This essay explores the key factors behind Conradin of Hohenstaufen’s decision to claim the throne of Sicily. It examines the legitimacy of his dynastic right, internal motivations such as duty and legacy, and external pressures from nobles and allies. Special attention is given to the role of the papacy.
Conradin was born into a continuously escalating conflict situation between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy which began under Pope Gregory VII, who in the 11th century attempted to reform the papacy to have greater political power. The conflict pervaded successive dynasties and we find Conradin at the close of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in the mid 13th century. His life, ending with an expedition to Italy in order to secure his crown, cannot fail to capture the imagination. It is a relevant and interesting topic to explore, as it has not been as widely researched as other protagonists of this important dynasty. This despite it having a fundamental impact on the transition of the geopolitical map of the late Roman and the medieval Europe we know today, as his failure ended the extension of German imperial rule to southern Italy. This is a fascinating topic, as it can help us understand a wide variety of factors which played into the formation and stabilisation of a new power balance in medieval Europe, leading to the research question throughout the work being: How can we evaluate the different factors affecting Conradin’s decision to claim his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily?
This question can be approached in a multitude of ways, however, the focus will mainly be on different factors resulting in Conradin claiming his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily. These include the legitimacy of his claim to the throne, the internal motivations and external pressures which led him to attempt to claim the throne, and the provocations by the papacy. Thus, three key sections of the essay emerge: the analysis of the legitimacy of Conradin’s claim to the throne of Sicily, of the driving powers behind his campaign, and of the role of the papacy.
Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION
MAIN BODY
The fundamental claim of legitimacy
The conflicting impact of internal motivations and external pressures
Internal motivations
External pressures
Papal interests as a key factor
Conradin as a person
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIX
Appendix 1 - Simplified version of the genealogical table of the Staufer dynasty
Appendix 2 - Simplified map of parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, approx. 1250
Appendix 3 - Epigraphs and artistic representations
Introduction
The topic of discussion is Conradin Hohenstaufen’s short life and the different factors resulting in his decision to claim his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily. Conradin was born into a continuously escalating conflict situation between the Holy Roman Empire and the papacy which began under Pope Gregory VII, who in the 11th century attempted to reform the papacy to have greater political power.1 The conflict pervaded successive dynasties and we find Conradin at the close of the Hohenstaufen dynasty in the mid 13th century. His life, ending with an expedition to Italy in order to secure his crown, cannot fail to capture the imagination. It is a relevant and interesting topic to explore, as it has not been as widely researched as other protagonists of this important dynasty. This despite it having a fundamental impact on the transition of the geopolitical map of the late Roman and the medieval Europe we know today, as his failure ended the extension of German imperial rule to southern Italy. This is a fascinating topic, as it can help us understand a wide variety of factors which played into the formation and stabilisation of a new power balance in medieval Europe, leading to the research question throughout the work being: How can we evaluate the different factors affecting Conradin’s decision to claim his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily?
This question can be approached in a multitude of ways, however, the focus will mainly be on different factors resulting in Conradin claiming his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily. These include the legitimacy of his claim to the throne, the internal motivations and external pressures which led him to attempt to claim the throne, and the provocations by the papacy. Thus, three key sections of the essay emerge: the analysis of the legitimacy of Conradin’s claim to the throne of Sicily, of the driving powers behind his campaign, and of the role of the papacy.
Regarding the source situation there are challenges. Over time Conradin has been object to certain romanticization possibly due to the appeal of his story. This more romantic treatment of Conradins story can also be found in the marble relief of Conradin's farewell to his companion Fridrich von Baden in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine dating from the second half of the 19th . 2 This led to misuses in terms of propaganda during Nazi Germany, for example the romanticising novel Konradin published in 1939.3 The narrative builds a strong German nationalistic identity through portraying Conradin as a great early German hero, fighting for what is rightfully his.
Also, although there are some secondary sources when researching Conradin’s life, these are mostly from the last century and few primary sources can be found from the times of Conradin’s life. During the 19th century the scholarly perspective on Conradin shifted from a more romanticised view, with publications such as Geschichte Konradins von Hohenstaufen by Karl Hampe, to a more objective analysis and a more expanded academic research horizon in recent years, markedly the published colloquium Konradin (1252-1268) including the contributions of leading scholars such as Giovanni Vitolo, Giancarlo Andenna, Cristina Andenna, Hansmartin Schwarzmaier and Arnold Esch, in 2018. Due to these changes of perception, it is vital to contextualise different authors and historians of different generations, such as Karl Hampe the late 19th century author, alongside to Steven Runciman and John Julius Norwich from the mid 20th century, with more recent research and approaches. More contemporary authors and historians such as Christopher Kleinhenz, Jean Dunbabin and Cristina Andenna, attempt to deliver an objective and well-balanced assessment of the life of Conradin Hohenstaufen.
I expect to find that Conradin’s justifications of his claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily were valid and there were a multitude of internal motivations and external pressures, leading to Conradin claiming his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
Main Body
The fundamental claim of legitimacy
Understanding and being able to make judgements about the legitimacy of Conradin’s claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily calls for insights on the challenges, the historical aspects and the dynamics of the legitimacy of the Hohenstaufen rule.
After Conradin’s father, Conrad IV, died, there was little discussion about who would be the successor, as Conradin proclaimed himself the undeniable bearer of three crowns. It was clear to him and his followers that he was in full possession, and therefore the heir, to the title of Duke of Swabia, the King of Jerusalem and the King of Sicily,4 yet not to the King of Germany, as this title was only achievable through an election. Yet it is possible to question whether his self-proclamation and limited support establishes his legitimacy or threatens it. However, due to his age and the fact his father had selected the Church as the guardian of his son alongside the leader of the German barons, Berthold of Hohenburg, as his bailiff,5 there was little opportunity for Conradin to personally act on his claims. Nonetheless, Conrad IV. aimed to ensure that his son would be kept safe and be his successor when he came to age, in case of his early death, which followed in 1254.6
The chancery of the Hohenstaufen dynasty consistently ‘constructed’ the legitimacy and idoneity by emphasising the principle of genealogical and dynastic descent in relevant documentations. Whilst the papal chancery attempted to ‘deconstruct’ the legitimacy of the Hohenstaufen descendants and denied the idoneity of the individuals, when looking at the right to the Holy Roman Empire.7 Therefore, what we see reflected in the sources is the conflict between the papacy and the dynasty regarding the legitimacy of Conradin’s claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
Even before the time of Conradin, in the times of his grandfather Frederick II’s minority, there was a discussion concerning the legitimacy, as Sicily was a contested kingdom. The regional nobility is considered by some scholars to have been a group of “warlords”, as these had to survive through violent scheming to retain and enlarge their power, by competing for influence over the young Frederick II, which in turn exacerbated the power vacuum that had already resulted through Henry VI’s absence and early death.8 This presented the Hohenstaufen dynasty with an uneasy reign, as it was difficult to keep the local population content. Similarly, during his short reign, Conradin’s father had to leave the German empire to defend his right of succession in the Kingdom of Sicily, also known as the “ Regnum Siciliae ”.9 This illustrates the legitimacy of the claim to the throne of Sicily, as the Hohenstaufen dynasty ruled and controlled the kingdom since 1194.10
Furthermore, according to Frederick II’s testamentary dispositions of 1250, Conradin was intended to be his legitimate successor as being the sole legitimate descendant of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, resulting in him also having the legitimate claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.11 Nonetheless, it should be considered that it is possible that the testament, dated in the year of the death of Frederick II. could have been manipulated or forged. However, this is unlikely as played a highly important role and most likely would have considered the testament a necessary precaution to ensure the continuity of the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
Moreover, this is supported by the fact that Pope Innocent IV declared his willingness to preserve Conradin’s rights over the Regnum Ierosolimitanum, the Kingdom of Jerusalem, the Duchy of Swabia and the Regnum Siciliae.12
Ultimately, whilst the question of Conradin’s legitimacy presents some difficulties, such as the pope wanting to ‘undermine’ it, when looking at the evidence, it is conclusive that his claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily was legitimate. Therefore, it is possible to now analyse how Conradin came to act on his claim, in other words, what internal motivations and external pressures made him act.
The conflicting impact of internal motivations and external pressures
Internal motivations
The internal motivations leading Conradin to his actions, incorporate a variety of aspects, including his sense of duty, pride and legacy.
His mother Elizabeth of Wittelsbach, daughter of Otto II. of Bavaria, at first did not seem to have such a strong personal connection to her son, as sources state that she placed him in the care of the Bishop of Constance. Although he often visited Elizabeth’s brother, Louis II, this arrangement showed how distant his mother was. Nevertheless, it is important to note that this was a common occurrence in the Middle Ages.13 However, growing up at a distance from his mother may have made Conradin mature earlier leading to him having the courage to attempt to reclaim the lost Kingdom of Sicily.14
According to British historian Steven Runciman, Conradin was clever and deeply conscious of his lineage. His mother discouraged his ambitions to make the claim, as she had no wish for him to risk his life on “grandiose adventures”.15 Similarly, his uncles attempted to dissuade him, however, they were overwhelmed by his enthusiasm for the claim.16 Nevertheless, he was “eagerly supported” by his dearest friend Frederick of Baden-Austria.17 Whilst this illustrates how Conradin acted out of internal motivation, it must be considered that Runciman based his claims on a source from 1894, the phase of romanticisation of Conradin, manifested through the uses of adjectives such as “grandiose” when describing Conradin’s campaign. Therefore, although the source holds value, it possibly only gives the way in which Conradin was perceived in the 19th century.
Moreover, although Conradin never met his grandfather, Emperor Frederick II, who loved Sicily above all his other dominions, he understood that Sicily was an important part of their empire. 18 This sense of legacy might have left an impression on Conradin, leading to his determination to claim his rightful inheritance.19 Not even the excommunication by Pope Clement IV, on the grounds of disobedience to the papal will, was able to stop him.20 This highlights Conradin’s internal motivation, which drove him to make the claim. It is unclear from what sources Norwich attains this knowledge; thus, it can be assumed that it might be a retrospective interpretation. Still, it is an important aspect which to some extent is probable.
Additionally, Conradin was clear about his claim to the Kingdom of Sicily, as it was his right of birth.21 However, Conradin was also aware that if he wanted to succeed, he would require greater support, thus enquiring the support from his friends and subjects.22 Conscious of the possibility of a defeat, possibly even death, Conradin appointed Louis II of Bavaria as his sole heir in April 1263, however only in the event of his death without direct descendants.23 Outlining, how Conradin wanted to reclaim his kingdom out of personal motivation by all means necessary.
Furthermore, Conradin understood the difficulties and risks connected with his campaign and therefore prepared accordingly. Early on he began to send letters to alert his supporters in Sicily, ensuring they would be ready to fight upon his arrival. This also seems to indicate how Conradin was internally determined to claim his rightful throne.24
In addition, according to the text of the contemporary Peter of Prezza, the voting aristocracy unanimously swore the oath of loyalty consequently recognising his rights. Whilst also entrusting him with the duties associated with the role of king of the Romans and future emperor, Conradin took these duties very seriously.25 Nonetheless, it is vital to note that Peter of Prezza was propagating for Conradin by writing about his legitimate claims and rights, thus possibly indicating that this source is too one-sided. Nevertheless, the source is valuable, as it showcases the authorities and duties connected with the claim of the throne of Sicily. These call upon him to destroy and rebuild in the name of God, to fight the rebels and to protect the weakest from the arrogance of the powerful.26 This is an underlying internal motivation of Conradin, as he is bound by his duties to act against the usurpation of the Sicilian Kingdom.
In short it can be stated that there were a multitude of internal motivations, leading to Conradin’s attempted claim for his rightful place as the King of Sicily.
External pressures
The external pressures that made Conradin act are composed of a multitude of aspects, including the pressures he experienced through family, nobility and supporters.
It is difficult to determine if it was Conradin’s idea to make the claim for the Kingdom of Sicily. However, it is clear that he himself was not in full control of his inheritance, as his guardians Louis II and Henry, entrusted by Otto II of Bavaria, made political decisions in his name.27 Furthermore, it is apparent that his campaign was principally supported by his uncle Louis II.28 It is possible that Conradin’s uncle sought to gain an advantage through his support. Therefore, it is possible that young Conradin was pressured by his uncle to lead the campaign.
Moreover, some southern German nobility and electors, including Eberhard II of Constance, actively campaigned for Conradin to acquire the title of Roman king.29 They did so, as they were convinced that by supporting and encouraging him in his claim for the Sicilian crown they could persuade the Pope to grant him the imperial dignity, from which they could potentially benefit.30 This unveils how Conradin was placed under pressure by the southern German nobility, who were practically forcing him to make his claim for the throne of Sicily.31 Thus, highlighting the lack of control Conradin had over the decisions made in his name and the extent to which he was used as a tool by his own supporters. However, Christina Andenna, is making this point in the context of exploring sources hostile to the Hohenstaufen dynasty, therefore she might overemphasise the degree to which Conradin is victimised.
Furthermore, external pressures arose through the desperate pro-imperial elements in Italy.32 Namely, as they persuaded Conradin to assert his claim to the throne of Sicily.33 This indicates that the pro-imperial Italian elements used Conradin for their advantage. The southern Italians and the Sicilians sought to benefit from the greater freedom under a largely absentee overlord, even though it also meant less good governance.34 Therefore, there were a multitude of powerful supporters inside the Kingdom of Sicily,35 including the Saracens at Lucera, traditionally tolerated by the Hohenstaufen rule.36 However, this had the implication that there were vast amounts of pressure on Conradin to make the rightful claim.
Conradin’s uncle, Manfred, became the regent in Sicily, in the name of his half-brother Conrad IV, who was in Germany.37 After eight years of being the regent, a false rumour that Conradin had died resulted in the Sicilian barons proclaiming Manfred the King of Sicily.38 This is when the situation tensed, as in conjunction with the approval of the barons and the “Großen des Reiches” (the greatest families with the most influence and the greatest power in the realm), he was crowned on the 10. August 1258.39 This led to Manfred’s final separation from the papacy, as well as from Conradin and his followers.40 This was a setback for Conradin, as through this his legitimacy was no longer undisputable, resulting in an increase of external pressures to assert his claim.
Although to some extent this was a harmful for Conradin, to some extent it was beneficial, as a seemingly solid power base was constructed by Manfred which Conradin might later have used.41 However, when Manfred retreated from an unsuccessful attack on Rome, he returned to his kingdom to find his dominion in a state of rebellion, alongside an empty treasury. Therefore, many of his allies submitted to the pope, or became neutral.42 This did not only have negative repercussions on him, but later also on Conradin, as external pressures grew to ‘rescue’ the kingdom of Sicily which even Manfred had not managed to hold together.
The papacy reasserted its claim in Sicily when Manfred was killed in 1266.43 This encouraged the remaining discontented supporters of the late Manfred, including the notary Peter of Prezza, to travel to Conradin and to attempt to encourage him to intervene.44 Thus, demonstrating how Conradin did not decide to attempt to take the Kingdom of Sicily out of his personal will. Rather, it was through a combination of external pressures from different groups and characters, such as the chronicler Peter of Prezza.
Moreover, during Conradin’s campaign he found the support of many local lords, also known as the signori.45 Whilst on the one hand they supported Conradin, on the other hand some called on him to defend his father's inheritance against the exploitative rule under Charles of Anjou merely out of self-interest.46 Hence underlining how these local lords were mostly not loyal and switched sides depending on what they believed to be most beneficial for them. For instance, Manfred II of Maletta joined Charles of Anjou after the battle of Benevento, however shortly after he re-joined Peter III of Aragon, showing his support for the dynastic ambitions of the Hohenstaufen dynasty and highlighting the challenging loyalty situation in Sicily.47 Thus, emphasising the pressure under which Conradin was placed by local Sicilian nobility.
In conclusion, it is clear that there were a wide variety of external pressures to which Conradin was not able to withstand, leading to his attempted claim for the Kingdom of Sicily.
Overall, these aspects accentuate that whilst on the one hand there were numerous internal motivations driving Conradin to act, on the other hand there were several external pressures playing into Conradin’s decision to claim the Sicilian throne. This complex interplay of factors was, however, not the final influential force behind Conradin’s actions, as the papacy played a major role in provoking Conradin through a variety of factors.
Papal interests as a key factor
Since the eleventh century, partially due to the development of a papal reform movement, the papacy saw an increase in its political weight throughout medieval Europe.48 There is a history of conflict with the German empire and the papacy, namely the power contest between Pope Gregory VIII and Frederick II.49 During the time of Conradin there were four popes, Innocent IV, Alexander IV, Urban IV and Clement IV.50 Some of them exerted vast influence upon Conradin, leading to his attempted claim for his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
For an extended period the popes treated the Kingdom of Sicily as their own fief and chose to keep the right, which they had acquired during the Norman period, to assent to the kings on the condition of receiving an oath of allegiance from them.51 This had the implication that after the death of Frederick II and also Conrad IV the popes attempted to remove the Sicilian throne from the Hohenstaufen family by not giving their assent.52 This was a clear infringement of their legitimate claim to the throne.
Despite this, the relations between the papacy and the Hohenstaufen dynasty have not always been as strained, as pope Innocent IV was one of Conradin’s guardians.53 He received this role through the explicit request from Conrad IV, possibly as this brought the benefit that nobody dared question the papal authority, therefore also supporting Conradin’s legitimacy. Nonetheless, through Pope Innocent IV’s letter of condolence on the death on Conradin’s father, he recognised Conradin’s titles, of King of Jerusalem and Duke of Swabia, yet he did not clearly state his right to the crown of the Kingdom of Sicily.54 This highlights that although early on there was a more cordial relation between the papacy and the dynasty, there was still a matter of distrust and underlying sabotaging. Hence, possibly another factor leading to Conradin claiming his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
In addition to that, the relation to the pope worsened after Louis II, a further guardian, failed to consult with the pontifex before appointing Manfred the regent over Sicily.55
After the papacy defeated Manfred, through Charles of Anjou, and reasserted power over the Kingdom of Sicily they were searching for a king. Pope Urban IV decision fell on Charles of Anjou, count of Provence.56 However, initially he only showed minimal interest in becoming King of Sicily.57 Regardless, he accepted and was crowned on the 6 January 1266,58 marking a pivotal provocation leading Conradin to attempt to reclaim his usurped kingdom.
Yet another major provocation occurred when Charles of Anjou refused to accept that neither Manfred, Conradin or even Frederick II, after his formal deposition by Pope Innocent in 1245, were lawful Kings of Sicily. Thus, making all their legislation, together with all their grants of land, invalid. In other terms, if a landowner could not prove that he had owned his property before 1245, that property was seized. All this confiscated land, together with further confiscations from the convicted rebels, was either kept by Charles himself, or distributed among his mostly French followers.59 This was another aspect that provoked Conradin to act.
Moreover, in an attempt to weaken Conradin, Pope Urban IV threatened all supporters and followers of Conradin with excommunication.60 Besides, the pope triggered a chain of serious political repercussions, including the dissolution of the feudal ties between Conradin and his German allies, resulting in some of his followers deserting him, along with their military support. This provocation finally led to Conradin setting off on his campaign, to claim his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily on the 8 September 1267. He was able to do so despite the papal threat, as he still had a large number of supporters. In response to Conradin’s disobedience, the pope excommunicated him on the 5 April 1268.61
Overall, these actions by the papacy were a series of pivotal provocations towards Conradin, resulting in his attempted claim for his rightful place on the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
Conradin as a person
Finally, it becomes apparent that despite thoroughly investigating the internal motivations and external pressures exerted on Conradin, our understanding of him as a person has not significantly increased. This may partially be due to the many different perceptions. At one end of the range, we find the German and Sicilian nobles, aiming to use and exploit him as a tool for their benefit. There is also the personification of him as the main enemy of the papacy, due to previous emperors, Conradin’s ancestors, having overpowered the papacy in the past.
At the other end of the range there is the fact that Conradin needs to be understood as a young person in the Middle Ages. This means looking at his actual personal relationships, perhaps the most important one being Friedrich of Baden-Österreich. Their friendship and probably even more their shared errand in going on the campaign to claim Conradin’s Sicilian crown and perishing possibly appealed even in the Middle Ages, as the Manasse illustration of the two friends and the legends formed about Conradins youth show.62 Overall, the little insight into the life of characters in the Middle Ages that we have has been shaped over time, from the original events over the interpretations from various contemporary perspectives to the analysis by historians, with transmitters deliberately or accidentally changing what they know, depending on personal perception. Thus increasing the historian’s challenge of getting a personal understanding of any figure alongside their views, emotions and opinions long after their death. At the same time this dearth of reliable evidence prepares the ground for instrumentalisation and legend.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Conradin's decision to claim his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily requires the analysis of a wide variety of aspects. Whilst it is impossible to state whether Conradin decided to attempt to claim the throne out of legitimacy reasons, internal motivation or external pressures, or due to the provocations by the papacy, it is most probable that Conradin made his decision based on a complex interplay of different factors including the aforementioned. Nonetheless, it can be stated that after the initially powerful, well-ordered, and prosperous reign by Norman and Hohenstaufen, southern Italy moved into a centuries-long decline, leading to severe consequences, including long-term infrastructural, economic and social problems lasting to the modern age.63
The main reason for why it is impossible to comprehend the actual reasons behind Conradin’s campaign, is the fact that over time different chroniclers, authors and historians developed different understandings, through different interpretations based on the limited primary documents. This shift of perspectives over time can only be better understood by compiling sources from different periods, as set out in the introduction.
In sum, I found significant evidence that Conradin’s justifications of his claim to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily were legitimate, thus allowing me to examine the factors influencing Conradin’s decision to re-capture his inheritance more closely. As regards evaluating the relative importance of the three factors, it emerged that there was not one clear external pressure or internal motivation, however the interplay of a multitude of expectations and interests, in combination with the papacy as a catalyst, lead to Conradin claiming his right to the throne of the Kingdom of Sicily.
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Appendix
Appendix 1 - Simplified version of the genealogical table of the Staufer dynasty
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 1. Karl-Wilhelm Baden, Simplified genealogical table of the Staufer Family
Appendix 2 - Simplified map ofparts of the Holy Roman Empire, the Papal States and the Kingdom ofSicily, approx. 1250
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 2. Karl-Wilhelm Baden, Simplified map of parts of the Holy Roman Empire, the Papal States and the Kingdom of Sicily, approx. 1250
Appendix 3 – Epigraphs and artistic representations
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 3. Karl-Wilhelm Baden, Dedication plaque of Stams Abbey, founded 1272, photograph taken in 2024 in Stams, Austria
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 4. Karl-Wilhelm Baden, Sculpture of Conradin in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine, photograph taken in 2018 in Naples, Italy. The statue was commissioned by King Maximilian II. of Bavaria and sculpted by Berthel Thorvaldsen in 1847.
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 5. Karl-Wilhelm Baden, Illustration of Conradin's farewell to his companion Fridrich von Baden in the church of Santa Maria del Carmine, photograph taken in 2018 in Naples, Italy. The relief dates from the second half of the 19th century probably endowed by a member of the family of Baden during a commemorative visit to Naples.
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Figure 6. Anonymous, King Conrad the Young and Frederick of Baden-Austria, in: Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift (Codex Manesse), Illuminated manuscript, ca. 1300–1340, Universitätsbibliothek Heidelberg, https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/cpg848/0009/image,info,text_heidicon#col_text_heidicon. Accessed 28.02.2024.
[...]
1 Barbara Stollberg-Rilinger, The Holy Roman Empire A Short History, (Munich: C. H. Beck, 2013), 13.
2 Appendix 3, figure 5.
3 Sophie Fleischhauer, Konradin, der Letzte der Hohenstaufen (Leipzig: v. Hase & Koehler Verlag, 1939).
4 Hans Uwe Ullrich, Konradin von Hohenstaufen: Die Tragödie von Neapel (Munich: Universitas Verlag, 2004), 194.
5 Christopher Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy an Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2004), 3657.
6 Robert-Tarek Fischer, Die Kreuzzüge Der Deutschen (Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2023), 204.
7 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Giovanni Vitolo, et al. Konradin (1252-1268) (Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2022), 71. This a fundamental article presented at the colloquium marking the 750th anniversary of the decapitation of Conradin, given in Naples on the 29th of October 2018. A working translation would be: Dynastic claims and antiHohenstaufen propaganda at the example of Conradin.
8 Joachim Whaley, The Holy Roman Empire (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 51.
9 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 75-76.
10 John Julius Norwich, Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History (New York: Random House, 2015), 64.
11 Cristina Andenna, Gert Melville, Idoneität - Genealogie - Legitimation: Begründung und Akzeptanz von dynastischer Herrschaft im Mittelalter (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2015), 240-241.
12 Andenna and Melville, Idoneität - Genealogie - Legitimation, 241.
13 Jacqueline Alio, Queens of Sicily 1061-1266 (New York: Trinacria Editions, 2020), 652.
14 Alio, Queens of Sicily, 652.
15 Steven Runciman, The Sicilian vespers a history of the Mediterranean world in the later thirteenth century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 101.
16 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 103.
17 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 101.
18 John Julius Norwich, Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History (New York: Random House, 2015), 75.
19 Christopher Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy an Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2004), 1398.
20 Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy, 1398.
21 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 103.
22 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 103.
23 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 78.
24 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 102.
25 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 84.
26 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 84.
27 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 76.
28 Christopher Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy an Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2004), 1398.
29 Cristina Andenna, Gert Melville, Idoneität - Genealogie - Legitimation: Begründung und Akzeptanz von dynastischer Herrschaft im Mittelalter (Cologne: Böhlau Verlag, 2015), 240.
30 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 78.
31 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 79.
32 Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy, 2747.
33 Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy, 2747.
34 Steven Runciman, The Sicilian vespers a history of the Mediterranean world in the later thirteenth century (London: Cambridge University Press, 1958), 98.
35 Katherine L. Jansen, Medieval Italy (Philadelphia: University Of Pennsylvania Press, 2009), 135-136.
36 Runciman, The Sicilian vespers, 96.
37 Richard K. Emmerson (ed.), Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia (New York: Routledge, 2006), 440.
38 Emmerson, Key Figures in Medieval Europe, 440.
39 Andenna and Melville, Idoneität - Genealogie - Legitimation, 242.
40 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 77.
41 Jean Dunbabin, The French in the Kingdom of Sicily, 1266-1305 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011), 7.
42 Emmerson, Key Figures in Medieval Europe, 440.
43 Kleinhenz, Medieval Italy, 105.
44 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 78.
45 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 79.
46 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 79.
47 Wurttembergisches Landesmuseum, Die Zeit der Staufer III (Stuttgart: Wurttembergisches Landesmuseum, 1977), 372.
48 Kenneth Pennington, Pope and Bishops (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2018), 116.
49 John N. D. Kelly, The Oxford Dictionary ofPopes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986), 287-288.
50 Kelly, Dictionary ofPopes, 196.
51 Giovanni Vitolo, et al. Konradin (1252-1268) (Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2022), 71.
52 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 71.
53 Hans Uwe Ullrich, Konradin von Hohenstaufen: Die Tragödie von Neapel (Munich: Universitas Verlag, 2004), 9.
54 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 76.
55 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 77.
56 Richard K. Emmerson (ed.), Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopaedia (New York: Routledge, 2006), 440.
57 John Julius Norwich, Sicily: An Island at the Crossroads of History (New York: Random House, 2015), 75.
58 Oliver Auge, et al. Konradin (1252-1268) - der letzte Staufer (Göppingen: Gesellschaft für staufische Geschichte e.V., 2018), 17.
59 Norwich, Sicily, 75.
60 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 78.
61 Cristina Andenna „Dynastische Ansprüche und anitstaufische Publizistik am Beispiel Konradins“ in Vitolo, et al. Konradin, 79.
62 Appendix 3, Figure 6 for Manasse: for the formation of legends surrounding Conradin see especially Giovanni Vitolo, et al. Konradin (1252-1268) (Heidelberg: Heidelberg University Publishing, 2022), 119-145, 151.
63 Richard K. Emmerson (ed.), Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopaedia (New York: Routledge, 2006), 440.
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- Karl-Wilhelm Prinz von Baden (Autor:in), 2024, Conradin’s Claim to Sicily, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1599788
