Heresy and orthodoxy are problematic terms to refer to in Islam since this religion does not sustain authorities, councils, synods, or organs which a vast Muslim majority recognizes and which are entitled to direct orthodoxy—a necessary guideline to be able to determine what is heresy. Instead it is the ‘Consensus’ among Muslims and scholars which constitutes the “supreme authority in all questions of religious practice.” However, the term heresy is not unknown in Muslim circles. The Arabic language knows many different words describing ‘heresy,’ but none of them can be used as a synonym for the term as employed by the Christian Churches; to express this term explicitly, they had to introduce a word from European or Christian origin: “hartagqa,” “hurtuqi” “hartiqi.” Sectarianism started very early after the advent of Islam, under the reign of the Umayyads. Bernard Lewis’ article “Some Observations on the Significance of Heresy in the History of Islam” shows, that Islamic history and early Islamic documents illustrate a discussion about the connection between heresy and sectarianism. Generally speaking, heresy was applied to sectarians in a rather loosely manner: “the sectarian, though some of his doctrines may in time be excluded by the cumulative force of the Consensus from the main stream of Islam, is still a Muslim.” The following essay will explore sectarianism under the Umayyads and ‘Abbasids, continually referring to the terms of orthodoxy and heresy. It will analyse political and religious opposition offered by the various non-Sunni factions.
Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Sectarianism and Definitions of Orthodoxy and Heresy
1.1 Defining Heresy and Orthodoxy in an Islamic Context
1.2 Sectarianism under the Umayyads and ‘Abbasids
2. The Umayyad Caliphate and the Formation of Sunni Identity
2.1 Political Structure and Social Stratification
2.2 The Rise of Early Opposition: Kharijism and Shi’ism
3. The ‘Abbasid Revolution and Doctrinal Shifts
3.1 Ideological Justifications and Shi’ite Expectations
3.2 The Iranian Connection and Social Religious Hopes
4. Minor Sectarian Groups and Long-term Developments
4.1 The Role of Isma’ilis and Other Minor Branches
4.2 Maturation of Sectarian Identities toward the 10th Century
Research Objective and Core Themes
The primary objective of this work is to explore the evolution of sectarianism during the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties, specifically analyzing how concepts of orthodoxy and heresy shaped the identities of various Islamic factions.
- The fluid definitions of heresy and consensus within early Islamic society.
- The impact of the Umayyad caliphate on the formation of a distinct Sunni identity.
- The emergence of Kharijism and Shi’ism as primary oppositional movements.
- The role of the ‘Abbasid revolution in shifting ideological and religious allegiances.
- The social and political factors driving sectarian differentiation in the first centuries of Islam.
Excerpt from the Book
Heresy and orthodoxy are problematic terms to refer to in Islam
Heresy and orthodoxy are problematic terms to refer to in Islam since this religion does not sustain authorities, councils, synods, or organs which a vast Muslim majority recognizes and which are entitled to direct orthodoxy—a necessary guideline to be able to determine what is heresy. Instead it is the ‘Consensus’ among Muslims and scholars which constitutes the “supreme authority in all questions of religious practice.” However, the term heresy is not unknown in Muslim circles. The Arabic language knows many different words describing ‘heresy,’ but none of them can be used as a synonym for the term as employed by the Christian Churches; to express this term explicitly, they had to introduce a word from European or Christian origin: “hartagqa,” “hurtuqi” “hartiqi.” Sectarianism started very early after the advent of Islam, under the reign of the Umayyads. Bernard Lewis’ article “Some Observations on the Significance of Heresy in the History of Islam” shows, that Islamic history and early Islamic documents illustrate a discussion about the connection between heresy and sectarianism. Generally speaking, heresy was applied to sectarians in a rather loosely manner: “the sectarian, though some of his doctrines may in time be excluded by the cumulative force of the Consensus from the main stream of Islam, is still a Muslim.” The following essay will explore sectarianism under the Umayyads and ‘Abbasids, continually referring to the terms of orthodoxy and heresy. It will analyse political and religious opposition offered by the various non-Sunni factions.
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction to Sectarianism and Definitions of Orthodoxy and Heresy: This chapter establishes the conceptual framework by explaining why traditional Western definitions of heresy are difficult to apply to the Islamic context, highlighting the role of communal consensus.
2. The Umayyad Caliphate and the Formation of Sunni Identity: This section details how the socio-political structures of the Umayyad period, characterized by Arab exclusivity, triggered early resistance movements like Kharijism and Shi’ism.
3. The ‘Abbasid Revolution and Doctrinal Shifts: This chapter analyzes the transition from Umayyad to ‘Abbasid rule, focusing on how the ideological promises of the revolution initially attracted diverse groups before ultimately leading to further sectarian divergence.
4. Minor Sectarian Groups and Long-term Developments: The final section discusses the emergence of smaller sects such as the Isma’ilis and reflects on the maturation of these groups into defined religious identities by the 10th century.
Keywords
Sectarianism, Islam, Umayyads, ‘Abbasids, Orthodoxy, Heresy, Consensus, Kharijism, Shi’ism, Sunni identity, Political opposition, Religious factions, Isma’ilis, Islamic history, Doctrine.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the central focus of this academic paper?
The paper focuses on the development of sectarian identities within the early Islamic period, specifically under the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid dynasties.
What are the primary themes discussed in the text?
Key themes include the evolution of the concept of 'consensus' in Islam, the rise of opposition movements like Shi’ism and Kharijism, and the socio-political motivations behind various rebellions.
What is the main research question or objective?
The objective is to analyze how political and religious opposition during the Umayyad and ‘Abbasid eras contributed to the formation of the diverse sectarian landscape of early Islam.
Which scientific methodology is utilized in this study?
The paper utilizes a historical-analytical approach, drawing upon existing academic literature and contemporary historical sources to evaluate shifts in religious doctrine and political legitimacy.
What topics are covered in the main body of the work?
The main body examines the structural discrimination under the Umayyads, the ideological shifts during the ‘Abbasid revolution, and the eventual solidification of groups like the Sunnis and Shi’ites.
Which keywords best characterize this work?
Important keywords include Sectarianism, Islam, Umayyads, ‘Abbasids, Orthodoxy, Heresy, Consensus, Kharijism, and Shi’ism.
How did the concept of 'Arabness' influence the Umayyad caliphate?
The accentuation of 'Arabness' created a social hierarchy that alienated non-Arab converts, fostering hostility and providing the social ground for sectarian opposition.
Why did many Shi’ites turn away from the ‘Abbasid movement?
They turned away because the 'Abbasids failed to provide the promised ideological change and did not appoint a direct descendant of the Prophet as the leader, leading to a sense of betrayal.
- Quote paper
- Sophie Duhnkrack (Author), 2009, Sectarianism under the Umayyads and Abbasids, orthodoxy and heresy, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/141509
