Water contamination is worsening globally due to industrialization and population growth. The pharmaceutical industry significantly contributes to this issue by releasing wastewater containing harmful pollutants. To mitigate this, advanced wastewater treatment technologies are essential. Coagulation is an effective method for treating wastewater, involving the use of natural or chemical coagulants to remove contaminants. However, chemical coagulants pose environmental and health risks due to residual toxicity and sludge disposal issues. As a sustainable alternative, natural coagulants like moringa seed powder, banana peel powder, and soya chunk powder were examined for their effectiveness in treating pharmaceutical wastewater. These coagulants possess dimeric properties that help neutralize and absorb colloidal charges, facilitating pollutant removal.

Leseprobe

ABSTRACT

1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Utilization of water
1.2.1. Irrigation
1.2.2. Industrial Water Use
1.3. Water Resources
1.3.1 Importance of water resources
1.4. Water resource- Wastewaters
1.5. Wastewater Reclamation
1.6. Water Reuse
1.7. Water Recycle
1.8. Water Recovery from Wastewater
1.9. Resources that Can Be Recovered
1.10. Types of Wastewater Treatment
1.10.1. Primary Treatment
1.10.2. Secondary Wastewater Treatment
1.10.3. Tertiary Wastewater Treatment
1.11. Treatment Technologies So Far
1.11.1. Desalination and water reuse technologies
1.11.2. Brine Valorization
1.11.3. Energy from Wastewater Treatment
1.10.4. Nutrient Extraction from Wastewater
1.12. Coagulation
1.13. Coagulants can be synthetic or natural
1.13.1. Synthetic Coagulants
1.13.2. Natural Coagulants
1.14. Objective
1.14.1. Main Objective
1.14.2. Specific Objective

2. Literature Review

3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Materials
3.1.1. Pharmaceutical Wastewater
3.1.2. Natural Coagulants for Water Treatment
3.2. Methods
3.2.1. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
3.2.2. pH optimization
3.2.3. Jar test
3.2.4. Turbidity
3.2.5. Color
3.2.6. Preparation of Activated charcoal
3.2.7. Analytical Methods
3.2.8. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)
3.2.9. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

4. Results & Discussion
4.1. Wastewater Characteristics
4.2. Process of Coagulation
4.2.1. Effect of coagulant dosage
4.2.2. Effect of Coagulant dosage on TDS
4.2.3. Various Coagulants and their pH effect
4.2.4. Comparative study

5. Conclusion

6. References

7. List of figures

ABSTRACT

Attempts were made in this study to examine the effect of three different natural coagulants on pharmaceutical wastewater. A dosage of 0.06 w/v % resulted in TDS reduction of 95% (Moringa Olifera), 97% (Soyabean seeds), and 97% (Banana peels) at optimum pH of 9.7, 9.5, and 9.4, respectively. TDS reduction was found to be extremely dependent on coagulant dosage followed by the sedimentation process. This study recommends its adoption to improve water quality while minimizing environmental harm, offering a viable green solution for wastewater management.

Keywords: Natural Coagulants, TDS, pH, Pharmaceutical Wastewater.

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

Since the dawn of civilization, humans have understood the importance of maintaining a balanced relationship with the environment. Among various environmental concerns, the sustainable management of water resources remains critical due to its essential role in life and economic development. A report presented to the UK Parliament by the Committee on Climate Change warns that 2030 global water demand is expected to exceed supply by a staggering 40%. This projection is particularly alarming given that many nations already face severe freshwater shortages.

A major contributor to this crisis is the extensive industrial consumption of water, which not only depletes freshwater reserves but also threatens environmental sustainability. Industrial processes generate vast quantities of wastewater, which, if not properly treated, can cause severe ecological damage. Despite growing awareness of this issue, achieving safe and sustainable wastewater management remains a significant challenge. Population growth further exacerbates the problem, driving up the demand for clean water. A 2018 report estimated that around two billion people live in regions experiencing high water stress—a number expected to rise as urban expansion accelerates [1].

Drilling operations, particularly in the oil and gas sector, are a notable source of industrial wastewater. These activities require substantial water usage and produce large volumes of contaminated discharge. Research by Hossain et al. on oil-well drilling cost estimation found that water consumption, surface casing, and drilling pad construction account for approximately 18% of initial operational expenses. As freshwater resources become scarcer, these costs are expected to rise, highlighting the urgent need for more efficient and sustainable water management strategies [2].

Urbanization and Its Impact on Water Demand

The rapid pace of industrialization and economic growth, particularly in developing nations, has driven large-scale migration from rural to urban areas. This demographic shift has placed immense pressure on urban water supply systems, leading to a sharp rise in both potable water consumption and wastewater generation. As a result, implementing effective municipal wastewater treatment systems has become essential for environmental compliance and the sustainable reuse of treated water.

The characteristics of domestic wastewater—its quantity and quality—vary based on factors such as population density, economic status, and lifestyle habits. A notable example of municipal wastewater management is found in Oman, a country on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, covering approximately 310,000 square kilometers. In most regions, domestic sewage is collected via septic tankers, while some areas are equipped with sewer systems. Wastewater treatment facilities in Oman employ a multistage process combining physical, chemical, and biological methods. The treated effluent is then repurposed for landscape irrigation and groundwater recharge—an essential measure to prevent saltwater intrusion in coastal areas. Municipal wastewater differs from industrial wastewater due to its diverse range of contaminants, which include both natural and synthetic chemical compounds. Research has explored advanced treatment technologies to effectively degrade micropollutants in municipal wastewater. One promising approach is the modified photo-Fenton treatment, which has demonstrated efficiency in breaking down organic pollutants under neutral pH conditions. Additionally, sustainable wastewater treatment strategies focus on biological nutrient removal and carbon footprint reduction to enhance environmental sustainability [3].

1.2. Utilization of water

1.2.1. Irrigation

Irrigation accounts for the largest share of global freshwater consumption, as agriculture relies on a steady water supply to sustain crop production. The water requirements for irrigation vary based on climatic conditions and crop types. Water-intensive crops like rice and sugarcane demand significant amounts of water, while drought-resistant crops such as millet and sorghum require considerably less. To meet agricultural water demands, surface water sources—rivers, lakes, and reservoirs—are commonly used. Water is often diverted through canal networks, enabling gravity-assisted distribution to fields. However, in regions where farmland is at a higher elevation than the nearest water source, lift irrigation systems are employed, using mechanical pumps to transport water to the required altitude. Historically, both surface and groundwater sources have played a crucial role in expanding irrigation coverage. During the 1968-69 agricultural years, approximately 20.5 million hectare-meters (MHM) of surface water irrigated 1 million hectares of farmland, while 8.0 MHM of groundwater supported the irrigation of 13.2 million hectares. These figures highlight the significance of both resources in sustaining agricultural activities. The total potential for irrigation remains uncertain due to variations in geography, water availability, and infrastructure. However, estimates suggest that up to 106 million hectares could be irrigated, with 72 million hectares relying on surface water and 34 million hectares on groundwater. Expanding irrigation infrastructure could enhance agricultural productivity, ensure food security, and promote sustainable water resource management. With rising food demands and increasing pressure on freshwater supplies, modern irrigation techniques—such as drip irrigation, sprinkler systems, and precision water management is essential. These innovations reduce water wastage while ensuring efficient hydration of crops, contributing to long-term environmental and economic sustainability [4].

1.2.2. Industrial Water Use

Industries rely on water for various operations, including manufacturing, cooling, cleaning, and rinsing. Among all industrial sectors, the energy sector is the largest consumer of water. Maintaining high water quality is crucial, as impurities can reduce efficiency and compromise product quality.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 1.1. Major industrial use of water [5].

To promote sustainability and comply with regulatory standards, industries must adopt effective water management strategies, such as proper treatment, recycling, and wastewater minimization. These measures help reduce environmental impact, optimize resource use, and support long-term industrial sustainability [5].

1.3. Water Resources

Water resources include all naturally occurring bodies of water, encompassing both surface water and groundwater. They are essential for human survival, agriculture, industry, and ecosystems, providing drinking water, supporting biodiversity, and helping regulate climate and weather patterns. Water resources can be classified based on their location and characteristics, allowing for better management and conservation efforts to ensure sustainable use for future generations [6].

Types of water resources

Surface Water- It includes all water bodies on Earth’s surface and is essential for the hydrological cycle. Major types include:

Oceans: Cover 71% of Earth, contain saline water, regulate climate, and support marine life.

Rivers: Flowing freshwater sources from springs, glaciers, or rainfall, crucial for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power.

Lakes: Enclosed freshwater or saline bodies formed by geological processes, vital for biodiversity, recreation, and water storage.

Glaciers & Ice Caps: Frozen freshwater reserves that release water into rivers and lakes, significantly contributing to freshwater supply.

Wetlands: Water-saturated areas like marshes and swamps that filter water, prevent floods, and support diverse ecosystems.

Groundwater: Groundwater is freshwater stored beneath the Earth's surface in soil pores and rock formations, crucial in areas with limited surface water. Key components include:

Aquifers: Underground layers of rock, sand, or gravel that store and transmit water, supplying wells and springs for drinking and irrigation.

Water Table: The upper level of saturated underground water, varying in depth due to rainfall, geology, and human usage.

1.3.1 Importance of water resources

Human Needs: Water is vital for a multitude of essential activities, including drinking, sanitation, agriculture, industry, and recreational pursuits.

Environmental Needs: Water plays a critical role in supporting ecosystems, regulating climate, and creating habitats for diverse species.

Sustainability: Effective management of water resources is crucial for ensuring their availability and quality for future generations.

Water Resources Management: This encompasses the planning, development, and administration of both water quantity and quality to meet the needs of all users.

1.4. Water resource- Wastewaters

Wastewater, commonly referred to as sewage, can be classified into three main categories: domestic, industrial, and agricultural, each possessing distinct characteristics and treatment requirements [7,8].

Types of Wastewaters

Domestic Wastewater: This type is generated from residential sources, including water from toilets, sinks, showers, and washing machines. It typically contains human waste, food remnants, and various cleaning agents.

Industrial Wastewater: This wastewater originates from industrial operations, such as manufacturing and processing facilities. It often has higher concentrations of chemicals and pollutants compared to domestic wastewater.

Agricultural Wastewater: This category includes wastewater produced from farming activities, such as irrigation runoff and animal waste. It may contain fertilizers, pesticides, and other agricultural chemicals.

Greywater: This refers to wastewater produced from sources other than toilets, including sinks, showers, and laundry. Greywater can potentially be treated and reused.

Blackwater: This is a type of wastewater that contains fecal matter and urine, typically sourced from toilets.

Stormwater: This consists of rainwater runoff that flows over land and into storm drains, often carrying various pollutants.

Sludge: The solid residue that accumulates in sewage treatment plants is known as sludge (or biosolids).

1.5. Wastewater Reclamation

Wastewater reclamation has long been recognized as a crucial strategy for conserving this essential resource for future generations. It remains a key focus for industries, as it not only helps reduce operational costs but also minimizes wastewater discharge and the generation of solid sludge. However, wastewater treatment processes are often energy-intensive and come with associated risks, making proper treatment and management essential. In recent years, green chemistry has introduced innovative solutions to enhance water treatment processes. This approach promotes the use of sustainable, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly agents such as microorganisms, enzymes, sunlight, electrons, and various discarded solid wastes from industrial, agricultural, and municipal sources. These agents help capture and degrade water pollutants efficiently, reducing the reliance on conventional chemical treatments. Additionally, the integration of nanotechnology with traditional purification techniques has significantly improved the sustainability and efficiency of existing wastewater treatment methods.

Despite the numerous advancements in wastewater treatment technologies, no single method has proven to be entirely sufficient in resolving all purification challenges. Therefore, an integrated approach is necessary to shift the perspective from simply “treating” wastewater to “profitable utilization” of reclaimed water. Furthermore, fostering strong collaboration between industries and academic institutions is essential to accelerate the development and implementation of innovative wastewater treatment solutions as they become available [9].

1.6. Water Reuse

Water reuse, also referred to as water recycling or reclamation, involves the intentional collection, treatment, and repurposing of wastewater or other water sources for beneficial uses. These uses may include irrigation, industrial processes, groundwater replenishment, and other applications that promote resource conservation and cost savings. The primary objective of water reuse is to enhance water efficiency and sustainability by transforming wastewater or non-potable sources into viable alternative water supplies. Common sources of reusable water include wastewater, stormwater, saltwater, and greywater. Once properly treated and separated, this reclaimed water can be utilized for various applications, such as agriculture and irrigation, industrial operations, toilet flushing, groundwater recharge, and environmental restoration. By adopting water reuse strategies, communities and industries can reduce freshwater consumption, mitigate water scarcity challenges, and promote long-term environmental sustainability [10].

Types of water reuse

Indirect Potable Reuse (IPR): Wastewater undergoes treatment and is then integrated into natural environmental systems, such as rivers or reservoirs before being used as a source of drinking water. This process allows for additional natural filtration and dilution before consumption.

Direct Potable Reuse (DPR): Treated wastewater is directly introduced into the potable water supply system without passing through natural bodies of water. This method requires advanced purification technologies to ensure the water meets drinking standards before distribution.

Non-Potable Reuse: Reclaimed wastewater is utilized for applications that do not require drinking water quality, such as agricultural irrigation, industrial processes, toilet flushing, and landscape maintenance. This approach helps conserve freshwater resources by repurposing treated wastewater for everyday non-consumptive needs.

Benefits of Water Reuse

Resource Conservation: Water reuse helps alleviate pressure on freshwater sources, which are becoming increasingly limited, by reducing the need for new water extraction.

Environmental Protection: By reusing water, we minimize the discharge of treated wastewater into natural ecosystems, thereby helping to preserve water quality and protect aquatic environments.

Cost Savings: Reusing water can lower both water supply and wastewater treatment costs, leading to significant financial savings for industries, municipalities, and communities.

Water Security: Water reuse plays a crucial role in enhancing water security, particularly in regions that are vulnerable to water scarcity, ensuring a more reliable and sustainable water supply.

1.7. Water Recycle

Water recycling, also known as water reuse or water reclamation, refers to the process of treating wastewater to remove contaminants and make it suitable for reuse in various applications. This practice involves capturing and purifying water that would otherwise be discarded, allowing it to be repurposed for beneficial uses. Water recycling plays a crucial role in addressing water scarcity issues by reducing the demand for freshwater resources. Recycled water can be used for a wide range of purposes, such as irrigation in agriculture, where it helps to conserve freshwater for more critical needs. In industrial processes, recycled water can be used for cooking, cleaning, or even as a part of manufacturing procedures, reducing operational costs and reliance on fresh water. Additionally, recycled water can be used for groundwater replenishment, where it is carefully managed and reintroduced into aquifers to support long-term water supply sustainability.

Through effective treatment and purification, water recycling provides a sustainable solution to water management, benefiting both the environment and human communities by reducing waste, conserving resources, and enhancing water security [11].

Types of Water Recycling

Non-Potable Uses of Recycled Water: Recycled water is commonly used to irrigate crops, lawns, golf courses, and other non-food plants, helping to conserve freshwater resources for more critical needs. It serves various industrial purposes, such as cooling machinery, cleaning equipment, and supporting other manufacturing processes, reducing the need for freshwater in these operations. It also can be used to recharge groundwater aquifers, helping to maintain sustainable water supplies by replenishing - underground water reserves.

Potable Uses of Recycled Water: In some cases, highly treated recycled water can be directly introduced into the drinking water supply system, meeting strict quality standards for human consumption.

Indirect Potable Reuse: Recycled water can also be used to augment drinking water sources by being further treated and mixed with traditional water supplies, ensuring safe and reliable drinking water.

Benefits of Water Recycling:

Water Conservation: Recycling wastewater helps decrease the reliance on freshwater sources, preserving valuable water resources for other essential uses.

Environmental Protection: By reusing wastewater, we reduce the volume of treated wastewater that would otherwise be released into rivers, lakes, and oceans, thus helping to safeguard water quality and protect aquatic ecosystems.

Resource Efficiency: Water recycling enhances resource efficiency by lowering energy consumption and reducing greenhouse gas emissions related to water treatment and distribution processes.

Financial Savings: Recycling water can generate both resource and cost savings, reducing expenses associated with the treatment and supply of fresh water, as well as wastewater disposal.

1.8. Water Recovery from Wastewater

Water resource recovery is an innovative approach that focuses on extracting valuable materials from wastewater streams to produce reusable water, energy, and other beneficial resources. Instead of viewing wastewater as a byproduct to be discarded, this process treats it as a resource-rich medium, capable of supporting sustainable environmental and economic practices. Both water and wastewater contain a variety of recoverable materials that can be repurposed for various applications. For instance, certain metals such as lithium—an essential component in batteries—can be extracted from wastewater, reducing the reliance on traditional mining. Additionally, fertilizer nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus, which are critical for agriculture, can be recovered and reused to promote sustainable farming practices.

Before wastewater can be safely reused or discharged into the environment, these substances must be removed through treatment processes. However, rather than simply discarding them, modern wastewater treatment facilities now employ resource recovery methods to capture and repurpose these valuable materials. Once extracted, these resources can be reintegrated into the economy, contributing to a circular system where waste is minimized, and materials are continuously reused. Beyond environmental benefits, water resource recovery also offers economic advantages. By reclaiming and repurpose materials from wastewater, industries, and municipalities can lower the overall energy consumption associated with water treatment and manufacturing processes. Additionally, selling or repurposing recovered resources can generate revenue that helps offset the operational costs of water treatment facilities, making the process both economically viable and environmentally responsible. In summary, water resource recovery represents a shift toward sustainable water management, where wastewater is no longer seen as waste but as a source of clean water, valuable minerals, and essential nutrients—ultimately contributing to a more resource-efficient and environmentally friendly future [12].

1.9. Resources that Can Be Recovered

Water resource recovery, often referred to as valorization, encompasses a range of processes aimed at extracting valuable materials, reusing wastewater, and generating energy from wastewater treatment systems. Rather than viewing wastewater as a mere byproduct to be discarded, valorization transforms it into a resource by recovering useful materials, nutrients, and energy that can be reintegrated into the economy. This concept is broader than just recycling water; it involves the recovery of materials from waste streams, where various useful substances such as metals, minerals, and nutrients, are extracted for reuse. Additionally, wastewater itself can be reused for various non-potable applications like irrigation, industrial processes, and even potable water production through advanced treatment methods. This reduces the reliance on freshwater resources, promoting sustainability and resource conservation [7,13]. Another critical aspect of water resource recovery is the generation of energy. Many wastewater treatment processes naturally produce biogas (mainly methane) as organic matter in wastewater decomposes. By harnessing this biogas, treatment plants can produce energy that can be used to power the facility or be sold back to the grid, creating an energy-positive cycle.

The technologies involved in water valorization include several innovative methods, such as:

Nutrient Recovery: Extracting valuable nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus from wastewater and repurposing them for agricultural use as fertilizers, reducing the need for synthetic fertilizers.

Metals Recovery: Recovering rare or valuable metals, such as lithium, gold, and copper, from wastewater, can be reused in industrial applications or electronics manufacturing.

Energy Recovery: Capturing biogas or utilizing heat from wastewater treatment processes to produce electricity or thermal energy, reducing the facility's operational energy demand. In essence, water resource recovery represents a paradigm shift in wastewater management, focusing not just on treatment but on turning waste into valuable resources, thus contributing to a more sustainable, circular economy.

Value-added products Recovery: The recovery of value-added materials from wastewater has emerged as a promising strategy to promote sustainability and circular economic practices. These products include biofuels (such as biodiesel and biohydrogen), biopolymers (like polyhydroxyalkanoates), biopesticides, bio flocculants, biosurfactants, proteins, enzymes, and essential nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus). These compounds have numerous industrial, agricultural, and environmental applications. For instance, biosurfactants and bio flocculants are used in bioremediation and wastewater treatment processes; biopolymers are used in biodegradable plastics and medical applications; and recovered nutrients can be used as fertilizers. This approach not only contributes to reducing the environmental burden of wastewater discharge but also offers a sustainable pathway to resource recovery and economic gain [14].

1.10. Types of Wastewater Treatment

1.10.1. Primary Treatment

Primary wastewater treatment is the initial phase of the wastewater treatment process, focusing primarily on physical methods to remove large particles and debris from the water. During this stage, the wastewater undergoes screening, where large objects such as sticks, plastics, and other debris are filtered out. This is typically achieved using screens or mesh filters that capture solid materials, preventing them from entering the treatment system. Once the larger debris is removed, the water moves to the sedimentation process, where the flow is slowed down in large settling tanks. In these tanks, the denser, settleable solids, such as sand, dirt, and organic matter, settle to the bottom due to gravity. This process creates a layer of sludge at the bottom of the tank, while the relatively cleaner water flows onto the next stage of treatment. The primary treatment stage helps to reduce the overall volume of wastewater that needs to be processed in later stages, making it more manageable for subsequent biological and chemical treatments. Although primary treatment removes a significant number of debris and solids, it does not address dissolved or fine particles, which require more advanced treatment methods in the later stages of the treatment process.

1.10.2. Secondary Wastewater Treatment

It is a crucial stage in the water treatment process that builds upon the primary treatment by focusing on the removal of dissolved and suspended organic matter. This phase primarily relies on biological processes, utilizing microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoa, and other beneficial microbes to break down and consume organic pollutants present in the wastewater. Once the larger solid particles have been removed during primary treatment, the wastewater still contains organic matter, nutrients, and other contaminants that must be treated before it can be safely discharged or further purified. In secondary treatment, wastewater is introduced into aeration tanks or biological reactors, where oxygen is supplied to encourage the growth of microorganisms. These microbes feed on organic pollutants, converting them into carbon dioxide, water, and additional biomass. There are several common methods of secondary treatment, including:

Activated Sludge Process: In this method, air is pumped into aeration tanks, fostering the growth of bacteria that break down organic waste. The mixture is then transferred to a settling tank, where microbes and waste particles settle as sludge, which can be removed and further processed.

Trickling Filters: Wastewater is sprayed over a bed of rocks or other materials covered with biofilms of microorganisms, which degrade the organic contaminants as the water percolates through the filter.

Lagoons and Constructed Wetlands: In some treatment plants, wastewater is directed into large ponds or wetland systems, where natural microbial communities help break down pollutants over time. Secondary treatment significantly reduces biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), and suspended solids, improving the quality of the effluent. While this stage is highly effective at removing organic material, it may not fully eliminate pathogens, nutrients, or certain chemicals, necessitating further tertiary treatment for advanced purification.

1.10.3. Tertiary Wastewater Treatment

The Final Stage of Purification. Tertiary treatment, also known as advanced wastewater treatment, is the final and most refined stage of wastewater purification. It follows primary and secondary treatment and is designed to remove any remaining contaminants, ensuring the treated water meets the highest quality standards before being safely discharged into the environment or reused for various applications such as irrigation, industrial processes, or even potable water supply. While primary treatment removes large solids and secondary treatment eliminates dissolved organic matter through biological processes, tertiary treatment goes a step further by targeting fine suspended particles, nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus), pathogens, and chemical contaminants that could pose environmental or public health risks. Key Processes in Tertiary Treatment Several advanced treatment methods are used to achieve the desired water quality, including:

Filtration: The water is passed through sand filters, activated carbon filters, or membrane filtration systems to remove any remaining suspended solids, fine particles, and some chemical impurities.

Nutrient Removal: Excess nitrogen and phosphorus are extracted to prevent eutrophication, a condition where excessive nutrients in water bodies lead to harmful algal blooms and oxygen depletion. This is done through biological nutrient removal (BNR) or chemical precipitation methods.

Disinfection: To eliminate any remaining pathogens, bacteria, and viruses, wastewater is treated using chlorination, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, or ozonation before final discharge or reuse.

Reverse Osmosis and Advanced Membrane Filtration: In cases where ultra-pure water is required, reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, or ultrafiltration techniques are used to remove even the smallest contaminants, including dissolved salts, pharmaceuticals, and heavy metals.

Importance of Tertiary Treatment: This step prevents the pollution of water bodies by ensuring that discharged water meets strict environmental regulations. It removes harmful microbes and contaminants, reducing the risk of waterborne diseases. Also, treated water can be repurposed for industrial cooling, irrigation, groundwater recharge, or even drinking water in some cases. It ensures that the final effluent is odor-free, colorless, and free from harmful substances, making it safe for various applications. Thus, tertiary treatment represents the most advanced level of wastewater purification, making it an essential step in modern wastewater management strategies to ensure a sustainable and eco-friendly approach to water conservation and reuse [15].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 1.2. Packed bed column for color removal [12].

1.11. Treatment Technologies So Far

1.11.1. Desalination and water reuse technologies

These are designed to reclaim water from non-traditional sources, such as brackish (salty) groundwater and wastewater. Through advanced treatment processes, water resource recovery facilities can purify this water to meet the required standards for specific uses. For instance, water from toilets does not need to undergo the same treatment as drinking water. Systems that collect relatively clean water from sources like bathtubs, sinks, and kitchen appliances can significantly reduce overall water demand, offering a sustainable solution to water scarcity, particularly in regions like America [16].

1.11.2. Brine Valorization

Brine is a highly saline by-product generated during the desalination process. Rather than being discarded, brine can be repurposed for various industrial uses, such as replacing potable water in the manufacturing of products like cement. It contains valuable chemicals, including sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid, which are extensively used in industries like papermaking and metal production. Desalination plants can offset brine disposal costs by selling these chemicals to commercial enterprises. Additionally, certain thermal and electrochemical technologies, known as zero liquid discharge (ZLD), aim to remove the liquid portion of brine, leaving behind solid materials. These solids may include metals like potassium and minerals such as gypsum, both of which can be sold to fertilizer producers and used to enhance agricultural productivity [17].

1.11.3. Energy from Wastewater Treatment

Through technological innovation, wastewater treatment processes can now produce more energy than they consume. Wastewater recovery facilities (WRRFs) harness bacteria in low-oxygen environments to break down solid organic waste, which generates methane, a potent greenhouse gas. Instead of allowing this methane to be released into the atmosphere, it can be captured and burned onsite, providing energy to power the facility and significantly reducing its carbon footprint. In addition to methane capture, other treatment methods can produce biofuels, which offer a low-carbon alternative to conventional diesel and gasoline. One such method is hydrothermal processing, which uses high-pressure heat to convert organic waste into an energy-dense liquid fuel. This process enables sewage sludge or microalgae harvested from wastewater recovery to be used as a feedstock for biofuel production, further enhancing the sustainability of wastewater treatment [7].

1.10.4. Nutrient Extraction from Wastewater

Plant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus must be removed from wastewater before it is released into natural water bodies. If left untreated, these nutrients can promote the excessive growth of algae, depleting oxygen levels in the water and potentially causing harmful algal blooms that result in large-scale fish kills. Instead of allowing these nutrients to cause environmental harm, they can be repurposed to support agricultural growth. Nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus are key components of commercial fertilizers, which enhance crop yields.

During wastewater treatment, these nutrients can be recovered in the form of struvite, a mineral that contains nitrogen, phosphorus, and magnesium, another essential plant nutrient. Struvite can be applied as a sustainable fertilizer, offering crop yields comparable to those achieved with traditional commercial fertilizers [18].

1.12. Coagulation

Coagulation is a critical water-treatment process that involves the addition of chemicals (coagulants) to water to remove suspended particles, which may include dirt, bacteria, viruses, and other impurities. These suspended particles, known as colloidal particles, are typically too small and stable to be removed through simple physical processes like sedimentation or filtration. Coagulation helps to destabilize these particles, making it easier to remove them from the water. The coagulants used in this process are typically positively charged chemicals (such as aluminum sulfate, ferric chloride, or polymers) that neutralize the negative charges of the suspended particles. Normally, these particles repel each other due to their similar charges, preventing them from clumping together. When coagulants are added to the water, they neutralize these charges, causing the particles to aggregate or clump together, forming larger particles known as flocs.

Coagulation and Flocculation: A Combined Process Coagulation is most effective when combined with flocculation, a subsequent process in which the larger particles or flocs formed during coagulation are gently mixed to increase their size and facilitate their settling out of the water. Flocculation involves slow mixing, typically at lower speeds, which allows these flocs to collide, stick together, and form even larger clumps. Once the flocs become large enough, they can be easily removed through sedimentation, where they settle to the bottom of the treatment tank, or through filtration.

Coagulation in Wastewater Treatment Process: Coagulant chemicals, carrying charges opposite to those of suspended solids, are added to water to neutralize the negative charges on non-settleable particles such as clay and color-causing organic matter. Once these charges are neutralized, the small, suspended particles begin to adhere to one another, forming micro flocs. Although micro flocs are too small to be seen with the naked eye, the surrounding water should appear clear if coagulation is effective. Cloudiness in the water indicates incomplete coagulation, suggesting that either the charge neutralization is insufficient or more coagulant needs to be added. To ensure effective coagulation, a high-energy, rapid mixing process is required.

This rapid mix facilitates uniform coagulant distribution and promotes particle collisions. While over-mixing does not hinder the process, under-mixing can leave coagulation incomplete. The typical contact time in a rapid-mix chamber ranges from 1 to 3 minutes [19].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 1.3. Coagulation Mechanism [20].

Steps in the Coagulation Process: Coagulants are added to the water at a specific point in the treatment process, often using dosing equipment to ensure accurate and controlled addition. The water is rapidly mixed to ensure that the coagulants are evenly distributed, allowing them to react with the suspended particles. After coagulation, the water is mixed slowly to encourage the formation of larger flocs. Finally, the flocs are allowed to settle, or the water is passed through filters to remove the particles from the treated water.

Coagulation’s Role in Water Treatment: Coagulation is often one of the first steps in the treatment of drinking water, wastewater, and stormwater because it significantly reduces the amount of suspended solids, turbidity, and organic matter in the water. It also helps to remove microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, and algae that might be present, improving the overall quality of the water. Additionally, coagulation can aid in removing toxins, heavy metals, and other contaminants that might be challenging to eliminate through simple filtration alone. This process is especially critical in areas where water sources may be contaminated with pollutants like agricultural runoff, industrial waste, or sewage [19, 20].

Applications of Coagulation: Drinking Coagulation is commonly used to treat raw water from rivers, lakes, and reservoirs to make it suitable for consumption. In industrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants, coagulation helps remove contaminants before the water is discharged or further treated for reuse. Stormwater Management – Coagulation is also applied to treat stormwater runoff, which often carries pollutants like oils, debris, and sediment [21, 22].

1.13. Coagulants can be synthetic or natural

1.13.1. Synthetic Coagulants

Synthetic coagulants are chemical agents commonly used in water and wastewater treatment to remove suspended solids and organic matter from water sources. These coagulants are typically composed of aluminum salts (such as aluminum sulfate) and iron salts (like ferric chloride or ferrous sulfate). Their primary role is to improve the clarity of water and reduce contaminants, making the water safer for consumption, industrial processes, or safe discharge back into the environment [20].

1.13.2. Natural Coagulants

These natural substances are biodegradable and effective in removing turbidity, color, and other contaminants from water, making them particularly suitable for low-cost, environmentally conscious water purification. Natural coagulants, such as Moringa seeds, banana peels, and soybean hulls, offer a sustainable and eco-friendly alternative to chemical coagulants in water treatment. Some examples of natural coagulants are mentioned in Table 1.1.

Natural coagulants that are used in this study are- Moringa Seeds (Moringa oleifera): These are rich in natural polymers that work effectively as coagulants to remove turbidity and pollutants from water. These seeds bind to suspended particles, destabilizing them and helping them to settle out of the water. Moringa is highly effective in treating both low and high-turbidity waters, including sewage and industrial wastewater. Research has shown that Moringa seeds can remove a wide range of organic and inorganic pollutants, including aromatic organic compounds. Due to their non-toxic nature and availability, Moringa seeds are a cost-effective and safe alternative to chemical coagulants, making them a popular choice for sustainable water treatment [20, 23].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Table1.1. The main application forms of natural coagulants [21, 22].

Banana Peels: Banana peels contain polymeric substances, including fiber and protein, which exhibit coagulant properties. These substances help neutralize both positively and negatively charged impurities in water. Banana peel powder is highly effective in removing turbidity from water, including grey water. Studies have demonstrated that banana peel coagulants can remove both turbidity and color from raw surface water, achieving comparable efficiency to conventional chemical coagulants. In addition to their use in water treatment, banana peels are also a valuable resource for biogas production, making them a versatile and eco-friendly option for various applications [24, 25].

Soybean Seeds: Another excellent natural coagulant, containing natural polymers that help remove turbidity and other pollutants from water. Similar to Moringa seeds, soybean hulls have proven effective in treating raw surface water by reducing both turbidity and color. They can be used either as a primary coagulant or in combination with alum, a conventional chemical coagulant, to enhance the water purification process. Soybean hulls are a readily available, non-toxic, and cost-effective alternative to chemical coagulants, providing an environmentally friendly solution to water treatment [26].

Benefits of Using Natural Coagulants

Natural coagulants offer numerous advantages over synthetic chemicals, making them a preferred choice for wastewater treatment in many applications. These coagulants are renewable, biodegradable, and environmentally friendly, providing a sustainable alternative to traditional synthetic options. They can be a more cost-effective solution, especially in regions where resources are limited, reducing the reliance on expensive chemical coagulants. Using natural coagulants helps minimize the introduction of potentially harmful chemicals into the environment, promoting safer and more eco-conscious water treatment processes. These coagulants are highly effective at removing turbidity (cloudiness) and total suspended solids (TSS) from wastewater by neutralizing the negative charge on colloidal particles, which makes them easier to remove. Additionally, natural coagulants can adsorb onto particle surfaces and act as a bridge between particles, facilitating the formation of flocs that can then be easily separated from the water. Overall, natural coagulants provide an efficient and safer means of purifying wastewater while contributing to environmental conservation.

1.14. Objective

1.14.1. Main Objective

The primary goal of this research is to thoroughly investigate the effectiveness of the coagulation process in wastewater treatment when using natural coagulants.

1.14.2. Specific Objective

The study aims to assess the performance of three distinct natural coagulants- Moringa Oleifera, banana peel, and soybean seeds- in treating wastewater.

The research will focus on determining the optimal pH levels and the ideal dosages of these coagulants that maximize their ability to remove turbidity, dissolved solids, and other contaminants from wastewater. The study intends to provide valuable insights into the potential of these natural coagulants as sustainable, eco-friendly alternatives to conventional chemical coagulants in wastewater treatment processes.

2. Literature Review

Yanan Su et al described that Central Asia faces a severe water crisis, exemplified by the shrinking Aral Sea. However, smaller water bodies, critical for sustainability and highly vulnerable to climate change, remain understudied. Our research analyzed water bodies as small as 0.0045 km² from 1992 to 2020, identifying 66,215 in 2020—82.2% previously undocumented. While the Aral Sea’s decline is well-known, our findings reveal a 10.7% increase (8714.3 km²) in other water bodies, adding 15,831 lakes since 1992. This challenges the perception of a drying region, indicating a shift toward warmer and wetter conditions. These insights highlight the need for adaptive water management strategies to address ongoing water scarcity challenges in Central Asia [27].

Xuanxuan Wang et al stated that with increasing water scarcity, transboundary river basins in Asia have become global hotspots for water conflicts, heightening water security risks. However, the link between water conflicts and the water crisis remains poorly understood. This study analyzed water conflict events (1948–2022) using a transboundary water event database, the Water Stress Index (WSI), correlation analysis, and Granger causality tests. Results show a rising trend in transboundary water conflicts, with the South Asia–West Asia region being the most affected. The Jordan (294 conflicts), Tigris-Euphrates/Shatt Al-Arab (291), and Indus (215) river basins experienced the highest conflict frequencies, particularly between Syria–Turkey and India–Pakistan. Findings indicate severe water stress in nearly all basins, with the Indus and Jordan rivers facing the most critical shortages. A strong correlation and unidirectional causal link were observed between water conflicts and rising water stress, emphasizing the urgent need for improved water management in conflict-prone regions [28].

Le Qu et al discussed that fluoride contamination in groundwater threatens drinking water quality and human health. Coagulation is a widely used, cost-effective defluorination method, with removal efficiency dependent on hydrolyzed metal salt coagulants. This study synthesized novel polymeric zirconium salt coagulants (ZXC) via the sol-gel method and evaluated their performance against poly aluminum chloride (PAC) and poly ferric sulfate (PFS) in coagulation and coagulation-ultrafiltration processes. Results showed ZXC achieved 81.0% fluoride removal, significantly outperforming PAC (24.7%) and PFS (5.4%). At a fluoride concentration of 4.0 mg/L, ZXC doses of 0.30 mm and 1.5 mm reduced levels to 0.76 mg/L and 0.13 mg/L, respectively. Structural analyses (FT-IR, XRD, XPS, SEM, and BET) revealed that fluoride removal occurred through adsorption and ion exchange with hydroxyl groups. In coagulation-ultrafiltration, ZXC’s high polymerization facilitated complete hydrolysis, forming larger, looser flocs that minimized membrane fouling. This study highlights ZXC as a promising material for efficient fluoride removal in drinking water treatment [29].

D. Bhagawan et al stated that pharmaceutical wastewater is highly hazardous and requires proper treatment before disposal. This study evaluated the effectiveness of Alum, Ferrous sulfate, and Moringa oleifera as coagulants under varying pH (2–10) and dosages (1–5 g/500 ml), assessing turbidity and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) reduction. The initial wastewater characteristics were pH 3, COD 1050 mg/L, and turbidity 460 NTU, exceeding permissible limits. Optimal coagulation occurred at pH 8, with dosages of 3 g/500 ml for Alum and Ferrous sulfate, and 2 g/500 ml for Moringa oleifera. Moringa oleifera demonstrated the highest efficiency, achieving 86% turbidity removal and 87% COD reduction, outperforming the other coagulants. These findings highlight Moringa oleifera as a promising natural coagulant for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, offering an effective and eco-friendly alternative to conventional methods [23].

Nitesh Parmar et al study evaluated FeCl₃, AlCl₃, and FeSO₄ as coagulants for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, demonstrating effective contaminant reduction. At optimal conditions (pH 4, 6, and 4), doses of 30 mM/L FeCl₃, 30 mM/L AlCl₃, and 60 mM/L FeSO₄ achieved COD reductions of 85%, 81%, and 86.5%, respectively. When adjusted to pH 7.0, further pollutant removal was achieved through sedimentation, with removal efficiencies of Turbidity (90%), COD (91%), Chloride (88%), Alkalinity (47.1%), Acidity (78.7%), Hardness (75.4%), and Total Solids (TS). Key findings:

- Effluent pH decreased in the order: FeCl₃ > FeSO₄ > AlCl₃.
- The sludge settling rate was highest for FeCl₃, followed by FeSO₄ and AlCl₃.
- FeSO₄ demonstrated the best overall performance, making it a promising coagulant for treating pharmaceutical wastewater, particularly antibiotic manufacturing effluents.

These results highlight coagulation as an efficient method for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment [30].

Tharaa M et al study investigates chemical coagulation-assisted electrocoagulation (CC-EC) with solar photovoltaic energy as an efficient alternative for removing Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) from pharmaceutical wastewater. Key operational parameters—coagulant dosage, electrode configuration, spacing, current density, and treatment time—were optimized to enhance COD removal efficiency. Key Findings:

- Optimal conditions: 500 mg/L alum, 3.105 mA/cm² current density, six electrodes (4 cm spacing), and MP-S configuration.
- COD removal efficiencies:
- CC alone: 61.5% (500 mg/L alum).
- EC alone: 85.4%.
- CC-EC combined: 94.4% (best performance).
- Economic efficiency: Conventional energy cost was 0.283 $/m³, while solar photovoltaic energy proved more viable.
- Reaction kinetics: The first-order kinetic model provided the best fit (higher R² values).

The CC-EC process significantly outperforms traditional coagulation, achieving higher COD removal rates while offering an economically and environmentally sustainable solution for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment [31].

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. Pharmaceutical Wastewater

Pharmaceutical wastewater for this study was collected from Azoxy Laboratories, Telangana. The sampling process was conducted using the grab sampling method, ensuring that representative samples were obtained from the effluent discharge point. To preserve the wastewater’s original characteristics and prevent any significant changes in composition, the collected samples were immediately stored at a temperature of 4°C. This controlled storage condition helped minimize biological activity and chemical degradation, maintaining the integrity of the wastewater for accurate experimental analysis. A variety of laboratory equipment and materials were used throughout the investigation to analyze wastewater properties and conduct coagulation experiments. These included:

- Pan and Sieve: Used for preliminary filtration and removal of large particulate matter.
- Mortar and Pestle: Employed for grinding and preparing coagulants where necessary.
- Pulverizer
- Hot Air Oven
- Oven Dryer: Utilized to dry and prepare samples for specific tests.
- Filter Paper: Used for separation and clarification of samples.
- Beakers and Test Jars: Essential for holding wastewater samples during testing procedures.
- pH Meter: Instrumental in determining the pH levels of the wastewater samples before and after treatment.
- TDS Meter: Used to assess the clarity of the water and measure the effectiveness of turbidity reduction after coagulation.

The combination of these materials and instruments ensured a thorough and accurate assessment of the wastewater treatment process, contributing to the evaluation of coagulant efficiency in reducing pollutants.

3.1.2. Natural Coagulants for Water Treatment

Moringa Seeds (Moringa oleifera) 20 Drumsticks were plucked from the Moringa tree in the local area of Andhra Pradesh & dried. Then seeds are separated from the sticks after drying and brought for research. Banana fruits (1000 gms) were bought from the local vendor shop, Loyola-Alwal Road. They were cleaned, peeled, and sliced. Then air-dried for 24 hours in a Hot Air Oven at 105°C. To get banana peel powder, the peels were ground enough to obtain the fine powder using a Pulverizer after complete moisture removal. Soybean seeds (250 gms) were brought from the Ushodaya Super Mart, Loyola-Alwal Road. These three were collected from different locations, cleaned, and dried using a hot air oven at 103.5 °C. They were used to prepare natural coagulant powders using a Pulverizer to get powder of different sizes for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment, as shown in Figure 3.1.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 3.1. (a) Moringa Oleifera, (b) Banana peel, and (c) Soyabean seeds to Powder as Coagulants [Present work].

3.2. Methods

3.2.1. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Total Dissolved Solids are a crucial parameter in water quality analysis, representing the total concentration of dissolved organic and inorganic substances in a liquid. These substances include a variety of salts, minerals, metals, and other dissolved compounds that influence the chemical and physical characteristics of water. The measurement of TDS provides valuable insights into the purity, usability, and potential contamination of a water source. TDS is typically quantified in parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/L), which indicates the mass of dissolved solids per unit volume of water.

Procedure followed for TDS analysis:

Filter your water sample through a whatman filter paper. Collect the filtrate (liquid) and rinse the water in a flask. Take the weight of the empty container (ceramic dish/ evaporating Dish). Make sure the container is dry. Add the filtrate to the container and allow the sample to stay in the oven at 103°C for 24 hours. If possible, increase the temperature of the drying oven to 180°C and allow the sample to dry for up to 8 hours. Remove the container. Remember it is very hot. After removing it from the drying oven, the sample should be placed in a desiccator to cool in a dry air environment for at least 3 to 4 hours. After the container cools, reweigh the container at least three times. Subtract the initial weight (in grams) of the empty container from the weight of the container with the dried residue to obtain an increase in weight. Then do the following:

A- Weight of clean, dried container (gm)

B- Weight of container and residue (gm)

C- Volume of Sample (ml)

Concentration (mg/L) = (B - A)/ C) x (1000 mg/g) x (1000 ml/L)

3.2.2. pH optimization

The concentration of hydrogen ions in water is a crucial parameter that affects the quality of both natural water bodies and wastewater. The range of hydrogen ion concentration that supports most biological life is relatively narrow and must be carefully maintained. When wastewater has an excessively high or low hydrogen ion concentration, it becomes difficult to treat through biological processes. If such wastewater is discharged without adjustment, it can significantly impact the pH balance of natural water bodies, potentially harming aquatic ecosystems. To regulate the pH of wastewater, a process called neutralization is commonly used. If the water is too acidic, alkaline substances such as sodium hydroxide or lime are added to increase the pH. Conversely, if the water is too basic, acidic substances such as hydrochloric acid (HCl) or sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) are introduced to lower the pH. After the neutralization process, the pH of the water is measured to ensure it falls within the desired range before discharge or further treatment.

3.2.3. Jar test

A jar test is a small-scale laboratory procedure used in water treatment to simulate the processes of natural coagulation. This test helps water treatment professionals determine the optimal type and dosage of chemicals, such as coagulants and flocculants, required to achieve effective removal of suspended particles, turbidity, and contaminants from water. The test involves filling multiple jars or beakers with water samples and adding varying doses of treatment chemicals. These samples are then stirred under controlled conditions to mimic the mixing, flocculation, and settling processes that occur in full-scale water treatment plants. By observing the formation of flocs (aggregates of suspended particles) and measuring the clarity of the treated water, operators can identify the most efficient chemical combination and dosage for improving water quality. Jar testing is an essential step in optimizing treatment efficiency, minimizing chemical wastage, and ensuring compliance with regulatory water quality standards. Chemical coagulations were performed using the jar test method. 250 ml beakers were arranged to perform the test. After this, the calculated amount of coagulants was aided, and its pH was adjusted using 1 M HCL or 2 M NaOH. When the desired pH was maintained, it was kept for stirring in the jar-test experimental setup. The samples with coagulants were rapidly mixed at 70 rpm for 5 minutes followed by 20 min slow mixing at 40 rpm and a 2 h settling period.

3.2.4. Turbidity

Water is said to be turbid when it contains suspended materials that reduce its clarity. Turbidity is defined as the measure of visible particles in suspension within water. It can be caused by various substances such as algae, microorganisms, silt, or clay. Turbidity affects water quality and is an important parameter in water analysis.

3.2.5. Color

Colour is a useful indicator of dissolved organic substances, such as humic materials, in water. Both dissolved and particulate matter can contribute to the discoloration of water. Color measurement helps in identifying the presence of impurities and assessing aesthetic quality. Color is also a useful index of dissolved humic substances in water. Dissolved and particulate material in water can cause discoloration.

3.2.6. Preparation of Activated charcoal

Two-Stage Process: Carbonization and Activation

- Carbonization: To obtain good pore structure and adequate mechanical strength, the carbonization step is first carried out at a lower temperature. This step forms a stable carbon structure.
- Activation: Following carbonization, the material undergoes activation at a higher temperature, further developing porosity and significantly increasing the final product's specific surface area [32].

Experimental Procedure

Material Preparation: The raw charcoal and Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) were weighed and mixed in a mass ratio of 1:3. The mixture was then loaded into two separate alumina crucibles.

- Carbonization: Carbonization was performed in a Hot Air Oven at 105°C for 24 hours. The resulting carbonized charcoal was soaked in distilled water, filtered, and oven-dried again at 110 °C for 24 hours. The dried material was ground and sieved to obtain particle sizes of 300 μm, 600 μm, and 800 μm. The final product was stored in an airtight container until further use.
- Activation: The best activating agent, NaOH, was used. Chemical activation was done by using a NaOH activator in a ratio of 1:1 (4 g charcoal:4 g NaOH) mentioned as AC 1:1, 1:2 (4 g charcoal: 8 g NaOH) mentioned as AC 1:2, and 1:3, (4 g charcoal: 12 g NaOH) mentioned as AC 1:3, in which the three sample variants were dissolved with 10 ml of aquabides.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 3.2. Activated Charcoal [Present work].

Post-Treatment

The activated carbon was soaked in a 5% HCl solution until the solution turned acidic. The mixture was stirred at 60°C for 6 hours to remove residual inorganic compounds. It was then washed with deionized water until the pH became neutral (verified using a pH meter). Finally, the samples were dried at 40°C for 24 hours. Furthermore, the activation process was carried out. The three sample variants were dried in an oven to obtain a powder form, then used as the main material in the pharmaceutical wastewater coagulation process for the TDS & color removal. The scheme of the process is illustrated on Fig. 3.1. After the process was completed, the TDS and pH were measured.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 3.3. Packed bed column filtration Process for Pharmaceutical WW [33].

3.2.7. Analytical Methods

Physico-chemical analyses of 24 h duration were carried out. The analysis covered total dissolved solids (TDS), Turbidity, and pH. All the parameters were determined according to APHA [34]. The physical properties of the activated carbon were determined following standard methods outlined by the APHA. The pH was measured using a pH meter (Hanna HI98107 pH meter, Danfoss model HI98107). TDS analysis was carried out using a TDS meter (EC digital LCD EC meter conductivity tester).

3.2.8. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

The Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) test measures the amount of oxygen required to break down organic matter in water through microbial activity. It is a key indicator used to assess water pollution and the effectiveness of wastewater treatment processes. The most used parameter for measuring organic pollution in both wastewater and surface water is the five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD₅). This test determines the amount of dissolved oxygen consumed by microorganisms during the biochemical oxidation of organic matter over five days.

BOD = (DO1 – DO2 x Dilution factor)/ Volume of sample

DO1: Initial dissolved oxygen concentration (mg/L).

DO2: Final dissolved oxygen concentration after incubation (mg/L).

BOD Test:

Estimating oxygen demand: Determines the approximate amount of oxygen needed to biologically stabilize organic matter in water.

Wastewater treatment planning: Helps in designing and sizing wastewater treatment facilities.

Evaluating treatment efficiency: Measures how effectively a treatment process removes organic pollutants.

Testing Procedure: To obtain accurate results, the water sample must be properly diluted with specially prepared dilution water containing essential nutrients and sufficient oxygen. Several dilutions are typically prepared to accommodate a wide range of possible BOD values. The test can be conducted using percentage mixtures or direct pipetting methods to measure BOD across different concentration levels.

3.2.9. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

The Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) test is used to measure the organic matter present in both wastewater and natural water sources. It determines the oxygen equivalent of organic substances that can be oxidized using a strong chemical oxidizing agent in an acidic medium. Potassium dichromate is widely used for this purpose due to its effectiveness. The test is conducted at an elevated temperature to ensure complete oxidation. A catalyst is required to aid the oxidation of certain organic compounds that may interfere with the test. Proper precautions must be taken to eliminate these interferences. COD can be determined within three hours.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

“a' is the ml of Fe (NH₄)₂(SO₄)₂ used for blank

'b' is the ml of Fe (NH₄)₂(SO₄)₂ used for sample,

'N' is the normality of the titrant, and the sample size is in ml.

4. Results & Discussion

4.1. Wastewater Characteristics

Wastewater is generated from production lines, equipment washing, and floor cleaning operations. The main characteristics of the wastewater (references & present work) are summarized in Tables 4.1 & 4.2.

Table 4.1. Characteristics of Pharmaceutical Wastewater [35].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Table 4.2. Characteristics of Pharmaceutical Wastewater (Present work).

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

4.2. Process of Coagulation

4.2.1. Effect of coagulant dosage

The effect of coagulant dosage on wastewater treatment has been investigated by varying the dosage concentration from 0.03 mg to 0.15 mg at a constant pH of 9.5. From Figure 4.1, it is observed that with an increase in the dosage of coagulant from 0.03 to 0.09, there is an increase in the percentage reduction of TDS. The maximum percentage removal of TDS of 97% is observed with Banana Peel powder, followed by Soybean seeds powder, i.e., 96%, and then by Moringa Oleifera, i.e., 95%. With a further increase in dosage from 0.12 mg to 0.15 mg a sharp increment of TDS was observed with 0.12 dose and minor decline with 0.15 dose in the case of Moringa Oleifera. Whereas at 0.09 dose, the TDS was sharply increased and for later dosage, it minutely declined & stabilized in the case of Soybean Peel powder. The removal efficiency of TDS stabilized & it decreased when the dosage of banana peel powder increased up to 0.12 mg. This could be because of polysaccharides and other substances present in it, which resulted in a slight removal, and decreasing efficiency. This may also be attributed to charge reversal and destabilization of colloidal particles because of the overdosage of the coagulant [36]. It also consists of various bio-flocculants; thus, powders with reduced size and sticky edges allow the release of these materials and mixed with murky water. Therefore, a smaller dose of 0.06 mg was enough to remove 97% of water TDS [37]. Hence, in this study, the optimum dosage of banana peel powder for the coagulation process is 0.06 (w/v).

4.2.2. Effect of Coagulant dosage on TDS

Coagulation performance results were analyzed using the TDS data obtained and pH Testing, which resulted promisingly, as detailed in Tables 4.3, 4.4, & 4.5. For pharmaceutical wastewater, the uncoagulated sample was characterized by a pale yellowish color but had a pungent smell. After adding coagulants (0.03, 0.06, 0.09, 0.12, 0.15), the water became visibly clear. There was also a noticeable change in pH: the initial pH was 6.5, which increased to 9.3-9.5 post-coagulation for different coagulant dosages. The TDS level of pharmaceutical wastewater received was 9,90,000 mg/L, which was reduced to a minimum of 97% for banana peel powder. After coagulation, the color removal can be performed by using a packed bed column having a bed composition of activated charcoal powder, sand, cotton, and polymeric filter. The result in terms of TDS can be further reduced to a significant extent, as observed in the previous study [32].

Table 4.3. Moringa Oleifera Dosage [Present work].

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Table 4.4. Soybean seeds Dosage [Present work].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Post-coagulation, the water became clear and odorless, but the yellow color remained. The pH value increased from 6.5 to average values of 9.6 > 9.4 > 9.3 for the Moringa Olifera > Soybean seeds > Banana Peel powder, respectively.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 4.1. Comparison after the coagulation treatment [Present work].

TDS values also shifted from 9,90,000 mg/L before coagulation to 96% for both Moringa Oleifera and Soybean seeds coagulants and 97% for Banana Peel powder. Figure 4.1 illustrates the visual differences between the wastewater samples before and after the post-coagulation treatment process by using different dosages.

Table 4.5. Banana Peel Dosage in wastewater [Present work].

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

According to water quality standards based on total dissolved solids:

TDS between 26–140 ppm indicates mineral-containing drinking water,

TDS >140 ppm is considered ordinary drinking water,

TDS >500 ppm may be harmful to health

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 4.2. TDS removal analysis for wastewater (a) Moringa Olifera, (b) Soybean Powder, and (c) Banana peel [Present work].

Therefore, for further purification process, the activated charcoal, sand, cotton, and polymeric filters were planned to be used to develop a packed bed column so to reduce the TDS to permissible limits. Based on previous studies, the use of activated charcoal with NaOH appears effective in improving water quality to meet drinking water standards concerning TDS levels. The visible improvement in water clarity and pH adjustment toward neutrality suggests that the separation process successfully removed various contaminants.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 4.3. Comparison of TDS removal from wastewater via coagulants [Present work].

4.2.3. Various Coagulants and their pH effect

The pH variation of the treated wastewater as a function of coagulant dosage for different coagulants is presented in Figure 4.3. The different coagulants to wastewater ratios (w/v) 0.03, 0.06, 0.09, 0.12, and 0.15 were applied & investigated for Moringa Olifera, Banana Peel & Soybean Seeds powder as natural coagulants.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure:4.4. (a), (b), (c): pH of coagulant-treated wastewater [Present work].

At a basic pH of 9.3 and a basic pH of 9.7, the TDS removal % was found to be comparatively low. At the pH studied, pH 9.5 showed maximum removal efficiency of TDS 96%, 97%, and 97% with Moringa Oleifera, Soybean seeds, & Banana Peels, respectively. Therefore, the optimum pH condition of the coagulation treatment system with an optimized natural coagulant dosage of 0.06 w/v% is 9.5 pH. In previous studies, it was found that banana peels removed TDS most effectively in normal, somewhat alkaline pH environments [36, 37, 38]. This argument justifies the results obtained for all-natural coagulants that have a high reduction in TDS at the pH ranges between 9.3 to 9.5. This behavior can be explained by the interaction between functional groups present in the pharmaceutical wastewater and the cationic groups present in coagulants [24]. At low pH, carboxylic and phenolic groups tend to coordinate more effectively with cations compared to hydroxyl and aliphatic hydroxyl groups. The efficiency of coagulation and flocculation depends on the amount and type of functional groups available for coordination and complexation with the cationic salts. The removal of dissolved organics during coagulation and precipitation with natural coagulants at varying pH levels occurs via two primary mechanisms: At low pH, anionic organic molecules in the effluent coordinate with metal cations to form insoluble complexes. At higher pH and increased coagulant doses, organic molecules absorb onto reforming flocs of metal hydroxides and are subsequently removed by precipitation. As a result, the removal of dissolved organic compounds with various functional groups can occur over a broad pH range. Maximum TDS and color removal were observed at pH levels where both coordination and adsorption mechanisms operate synergistically.

4.2.4. Comparative study

The comparative study between the different types of coagulants in the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater in terms of percentage reduction in TDS and pH was done in this section. All coagulants showed >95% TDS reduction, which is highly efficient. But if we compare all the coagulant results, Banana peel powder showed the maximum efficient TDS removal of 97% while Moringa Oleifera showed much minimum removal efficiency than Soybean seeds powder. However, the sludge formed can be disposed of without further treatment as it is a natural sludge and biodegradable.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

Figure: 4.5. Comparison of pH results after coagulant treated wastewater [Present work].

Table: 4.6. Percentage removal of pollutants (TDS) from Wastewater using Coagulants.

Illustrations are not included in the reading sample

In the present study, as shown in Table 4.4, the natural coagulant Banana Peel Powder showed a more efficient performance of coagulation. A maximum of 97% TDS reduction is achieved with this coagulant. In terms of cost, this coagulant is found to be economically feasible. Moreover, a small amount of sludge is formed, which is easily biodegradable.

5. Conclusion

This study highlights the potential of natural coagulants, including soybean hulls, Moringa seeds, and banana peels, as sustainable alternatives to synthetic chemical coagulants for water treatment. These materials effectively reduce turbidity and TDS by neutralizing particle charges and enhancing floc formation during wastewater treatment. Through jar test experiments, the optimal coagulation conditions were determined by evaluating factors such as coagulant dosage, pH, and mixing time. Among the tested coagulants, banana peel powder exhibited the highest pollutant removal efficiency, achieving reductions of > 96% in TDS and increases in pH ranges between 9.3- 9.5. This superior performance makes banana peel powder a promising eco-friendly and sustainable alternative to chemical coagulants for pharmaceutical wastewater treatment.

The following conclusions are drawn from the experimental study conducted on the treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater using natural coagulants:

- Pharmaceutical wastewater has the initial characteristics of pH-6.5, color- pale yellowish, and TDS- 9,90,000 mg/L, which are above permissible limits.
- The optimum pH in the coagulation process for Moringa oleifera, Soybean seeds powder, and Banana Peels is found to be 9.5.
- The optimum dosages of coagulant are found to be 0.06 (w/v), at an optimum pH of 9.5. Among all the coagulants used in the study, maximum TDS reduction is found to be 97% with Banana Peel Powder.

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7. List of figures

Figure: 1.1. Major industrial use of water

Figure: 1.2. Packed bed column for color removal

Figure: 1.3. Coagulation Mechanism

Figure: 3.1. (a) Moringa Oleifera, (b) Banana peel, and (c) Soyabean seeds to Powder as Coagulants

Figure: 3.2. Activated Charcoal

Figure: 3.3. Packed bed column filtration Process for Pharmaceutical WW

Figure: 4.1. Comparison after the coagulation treatment

Figure: 4.2. TDS removal analysis for wastewater (a) Moringa Olifera, (b) Soybean Powder, and (c) Banana peel

Figure: 4.3. Comparison of TDS removal from wastewater via coagulants

Figure: 4.4. (a), (b), (c): pH of coagulant-treated wastewater

Figure: 4.5. Comparison of pH results after coagulant treated wastewater

[...]

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Titel: Wastewater Treatment Using Natural Coagulants

Forschungsarbeit , 2024 , 48 Seiten , Note: A

Autor:in: Zakir Hussain (Autor:in), Kasukurthi Johnson (Autor:in), Vislavath Rahul (Autor:in), Reshma Lakra (Autor:in), Vani Gandham (Autor:in), Thomas Lourdu Madanu (Autor:in)

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Titel: Wastewater Treatment Using Natural Coagulants
Veranstaltung: Chemical Technology
Note: A
Autoren: Zakir Hussain (Autor:in), Kasukurthi Johnson (Autor:in), Vislavath Rahul (Autor:in), Reshma Lakra (Autor:in), Vani Gandham (Autor:in), Thomas Lourdu Madanu (Autor:in)
Erscheinungsjahr: 2024
Seiten: 48
Katalognummer: V1577094
ISBN (PDF): 9783389133422
ISBN (Buch): 9783389133439
Sprache: Englisch
Schlagworte: wastewater treatment using natural coagulants
Produktsicherheit: GRIN Publishing GmbH

Arbeit zitieren: Zakir Hussain (Autor:in), Kasukurthi Johnson (Autor:in), Vislavath Rahul (Autor:in), Reshma Lakra (Autor:in), Vani Gandham (Autor:in), Thomas Lourdu Madanu (Autor:in), 2024, Wastewater Treatment Using Natural Coagulants, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1577094

Wastewater Treatment Using Natural Coagulants

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT

1. Introduction

1.1. Background

1.2. Utilization of water

1.2.1. Irrigation

1.2.2. Industrial Water Use

1.3. Water Resources

1.3.1 Importance of water resources

1.4. Water resource- Wastewaters

1.5. Wastewater Reclamation

1.6. Water Reuse

1.7. Water Recycle

1.8. Water Recovery from Wastewater

1.9. Resources that Can Be Recovered

1.10. Types of Wastewater Treatment

1.10.1. Primary Treatment

1.10.2. Secondary Wastewater Treatment

1.10.3. Tertiary Wastewater Treatment

1.11. Treatment Technologies So Far

1.11.1. Desalination and water reuse technologies

1.11.2. Brine Valorization

1.11.3. Energy from Wastewater Treatment

1.10.4. Nutrient Extraction from Wastewater

1.12. Coagulation

1.13. Coagulants can be synthetic or natural

1.13.1. Synthetic Coagulants

1.13.2. Natural Coagulants

1.14. Objective

1.14.1. Main Objective

1.14.2. Specific Objective

2. Literature Review

3. Materials and Methods

3.1. Materials

3.1.1. Pharmaceutical Wastewater

3.1.2. Natural Coagulants for Water Treatment

3.2. Methods

3.2.1. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

3.2.2. pH optimization

3.2.3. Jar test

3.2.4. Turbidity

3.2.5. Color

3.2.6. Preparation of Activated charcoal

3.2.7. Analytical Methods

3.2.8. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

3.2.9. Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

4. Results & Discussion

4.1. Wastewater Characteristics

4.2. Process of Coagulation

4.2.1. Effect of coagulant dosage

4.2.2. Effect of Coagulant dosage on TDS

4.2.3. Various Coagulants and their pH effect

4.2.4. Comparative study

5. Conclusion

6. References

7. List of figures

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