nations deep isolated rural communities: A conceptual framework.
Preface
Access to information is at the very heart of contemporary era socio-economic development. Recently there is a growing trend of efforts by developing nations governments, developmental agencies, and other private organizations in trying to stream information to rural communities. What drives this trend are the critical need of relevant information such as economic developmental research outputs which are necessary to interact with rural economic sector production factors such as natural resources management skills, products value adding, etc., to assist rural economic sector players make informed and better decisions in order to increase productivity as well as sustainable in the mist of the global climatic challenges that confront especially developing nations rural communities.
The dawn of the digital era facilitated by an increased ICT-tools usage such as mobile phones, laptops, internet, etc changed the way information is disseminated and access to a point where without adoption or use of ICT-tools which underline modern information system achieving efficiency, effectiveness and higher productivity becomes a tall order. For instance, the use of ICT-tools makes it possible for developing nations deep isolated rural communities to access quality health services through virtual consultation with specialists in urban areas as well rural entrepreneurs can use ICT to create a global platform to promote their businesses and sell their products which can assist in solving the challenges these entrepreneurs faces in accessing the global markets and to overcome the physical barrier one faces in assisting developing nation deep isolated rural communities. But as noted by Gigler (2015), Okon (2015) and most scholars that the mere presence of ICT in an area is not a catalyst to offset development if the effective use of the ICT and attention to underlie variables that facilitates effective usage are ignored. The aim of this book is to propose a framework that can serve as a communication strategy tool to examine information exchange process among developing nations deep isolated rural communities to establish variables that affect or facilitates uptake and use of ICT application and tools so that specific intervention design can be made to ensure effective and efficient streaming, access of information on the ICT tools available to the community.
Scope of the book
To examine developing nations deep isolated rural communities’ information exchange environment, some models that explains information search patterns, information needs, and perception on ICT is needed. The book begins by examining several models on information needs, information sources, patterns of seeking information, uptake, and use of technological innovations to establish and explain the constructs of the conceptual framework in chapter one.
Chapter two introduces the constructs underpinning the framework. The constructs include information needs, information seeking patterns and perception of ICT. Maepa (2000) assert that once individual outlined his or her needs with regards to the required information, then directly or indirectly the individual positions themselves to identify the source(s), media, or channels to access the information require. The framework give insight that by examining developing nations deep isolated rural communities’ information needs, information seeking patterns will define the behavioural intention as to access to the types of ICT and usage. Again, assessing perception on ICT and whether they perceive its use to beneficial will lead to individual intention to access certain ICT innovation.
Chapter three details of the technical stages of the framework are given. It covers the generalisation of the framework, theorising the framework as well as the use of Design Science research paradigm in the development and evaluation of the framework.
In chapter four detailed explanation of the practical implementation of the framework in rural communities’ communication strategies designs are outlined, along with empirical case studies of rural small-scale farmers in Amathole District Municipality (ADM) of South Africa.
The use of the book
This book has been derived from the author PhD work submitted to Nelson Mandela University South Africa. The book can be used as a support course material in graduate and undergraduate research work around conceptual frameworks design and analysis.
Chapter one: Information, its needs, searching, pattern and use conceptualisation for the study
In this chapter the concepts of information, the information needs, sources, searching patterns are outlined. It also looks at models used for information seeking.
Case (2007) emphasize that to be able to study and discuss a concept, it is critical to first define it. By defining it one can identify and define other concepts related to the study. According to Bitso (2011) and Mugwisi (2013) in the study of information exchange environment, information, information needs, information seeking patterns, information sources are among the terms that make up the concept.
1.1 Defining information
Benjamin and Zhang, (2007) highlights that the term "information" may have many underpinning meanings and perspectives owning to the fact that it derives its meaning from the context and the field in which it is being studied. As a result, no general and explicit definition exist for the term in the field of information science (Weller, 2007). According to Mutshewa, (2007) the complexity of defining the term "information" stem from the fact that several disciplines such as Information Science, Informatics, Computer Science just to mention a few has seen many studies done with different focus on information. However, as explained by Mugwisi, (2013:60), Wilson (2000) assumes in the context users of information in research studies to be:
- physical entity: where information can represent a phenomenon for example as it relates to the case of questioning within a period number of books read and journals accessed, etc.
- communication channel: as mediums or channels through which messages (written or oral) are transmitted.
In this book regarding the term "information" will only be guided by Wilson (2000) assumption explained above.
McCreadie and Rice (1999:46-48) gives four assumptions that can made about the term "information" to be:
- a physical commodity which can be produced, purchased, etc.
- data which can be accessed within individual's sphere
- Knowledge in the form of printed documents (such as books, posters, journals, etc.) representation
- communication process part where means are mostly inherent in people rather than in words.
Gorry and Scott-Morton (in Mugwisi, 2013:60-63) relates information in a business environment and outlined seven groupings that relate to information as:
- wider information scope which is wider representation of information a business relies on for its operation
- information on time which represents information a business receives quickly and on time for example for decision making
- up-to-date information that is the current and appropriateness of information to make business decisions
- accumulated information which refers to collected information, for instance, raw data on markets of products
- correctness of formation which refers to accuracy of the output information to satisfy its intended use efficiently and effectively
- one-on-one information sources which refer to personal such as face-to-face conversations, telephone conversations, meetings, etc. contact with other individuals in a business environment
- non personal contact information sources refer to information which are written in nature normally generated by machines such as computer-generated reports.
1.2 Information theories
Shannon (1948), positions communication system basically in terms of transmitting and receiving information. Shannon then outlined the five parts of communication system to be:
- sources of information: originator of information/messages to be communicated to the receiving channel. The information may take the form of 1) teletype normally transmitted via radio or telephone; 2) as a functionality of variables and time transmitted via television and other three-dimensional sound transmission
- the transmitter: which convert the information to a suitable signal suitable for transmission over the channel
- channel: is the media/medium used to transmit the signal from transmitter to receiver.
- receiver: decode the signal into message
- The destination: the intended receiver of the message.
According to Mugwisi, (2013) quit several studies done on information in many disciplines adopted Shannon's communication model.
Nonetheless, American group of scholars called Palo Alto identified challenges to Shannon's information theories. The Palo Alto researchers unlike Shannon highlighted that the notion of communication is not isolated and it’s not merely studying a few variables in isolation. To establish the whole communication processes, they posed three hypotheses:
1. the relationship between elements in communication is more vital than the elements themselves
2. all interactions and actions of human are part of a vast communication system
3. disorders such as psychiatric signifies a distortion in communication between those who has the disorder and the people around them.
1.3 Information needs
According to Derr (1983) two conditions highlights information needs that is a legitimate need or reason exists for the required information and that the information sought after will add to achieving the need. Case (2007: 76-77) then postulate information needs from two viewpoints that is the objective and subjective. To Case (2007) the objective viewpoint is attributed to a situation where the details and specifics of the information need is well established to avoid uncertainty with regards to facts needed. Making the information needs objective viewpoint more relatively fixed. A subjective viewpoint on the other hand is where the specifics and facts needed are not well established because these needs of information emanate from situations such as an empty feeling of unease, a sense of a gap in knowledge, or simply by anxiety. The subjective viewpoint explains the highly dynamics nature of human information needs stems from the fact that humans are always trying to make sense of situations. To Kaniki (2003), various factors affect the needs of information users. Some of the factors are level of education, user's economic power, where user is located geographically, awareness of information systems and services availability, ability of the user to do research, social life responsibilities, culture, recreation, the nature of profession, and others. From Ingwersen (2000) three mainstream exist when it comes to information needs:
1. the need of information to verify
2. the need of specific information and
3. the higgledy-piggledy type of information need
Different perspective has been proposed to help understand information needs study (Borlund, 2016; Waseem, 2017) and few have been mentioned below to shed light on the various perspective. According to Line (1969) several perspectives: subject at hand; nature (i.e., conceptual, historical, statistical); quality and quantity; medium of processing; packaging; accessibility; the age; specificity; its immediate use; and level must be considered when considering information user's needs.
The epistemological methods to viewing information needs was proposed by Sundin and Johannisson (2005) as:
- the structure approach: which explains how the role of social structures contributes to modelling of human behaviour.
- the individual approach: focuses on individuals instead of on structures.
- the communication approach gives precedence to communication.
Cole (2012) proposed two perspectives to explain information needs:
- computer science(input-output): the purpose is to find an answer.
- information science (information-knowledge): where information is available but may or may not address the need at hand.
Chowdhury (2004:194) explains that when it comes to an individual or organisation there are characteristics that defines the information needs:
- because of many factors that define information need makes it a relative concept and dynamic in nature
- the variation of information needs is because the changes from person to person, from job to job, subject to subject, organisation to organisation, etc.
- the field or the environment determines the information needs, for instance, educators’ information needs are different from entrepreneurs’ information needs
- some of the time, information needs are either not clearly articulated or remains unarticulated
- there can be a change to information needs because of receiving other information
Information needs in this book is regarded as a knowledge gap needed by information seeker to solve or to make decision.
1.4 Information seeking behaviour
Information seeking behaviour definition by Ingwersen and Jarvelin (2005:21) ¨ explains information searching behaviour of people to be the human behaviour that concerns with how information need is generated, communicated, used and other activities such as interactive information retrieval.
Fisher and Julien (2009:317) also highlights that information seeking behaviour of people focuses on individual's information needs; with emphasises on searching behaviours, management of information, and how it is used, either decisively or passively, in their day-to-day life roles. According to Fatima and Ahmad (2008:141) information searching behaviour is a wider field which include a set of actions taken by an individual to articulate the need of information, searching of information, assess and choose information, and finally act upon the information to quench their information needs. To Majid et al., (2000:146) information searching behaviour of individuals can be defined as the ways that individual express their need of information and searching, rate, choose, and use the needed information. Wilson (1999:251) point out that the searching of information behaviour by individual or people is because of realisation of a need for information which then makes the individual or people to place demand on both formal and informal sources such as libraries, information centres, online services, or people to fulfil the realised need of information. Njoku (2004:302) highlights that individual's information searching behaviour and use of information are influenced by the information needs. Njoku further explains that the needs of information by individual are fuelled by:
- individual status in society
- the environment of the individual
- goals for searching for the information
- approaches/methods available to the individual to searching the information required
- the traits such as intelligence, pragmatism of the individual
According to Chowdhury (2004) information seeking behaviour can be considered as ways of utilizing the information systems as well as information centres which relies mostly on factors closely related to characteristics and personality traits of information users, the information centre and information system concerned.
1.5 Information seeking behaviour models
To conceptualise information needs and information searching for the book, some framework used in studying information needs and searching were reviewed to establish their relevance to the framework development. Belkin (1980:135) explains the Anomalous State of Knowledge (ASK)to be that individual or people information searching arises because of a feeling of a gap in a state of knowledge. An observation was made by Rosenfeld and Morville (2002:28) that people's information needs may be diverge thereby causing people to show various information searching behaviour. According to Chowdhury (2004:194), Ikoja-Odongo and Mostert (2006:147), an individual's need of information begins when the person realised that his or her current state of knowledge is not able to deal with the task at hand, or to resolve conflicts, or to fill a void in some area of knowledge.
According to Jaccard and Jacoby, (2010) models are concepts and the relationships between them are necessary in showing a conceptual understanding of phenomena. Case (2012) explains that unlike theories, the scope of models is restricted in the sense that they focus on more specific problems. To study people and organisation information searching behaviour have seen the development of various models. Many of these models primarily focus on information seeking and searching behaviour; examples include (Bates, 1990; Foster, 2004; Krikelas, 1983; Kuhlthau, 1991; Leckie, Pettigrew, & Sylvain, 1996; Wilson, 1981). Some of these models are reviewed below:
1.6 Wilson's model of information searching behaviour
Wilson's reveal to us in his model that there are stages to information searching behaviour.
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Figure 1.8: Wilson's model of information searching behaviour Source: Wilson, (1999)
To Wilson (1999:251) the searching behaviour of information starts once the user realised a need for information and in the quest to fulfil the need, makes demands on both formal and informal sources or services of information which either result in success or failure to find the required information.
1.7 Krikelas model (1983)
According to Krikelas (1983) is individuals who determines what their information needs are. Krikelas assert that to understand information searching behaviour of people or individual, it cannot be observed in an isolation without knowledge about the purpose behind the searching. Thus, Krikelas proposes three information searching activities as the foundation to his model, namely gathering of information, searching of information, and giving of information. Krikelas further explains that the three activities are distinguished by adopting a two-tiered analysis of immediate needs of information and diverged needs of information, where the searching of information is viewed as a response to what the individual or people imagine to be an urgent need and gathering of information is viewed as an answer to a range of diverged needs (Mugwisi, 2013; Waseem, 2017). However, Zaborowski (2008:17) finds a weakness with Krikelas' model stating that it is too simple and a single dimensional flowchart without any part of the process connecting the other. Secondly, other information searching models have shown that the searching of information is not a straight-line process, but rather require information seekers to gather information, reassess, and seek additional information. Case (2007) puts it that Krikelas model can be compare with a "library search model" citing is more "applicable to information searching of students or professionals in some work-oriented context".
1.8 Ellis (1989)
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Figure 1.9: Ellis's Model of Behaviour Source: Ellis, (1989)
Ellis (1989:178) observed six patterns of searching information among social scientists as follows:
- the start of the search: which is the initial stage of seeking information where the social scientist identifies references on topics. - the chain of searching is where the social scientist begins to trace between sources and material such as citations or other referral sources of the identified references during the start stage.
- the browse stage is where the social scientist begins to consult potential information sources such as scanning journal tables, references, etc.
- the stage of differentiation is where the social scientist uses the different potential sources as a way of filtering the various information gained.
- the stage of information monitoring is where the social scientist constantly follows the developments of a specific information, topic, or area through medium such as newspapers, etc.
- the stage of extracting is where the social scientist begins to identify and select the relevant information from the various sources of information.
1.9 Kuhlthau (1991)
Kuhlthau (1991:361-368), proposed the Information Search Process (ISP) model. In describing the ISP model, Kuhlthau highlights that individual seeking of information may be classified as a building of one's knowledge on a specific topic or problem through information gaining. Kuhlthau identified three realms that underline individual's searching of information:
- affective: where individuals feel a knowledge gap
- cognitive: individual thoughts about the need of information
- physical: individual action to gather the relevant information
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Figure 1.10: Kuhlthau's six stages information search process Source:
Kuhlthau, (1991)
These realms form the basis of the six stages of the ISP model as follows: - the initiation stage: is where the individual feels vague because of realisation of a knowledge gap.
- the selection stage is individuals’ identification and selection of a general problem area or a topic to be searching information on
- the exploration stage is the need to seek information on the identified topic or the general problem area
- the formulation stage is about the individual narrowing the general search to a more specific or focus area
- the collection stage is where the individual begins to gather related and relevant information on the focus or the specific identified areas - the presentation stage is the stage where the search or gathering of relevant information comes to an end
1.10 Dervin's Sense Making theory
Dervin (1998) believed that two assumptions can be made to underline human sense making. The two assumptions are:
- reality cannot be complete or constant but instead consist of fundamentals and gaps
- that information is because of human observation therefore it cannot exist independent or external to human
Dervin then identifies four limitations (in terms of physiology of human, past, present, and future time-space,) to human observation. To that end, Dervin realised that the searching and use of information by people can postulated as activities of individual creating of sense. The four constituent elements that divides the sense-making were proposed by Wilson (1999):
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Figure 1.11: Dervin's Sense Making Theory Source: Kundu, (2017)
- the context defined by space and time where information problem arises
- the gap because of realisation between of an equivocal between the actual context and the desired situation
- the outcome situation the activities of creating sense
- the bridge that facilitates to close the gap between the actual context situation and the desired outcome situation.
1.11 Bates model of information seeking
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Figure 1.12: Bate Mode of information seeking Source: Bate (2003)
The four-part integrated modes of seeking information were proposed by Bates (2003). According to Bates (2003), the four modes are:
- Awareness (cell a): is the undirected inert searching behaviour that assist us to know everything.
- Monitoring (cell b): is a reflexive which is directed and according to Bates individuals maintains some level of metal alertness with regards to things that answers our question as well as things of interest to us.
- Browsing (cell c): is the complementary opposite of monitor.
- Searching (Cell d): is a directed searching behaviour to find answers or develop individuals understanding on a particular question or topic.
Bates contends that the two inert modes that is awareness and monitoring of information searching behaviour are responsible for many people information generation during their lifetime. Thus, to Bates people basically generate and search information from (cells a & c) that is sampling and selecting modes as well as from (cells b & d) which represent the passive adoption. When people established their information needs, they generally either search for it (cell a) or monitor environmental information for it (cell b). Only when people have not established or define their information needs that they utilise browse (cell c) or remain passively aware (cell d). Therefore, it is a human tendency to gather information passively through absorption from the environment, or actively through sampling and selection.
1.12 Leckie et al (1996) information searching model of Professionals
Leckie et al (1996) proposed a general model of professionals’ information searching behaviour.
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Figure 1.13: Leckie et al (1996) model of professional’s information searching Source: Leckie et al (1996)
To Leckie et al (1996) work requirements and associate tasks undertaken by professionals in their day-to-day job execution generates specific needs of information and information search processes or behaviour. Thus, Leckie et al., (1996) highlights that professional searching and use of information is mostly influenced by various interacting variables such as context of information, frequency, predictability, its vital, and complexity, age, profession, specialisation, career stage, and geographical area. Six components constitute Leckie et al., (1996) model:
- work requirements
- tasks associated with work
- the nature of information needs and the factors influencing the searching of information
- awareness
- sources
- outcomes
Leckie et al. (1996) further highlights those professional needs of information is because of a professional given a specific task to perform as part of his/her work roles.
The authors also emphasize that quite several factors which includes information sources, information awareness, and information searching process outcomes influence professionals’ information searching behaviour.
1.13 Cheuk Wai-Yi's (1998) Information Seeking and Using Process Model
Dervin's model of Sense Making Processes is the foundation to the Cheuk Wai-Yi's (1998) information seeking and using (ISU) process model. Cheuk Wai-Yi's ISU model reveals the different behaviour everyone in information searching situation demonstrate. From Cheuk Wai-Yi's ISU model searching and use behaviour of people give rise to information need. Cheuk Wai-Yi's ISU model highlights seven aspects for unearthing situation of searching and use of information by people as:
- the initiation of task
- forming of task focus
- assuming of task ideas
- confirming of task ideas
- rejecting of some of the task ideas
- ideas finalising of task ideas - the passing on of task ideas
The searching of information aspects comprising of:
- the choice and use of various sources of information
- criteria for judging the relevance of information
- organisation and strategies of presenting information
- feelings attributed to information
- individuals’ information definition
Cheuk Wai-Yi through theory that underpin his model established the relationship between the seven situations mentioned above and the aspects of people information searching. Again Cheuk Wai-Yi also highlights that people move between the seven situations in multidirectional paths. Furthermore, Cheuk Wai-Yi argues that the multidirectional movement of people between the seven situation makes people searching and use of information predictable and systematic. Also, according to Cheuk Wai-Yi assert that although people of the same profession may use similar channels and sources of information however, there is variation in information needs (Cheuk Wai-Yi, 1998; 2000).
1.14 Optimal Foraging Theory by Sandstrom (1994)
The term "information foraging" was framed by Sandstrom (1994) represent assessing and searching processes as well as handling of information sources in a networked setup. Sandstrom perceived that the seeking of information by individuals are fuelled by self-interest thereby making individualism factors vital in people searching of information and sources of information. According to Sandstrom individuals’ self-interest are based on some specific goal that defines the content of the individuals' choices. Sandstrom also outlined two types of continuum strategies of foraging information by individual:
- the specialist’s type: where the searching focuses on a single high density 'patch' of sources encountered via informal communication and draw heavily on sources in their personal collections.
- the generalist’s type: where one gather from a wider different source of “patches”, an approach requiring deliberate and an intensive searching technique.
Sandstrom assert that the optimal foraging theory offers a study approach in terms of quantitative and behavioural strategy to study a complex social phenomenon. To Sandstrom the optimal information theory assists in operationalising concepts such as goals, currencies, alternative strategies, and specific tactics in the context of researchers' pursuit and creation of information. The optimal information theory also serves as a vehicle and a motivation to formulate and test hypotheses about researchers' decision making and environmental constraints (Sandstrom,1999).
1.15 Blom's Task Performance Model
The Task Performance Model that studies factors that impact consulting engineers’ behaviour in work environment needs and searching of information was developed by Blom (1983). Blom's model came about because of his research work into scientists' need and use of information.
The following hypothesis guided Blom's study:
- that the main objective of establishing an information service is to contribute to successful task performance of the potential users of such a service.
- information is an input to problem solving, decision making, planning, any planned activity, or to the increase of knowledge.
- information is an input to problem solving, decision making, planning, any planned activity, or to the increase of knowledge.
- information needs or task performance needs are the requirements for information to fulfil a certain task.
Blom considered the following factors are in interaction with each other: the purpose, problem area, and methods of the scientific discipline environmental factors, especially in an employing organisation the personal attributes of the scientist. Indicating that the demands placed on an information service is given precedence over the demands of the user.
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Figure 1.14: Blom (1983) scientific communication system. Source: Kundu (2017)
Figure (1.14) above shows that the task of the scientist is always performed within the context of the scientific discipline; the environment; and the scientist as an individual. To Blom the process used by scientist to conduct research can be summarised into the following steps: statement of problem, approaches, gathering of relevant data, analysis and synthesis, report, and the application in practice. Blom highlights also that the approaches used by scientist in carrying out research is the same approaches that information searches use in seeking information need. Blom further explains that the key important environmental factors that influence scientists task performance is his/her information needs concerned with the employing organisation. Also, important influence on the mutual exchange of information is interpersonal relations and social intercourse, as well as patterns of friendship within the organisation.
1.16 Behavioural Model of Information Seeking on the Web by Choo's (1998)
Based on Ellis's (1989) model of searching information and Aguillar's (1967) environmental scanning modes, Choo et al (1998) developed a behavioural model of searching information on the Web. It is a model that addresses behaviour of information searchers, and it is also similar in terms of the elements that constitute the model to Aguillar's (1967) modes of environmental scanning. By extending Aguilar's (1967) model and combined with Ellis's information searching behaviour model, Choo was able to outline four modes that characterised information searchers on the Websites as:
- browsers who are undirected
- browsers who are conditioned
- informal searchers
- formal searchers.
Choo's model serves as a systematic approach to studying the relationship between needs of information, search strategies and tactics on the Website (Choo, 2001).
1.17 Comparison between the different information seeking behaviour models
Figure (1.15) shows Kundu (2017) summarised comparison of the different information seeking behaviour models.
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Figure 2.15: Table of Kundu (2017) summarised comparison of information seeking models.
Kundu (2017) highlights that:
Ellis's (1989) and Kuhlthau's (1993) models of searching information symbolises the patterns of searching information by users of information. The symbolisation of the various processes of searching information such as browsing or monitoring according to Kundu can help for example in gaining insights into how engineers search information. Kundu (2017) noted that Kuhlthau's model of information searching behaviour outlined in detail the cognitive and affective stages in the active information seeking. The similarities and the differences between Ellis and Kuhlthau models are that Ellis outlines the modes of exploiting or investigating information seeking. Furthermore, Kundu explains that the postulating of the stages of searching of information by Kuhlthau is based on her analysis of information behaviour, whereas Ellis asserts that there is variation in the sequences of behavioural characteristics which may depend on the individual.
Wilson integrated Ellis's "behavioural characteristics" of searching information to describe processes of searching information such as "active search" and "on-going search". Kundu (2017) also assert that Sandstrom's (1994) optimal foraging theory assist in explaining specific and give insights into the behavioural processes of individuals gathering information on online step-up. Kundu again highlights that although Dervin's (1983) Sensemaking model is the basis of Cheuk Wai-Yi's (1998) ISU Process model, however, Kundu noted that the strength of Cheuk Wai-Yi's model stem from the fact that the model highlights the relationship between various situations that individuals gather experience in their workplaces, their use and choice of information sources. Information searching behaviour model by Choo's (1998) according to Kundu is well suited for explaining the searching of information by people on the World Wide Web but is also well suited for explaining the information searching behaviours in various information seeking environments such as the business environment.
1.18 Factors that influence the searching of information
According to Heinstrom (2005:229) the searching of information behaviour¨ of people is not static but rather its variation is dependent on individual situation such as the attitude, motivation and mood of the individual seeking the information. In the same vein, Heinstrom (2005:229) points out that¨ several factors (e.g., individual characteristics, the urgency of the required information, the availability of information need sources, etc) may influence information seeking behaviour. It is evident from information seeking behaviour related models outlined above, that socio-economic characteristics also impact needs and searching of information. Also, the sources and awareness of information influence the behaviour of searching information. In addition, Hargittai and Hinnant (2006:58) cautioned that variables such as socio-economic background, gender, age, and education have potential to influence individual's behaviour and as such they should not be ignored when studying human searching of information behaviour.
Case (2007) explains that individual’s gravities towards searching of information that is familiar with their existing knowledge, beliefs and opinions and may circumvent knowledge that is contrast to their mindset. Also, people may assimilate and accommodate new information if is consistence with prior knowledge. Thus, information seekers prior knowledge can be viewed as a critical factor that influence the searching of information behaviour. Again, there is tendency on the part of individuals to search information that is in line with their current existing knowledge. Moreover, affections can also be an issue that impact individual behaviour of searching of information. Preece (2007: xvi) asserts that instinctively there is an engraved emotions and affections within individuals which influence the way people process information and thereby evade information that may affect their emotions. Savolainen (2006) note and reveal time as a key factor to people searching of information. Savolainen also discusses how time can be qualifier of information access and how it is an indicator of process of searching of information.
1.19 Motivation of information seeker
As explained by several information seeking behaviour authors (Case, 2005; Gardiner et al., 2006; Savolainen, 2006) accessibility motivates information seekers to sought, found, and used information. Highlighting that people will seek information that's easily accessible, which Hertzum (2002) and Case (2005) termed it as the Zipf's principle of least effort. Gardiner et al (2006:356-357) outline various circumstances that deject people in using available electronic information service as:
- Payment: most of the time information seekers are not prepared to purchase information from sources of information.
- Non-readability of some of the information obtained from electronic sources.
- Issues of interfaces in terms of accessibility and retrievals associated with electronic sources of information.
- Issue of how information is scattered with regards to electronic sources of information.
- Issue of reliability and authenticity of electronic sources of information such as internet since anyone can post any information.
- Due to information overload on electronic sources, there is an issue of time required to access information.
1.20 Linking information seeking and communication
Wilson (1999) asserts that the main aim of behavioural searching of information studies, is on the known or unknown communications of the searcher of information. According to Wilson, although the information seeker, sources are considered very important in research in communication studies, however the communicator of the information and the channels of communication are equally important in communication studies.
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Figure .17: Linking information seeking and communication. Source: Wilson (1999)
Figure (1.17) shows the overall interconnection between behaviour of information searcher and communication. The Figure (1.17) also reveals how Wilson links the communicator (originator of information) over the communication channels thereby revealing how the communicator gets to know recipients' feedback through the loops of the communication.
1.21 Methods for measuring information needs, information seeking patterns and sources
The use of questionnaire and interview techniques in survey research remain high in various studies on information needs, patterns, and sources (Borlund, 2016, Missingham, 2016; Waseem, 2017). The two research techniques embedded in surveys are normally used to assess the extent to which various sources and services are used, from the assessment conclusions are drawn about nature of information users, their needs of information, sources, and patterns of searching.
1.22 Information use
The use of information has explained by Choo et al., (2000:14) and Savolainen (2009:187), to be when the user of information processes the information received through the mind set and emotional responses within a larger social and cultural context, and the outcome results in the knowledge empowerment of the individual to solving of a problem, decide, or negotiate a position. Choo et al., (2000:15-16) also summarised the use of information by people into eight categories as:
- Empowerment or enlightenment: where the user of information uses the received information either to develop a context or to make sense of a situation. Normally the received information is used to answer questions like 'What are they? Are there similar situations?' etc.
- Understanding of issues or problems: this is where the user of information uses the information received in a precise way of understanding the dynamics of a particular problem
- Instruction or instrument: where the received information is used as an instrument normally in the form of instruction to know what to do and how to do it
- Accuracy: where the received information is used to examine the truthfulness or reliability of a phenomenon or event to describe reality
- Verification: where the received information is used to confirm or seek a second opinion on another piece of information
- Prediction: where the received information is used to make probable happenings into the future
- Impetus: is where the received information is used to motivate, initiate, and sustain individual to move or follow a particular course of action
- Personal or political: is where the received information is used to build relationships; enhance status, reputation, and personal fulfilment.
The theoretics outlined by the constructivists and the processing of information approaches used by people guided Savolainen (2009) to describe information use processes. Savolainen explanation was achieved by comparing major factors of use of information, information use phases and strategies. By establishing that the theoretics outlined by the constructivists and the processing of information approaches used by people are like the assumption that interpret or compare qualities of things, Savolainen concluded that they are fundamental to the process of information use. Based on Savolainen (2009) assumption, Choo et al., (2000:1621) proposed the tripartite model of use of information and describe the dimensions as follows:
- Cognitive dimension: this describes the stage individual use and process of information impacted and measured by personality traits such as introversion or extraversion, sensing, or intuition, thinking or feeling, and judging or perceiving.
- Affective dimension: this describe the stage where the use of information is met with carefulness to circumvent any embarrassment, conflict or regret and maintain self-image.
- Situational dimension: this dimension represents the stage where the use of information is guided by rules and policies such as records keeping
Abbildung in dieser Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 1.18: Tripartite Model of Use of Information Source: Choo et al., (2004)
1.23 Channels of communication
To Rogers (1983) communication is creating and sharing of information between individuals to reach a mutual understanding. Rogers further assert that the main aim of communication is to exchange information, thus, communication process requires channels to connect the sender and the receiver. Rogers (1983) also highlights that a channel of communication is the instruments by which a message is conveyed from the originator of the message to receiver. The channel of communication does have impact as well as it also determines the conditions the information sender will send the information to the recipient, how the recipient will interpret the information and the effects of the transfer.
Wilson's searching of information behaviour model reveals that the behaviour of individuals searching for information also include the exchange of information between people, and that behaviour is believed to include using of communication channels to exchange information.
1.24 Mass media
According to Leeuwis (2004:190) four dominant channels makes up the conventional media:
- Textual: print media such as books, newspapers, journals, flyers, brochures, and others.
- Auditory: where information is transmitter through sound media such as radio, speech, songs, cassettes, storytelling, etc.
- Visual: posters, drawings, slide shows, etc.
- Combinations: where different channels such as audio visual, television, theatre, drama, etc., are combined to transmit information
1.25 Interpersonal channels
Leeuwis (2004:190) further observed that interpersonal communication such group or bilateral meetings/discussions as well as face-to-face serves to exchange of information between two or more individuals.
1.26 Hybrid media
Again Leeuwis, (2004) explains that ICT possess inherent potential of facilitating, mass storage and combining mass media such as radio, television, Compact Disc-Read Only Memory (CD-ROM), Disc-Read-interactive (CD-i), videotext, electronic conferencing, the internet, etc., and of interpersonal communication, to transmit information and simultaneously enable communication between many people in different places. More so ICT tool internet alone possess global reaching tools such as the World Wide Web (www), electronic mail (e-mail), newsgroups, social networking sites, chat rooms, and many other forms of efficient communication. Making ICT adoption in agriculture paramount because of its inherent potentials such as mass storage that agricultural extension services and scholars can utilise for dissemination of agricultural information to farmers.
1.27 Information divide between urban-rural areas in developing nations
Despite the many benefits of access to information in development of individual and society at large, Jeffrey (2008) notices the tendency of uneven information access that exist between urban and rural areas in most developing nations long before the digital revolution. According to Chetty et al (2018) these gaps emanate from several factors such as high illiteracy, geographical isolation, etc of rural areas in developing nations.
To illustrate the enormous gaps that between urban-rural areas in developing nations, Lagakos (2020) assert that living standards, measured in terms of finance, consumption, or other non-financial characteristics of life is a prominent feature that gives virtual reality of urban-rural divide in developing nations.
This image was removed by the editorial team due to copyright reasons.
Figure 1.19: Urban-rural living standards in Nigeria and India Source: Lagakos (2020).
Figure (1.19) gives comparisons of livelihood standards of urban-rural gaps of the most populous nations in Africa and South Asia, Nigeria, and India respectively. The statistics was compiled and calculated in 2018 from the socio-economic characteristics and health surveys, funded by the US Association for International Development. In a case of an adult, a body mass index (BMI) of less than 18.5 percent indicates a serious malnutrition. The findings indicated that in both nations the chance of an adult having a low BMI would be about 50 percent higher in rural areas than in urban areas.
1.28 Rural-urban digital divide in developing nations
Adoption and utilisation of ICT in the information-based society era is critical. Non-use and non-access to these technologies may lead to perceived isolation from the rapidly predominant means of communication and commerce (World Economic Forum, 2016). However, International Telecommunications Report (ITU, 2017) indicates that 3.9 billion representing more than half of the world's population do have access to internet. It is asserted that the population offline are in developing nations where it is also believed majority are in the rural areas.
Chapter 2: Concepts as it relates to the framework
This chapter explains the concepts of information, needs of information, information searching and use, central to the framework. Starting with the concept of information, the framework adopts MaCreadie and Rice (1999) assumptions, the ideas expressed by Kaniki (2003), and Gory and Scott-Morton (2001) definition of information explained in the previous chapter.
2.1 Information needs and access
According to Said (2003) information need is the necessity of knowledge (Which can be in the form of data, facts, ideas) for a specific goal. Maepa (2000) contents that when it to comes to the subject the need of information and access to information, is not about knowledge gap only, but it also assumes the linkage between the need and usage of information. Maepa (2000) further highlights that once individual outlined his or her needs with regards to the required information, then directly or indirectly the individual positions themselves to identify the source(s), media, or channels to access the information require. Thus, as pointed out by Okon (2015) that the requirement to understand the practices of information exchange of the target community members gives a brighter portrait of the CE. Therefore, it is essential for assessment of information needs before understanding ICT usage and barriers.
2.2 Pattern of seeking, contents, and themes of information
Wilson (1999) explains that the patterns of searching information by individuals is the intentional searching for information to satisfy a certain purpose. One key insight that Wilson (1999) explanation of patterns of searching information gives is that, when people dictate their goals with reference to their information needs contents and themes; and where to access the information they require they then choose the best medium or media to gain the information. Implying that the complexities and dynamics of the content and themes of information needs of individuals will automatically determine the appropriate medium or media to use. Selwyn (2003) highlights that the need factor influence technology allocation in individual's life. Chapman and Slaymaker (2003) contends that the usage of ICT among a community can reached its full potential if the ICT application information services have the necessary locally contents of information. Similarly, DiMaggio and Hargittai (2001) proposed that if users see ICT fulfilling a purpose for them, its adoption will surge if not it will be quickly rejected. Furthermore, considering Meyer, (2003) assertion that it easily becomes the norm for people within a community where oral cultural practice is a norm to exchange information orally and a such community members also becomes a key source of information. Thus, this practice will inevitably influence or drive usage of certain type of ICT devices. Hence, assessment of information seeking behaviour; content and themes also becomes critical prior to understanding of ICT access, usage, and barrier.
2.3 Technology adoption models and theories of diffusion
From the work of Straub (2009), the adoption theory can be explicated to be that it studies individual and their choices to either accept or reject certain innovation. As some models of adoption contends, regarding adoption is not only relating to the choice to either accept or reject an innovation but as well factors of appropriate context integration. Further to this, Straub (2009:625) reasons that adoption theory is restricted regarding perspective on change, as it only place emphases on pieces that makes up the whole but not the whole. Diffusion theory contrast to adoption theory, Straub (2009) explicates that it takes macro-perspective which extend to factors such as time and social pressures to reveal how an innovation adoption spreads through a population. There is a generally understanding that cut across the works of (Davis, 1989; Roger, 1995; Straub, 2009) that individual and organisation’s technology adoption and use is inherently social, developmental, and complex process. Thus, introducing new technology to a community will be met with different reactions from the community members as some will be keenly to adopt and use while others will resist. As a result, Kalusopa (2011:50) highlights that the success of ICT uptake and use by individuals, organisations and communities should be viewed as a need addressing cognitive, emotional, and contextual concerns. Diffusion and adoption usage in this work signifies uptake and use of ICT. Although there exist many developed models or theories that explains individuals and organisations uptake and use of technology from various knowledge fields, however few of those pertaining to the current work are presented.
2.4 Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT)
Literature points Rogers (1962) as a pioneer in diffusion of Innovation (DoI) framework for studying ICT adoption. As a follow up to DoI Rogers (2003) outlined four main elements in the DIT to be the innovations, communication channels, time, and the social system. According to Rogers, (2005) the DIT outlines five innovation characteristics of ICT that defined individuals rate of adoption:
- Usefulness and advantages to be derived: it highlights perception of the innovation usefulness and the relative advantages to be derived from the innovation
- Compatibility: it characterised potential users’ degree of perception of the innovation satisfying and in align with existing needs and value
- Observability: highlights visibility of the innovation results in public domain
- Complexity: talks how potential users perceived the innovation to be easily usable and understand
- Trialability: highlights users’ perception of the degree of ease to exploring the innovation.
DIT is useful in assessing ICT adoption among rural communities because the theory explains the social network role to ICT adoption among community members by highlighting that members of the community who have adopted ICT encourages other members to also adopt.
2.5 Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Davis (1998) has been accredited as the one who proposed the TAM to explain the determinants of the acceptance and use of software and information systems within organizations. Although TAM is like DIT but the external factors such as beliefs, attitudes, etc., that TAM places emphasis on separates the two frameworks. The TAM framework is relevant to the study of ICT adoption in rural communities as the perceptions of the community members on ICT usefulness will influence their decision to use or adopt ICT. Therefore, perceptions may serve as a motivator or as a barrier to ICT adoption among rural community members.
2.6 The Communicative Ecology framework and key concepts definition
Altheide (1994) introduced the communication ecology. Tacchi, Slater, and Hearn (2003) further developed and defined the term Communicative Ecology (CE) to be the procedures that individual engage with their social networks through various systematised types of media. With media representing all channels involving human and technology by which individual gets informed. Tacchi et al., (2003) also points out that despite the fact media forms an integral part of CE however, since is people and institutions create information, interprets information, store information, disseminate and use information, makes the two critical to the framework of CE. To Hearn and Pace (2006) by CE recognising the vital role of inter-relationships between different communication channels and between different social dimensions makes the CE a holistic framework. The three different layers in a CE framework was identified by Foth (2006) to be:
- technical: involves all media and connecting devices that makes communication to be realised
- social: represents all social networks such as institutions, community
- discursive: the content which is the themes defining the narratives of the CE.
2.6.1 Access and information need
According to Said (2003) information need is the necessity of knowledge (Which can be in the form of data, facts, ideas) for a specific goal. Maepa (2000) contents when it to comes to the subject the need of information and access to information, is not about knowledge gap only, but it also assumes the linkage between the need and usage of information. Further highlighting that once individual outlined his or her needs with regards to the required information, then directly or indirectly the individual positions themselves to identify the source(s), media, or channels to access the information require. Thus, as pointed out by Okon (2015) that the requirement to understand the practices of information exchange of the target community members gives a brighter portrait of the CE. Therefore, it is essential for assessment of information needs before understanding ICT usage and barriers.
2.6.2 Pattern of seeking, contents, and themes of information
Wilson (1999) explains that the patterns of searching information by individuals is the intentional searching for information to satisfy a certain purpose. One key insight that of Wilson (1999) explanation of patterns of searching information gives is that, when people dictate their goals with reference to their information needs contents and themes; and where to access the information they require they then choose the best medium or media to gain the information. Implying that the complexities and dynamics of the content and themes of information needs of individuals will automatically determine the appropriate medium or media to use. Selwyn (2003) highlights that the need factor influence technology allocation in individual's life. Chapman and Slaymaker (2003) contends that the usage of ICT among a community can reached its full potential if the ICT application information services have the necessary locally contents of information. Similarly, DiMaggio and Hargittai (2001) proposed that if users see ICT fulfilling a purpose for them, its adoption will surge if not it will be quickly rejected. Furthermore, considering Meyer, (2003) assertion that it easily becomes the norm for people within a community where oral cultural practice is a norm to exchange information orally and such community members also becomes a key source of information. Thus, this practice will inevitably influence or drive usage of certain type of ICT devices. Hence, assessment of information seeking behaviour; content and themes also becomes critical prior to understanding of ICT access, usage, and barrier.
Chapter 3: The proposed framework and the technical stages
This section details the conceptual framework and identify the technical stages involved in. It also covers the generalisation of the framework, the theorising of the framework and the use of Design Science Research (DSR) paradigm in the development and evaluation of the framework.
3.1 The conceptual framework
The combined framework of CE and TAM in this study is structured along the three layers identified by Foth (2006). The framework examines the information environment of the rural community members by exploring information needs, information seeking patterns leading to information contents and themes; then followed by assessing perception of ICT and secondly focuses on the technologies by exploring the type and ICT usage among the community members to seek their information needs. From the framework of TAM and CE described in the previous chapter, the conceptual framework in figure (3.3) below is proposed. TAM use in this framework, ponder the behavioural control as to whether an individual has access to ICT. Therefore, the conceptual framework proposed is underpinned by the insight that perceived behavioural control, perceived ease of use, and perceived usefulness to define individual's behavioural intention will lead to behaviour. These conceptual ponders are expressed as whether individuals have access to ICT devices, and whether they perceive its use to be beneficial to them.
[...]
- Quote paper
- Agyei Fosu (Author), 2022, The contemporary era information streaming and developing nations deep isolated rural communities. A conceptual framework, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1288657
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