Blockchain focuses on using digital systems to execute and record online transactions that can only be perceived or considered as the building blocks developed from digital algorithms and secured through cryptography. This technology system is one of the key strategic technology trends used in various organizations or public sectors to record transactions. The problem at hand is the gender gap within the blockchain industry, where African American women are underrepresented and face various challenges in their pursuit of opportunities and advancement. Despite the increasing interest in blockchain technology, the participation of women in the industry remains significantly lower compared to their male counterparts.
This gender disparity not only limits the diversity of talent and ideas within the industry but also hinders the industry's overall growth, innovation, and potential for positive social impact. Existing studies on gender gaps in technology fields, while valuable, often provide a limited understanding of the specific dynamics and challenges within the blockchain industry. There is a need for focused research that examines the gender gap in blockchain systems and investigates the unique factors that contribute to women's underrepresentation.
This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the gender gap in blockchain systems, focusing on African American women's perspectives and their involvement in blockchain technology. By addressing this research gap, we can gain insights into the barriers African American women face in the industry and identify strategies to foster a more inclusive and equitable blockchain ecosystem.
The general research question is: What are the potential factors that lead to the gender gap in blockchain systems among African American women in the US who are influencers in the blockchain space?
The sub-research questions are: How does race influence gender inequality in blockchain technology change among African American women in the US? How do trust and transparency influence the leadership position of African American women in the blockchain system? What are the key strategies or success factors to promote future gendered leadership in blockchain systems?
1.1.2 Leadership in Blockchain
2.2 Digital Systems and Leadership Roles
2.3.1 Blockchain Systems and Technology in Financial Sector
2.3.2 Blockchain Technology and Online Transactions
2.4 Resistance to Blockchain Adoption and its Impact on Future Employment
2.4.1 People's Perceptions of the Implementation and Usage of Blockchain Technology
2.4.2 Leaders' or Managers' Resistance to Change
2.4.3 Lack of Support and Competencies
2.5 Gender Gap in Blockchain Systems
2.6 Implementation of Blockchain Technology and Women’s Influential Behaviors
2.7 Blockchain Adoption and Future Women Leadership and Employment
2.9 Trust And Transparency in Blockchain Systems
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Research Method and Design
3.2 Population And Sampling
3.3 Data Collection
3.1.1 Data Collection Instrument
3.3.2 Data Collection Procedures
3.4 Data Analysis
3.4.1 Data Analysis Procedure
3.5 Ethical Considerations
3.6 Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
3.6.1 Assumptions
3.6.2 Limitations
3.6.3 Delimitations
Chapter 4: Findings
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Research Question 1
4.1.1 Intersectionality
4.1.1.2 Education and Access
4.1.1.3 Cultural Representation
4.1.1.4 Historical Context
4.1.1.5 Female Role Models Within the Blockchain Industry
4.1.2 Research Question Two
4.1.2.2 The Impact of Trust and Leadership Opportunities
4.1.2.3 Transparency in Career Advancement for Leadership Positions
4.1.3 Research Question Three
4.1.3.1 Mentorship And Networking
4.1.3.2 Provision and Improving Access to Education
4.1.3.3 Collaboration And Partnership to Advocate for Equity in Blockchain
Chapter 5: Discussion, Implications, Conclusion & Recommendations
5.1 Discussion
5.1.1 Research Question 1
5.1.2 Research Question Two
5.1.3 Research Question Three
5.2 Implications of the Findings
5.3 Conclusions
5.4 Recommendations for Practice
References
Appendices
Appendix A: Categories for theme development for research question one
Appendix B: Theme Development for Research Question Two
Appendix C: Theme Development for Research Question Three
1. Introduction
Blockchain, as an emerging technology, has been found to provide significant value in organizations in terms of decentralization and democratic standards (Baym, Swartz, & Alarcon, 2019). This technological innovation can benefit organizations but there are gender gaps or gender problems due to males dominating blockchain leadership. Approximately 14% of employees in blockchain systems are women, with only 7% occupying leadership roles (Frizzo- Barker, 2020).
Blockchain technology has emerged as a transformative force, offering decentralized and transparent solutions for data management, financial transactions, and various other applications. It has the potential to revolutionize industries, promote efficiency, and foster innovation (Javaid et al., 2021). However, despite its promises, the blockchain industry faces a significant gender gap in terms of women's representation and involvement. The underrepresentation of women in blockchain-related professions, such as development, entrepreneurship, and leadership roles, raises concerns about diversity, inclusivity, and equitable access to opportunities within the industry (Frizzo-Barker, 2020).
The gender gap in technology fields, including blockchain, has been widely recognized and studied. Research has highlighted persistent disparities, including lower representation of women in technical roles, limited access to funding for female-led blockchain startups, and challenges in career advancement (Alvino et al., 2020). The blockchain industry, with its rapid growth and potential for disruption, should strive to address these gender disparities to fully realize its potential. Moreover, blockchain systems have emerged as a transformative technology with the potential to revolutionize various industries and reshape how people conduct transactions, share data, and establish trust in the digital world (Attaran, 2019). Originally introduced as the underlying technology for cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, blockchain has evolved into a versatile and secure platform that can be applied to a wide range of applications beyond financial transactions (Gad et al., 2022). At its core, a blockchain is a decentralized and distributed ledger that records and verifies transactions across multiple computers or nodes. It operates on a peer-to-peer network, eliminating the need for intermediaries such as banks or third-party institutions to facilitate and validate transactions (Gad et al., 2022). This decentralized nature, combined with cryptographic algorithms, ensures transparency, immutability, and security, making it an attractive solution for various industries. The gender gap in blockchain represents a significant challenge to the industry's growth and inclusivity. While blockchain technology holds immense potential for transforming industries and reshaping our digital world, it is not immune to the gender gap that persists in the tech sector (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). Like many other technology-driven fields, the blockchain industry faces significant disparities in gender representation, participation, and leadership. Understanding and addressing the gender gap in blockchain systems is crucial to ensure inclusivity, diversity, and equal opportunities within this rapidly growing field (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). The blockchain community can create a more equitable and diverse ecosystem by recognizing the barriers that hinder women's participation and implementing strategies to address them (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). However, there is a lack of comprehensive research specifically exploring the gender gap in blockchain systems from women's perspectives. Understanding the factors contributing to this gender disparity and gaining insights into women's experiences, challenges, and opportunities within the industry is crucial for fostering diversity, inclusivity, and innovation (Primack, 2018). Embracing gender diversity not only promotes social justice but also enhances innovation and strengthens the industry's long-term sustainability. It is through collective efforts and a commitment to equality that we can unlock the full potential of blockchain technology for all.
1.1 Background Information
1.1.1 The Blockchain Systems
Blockchain focuses on using digital systems to execute and record online transactions that can only be perceived or considered as the building blocks developed from digital algorithms and secured through cryptography (Justinia, 2019). This technology system is one of the key strategic technology trends used in various organizations or public sectors to record transactions. The focus of organizations in using blockchain is to remove the demand for central authorities to record business transactions and arbitrate disputes (Justinia, 2019). This is associated with the transparency of blockchain based on its immutability in which business records are kept in a distributed ledger with cryptography solutions (Justinia, 2019). Blockchain systems facilitate decentralized and shared ledgers of transactions in which every transaction is confirmed by the parties in the system (Levis, Fontana, & Ughetto, 2021). When a transaction is made, like when one client sends value units to another client, the blockchain systems share or record the transaction encrypted within a particular technique to the entire network. This enables all users within the system to get a notification of the transaction they made (Levis et al., 2021). Thus, blockchain technology stands to be an exceptional technical solution for transactions. According to Leible et al. (2019), blockchain technology is an extraordinary technological advancement that offers technical architecture for online business transactions because of its cryptography property. Leible et al. (2019) further discussed that blockchain technology is developed for private or open access to information, and it has an individual governance model that provides an additional unique opportunity for organizations or individuals to develop their business incentives.
1.1.2 Leadership in Blockchain
Exploring individual perceptions of women in blockchain systems about the potential factors that lead to the gender gaps is crucial as it provides the basis for understanding women's leadership in blockchain systems. In the study, van Haaren-van Duijn et al. (2022) found that blockchain leadership often involves fostering a collaborative and inclusive decision-making process where stakeholders across the network can contribute and participate. This can be achieved through mechanisms such as governance structures, voting systems, or consensus mechanisms. Thus, leaders must navigate the complexities of blockchain technology while understanding its implications for the organization's operations, business models, and industry landscape (van Haaren-van Duijn et al., 2022). They must possess a deep understanding of both the technical aspects of blockchain and the broader implications for the organization's goals and objectives.
Leaders in blockchain must demonstrate a clear vision and strategy for blockchain implementation within the organization. They need to identify suitable use cases and assess the potential impact on various processes, such as supply chain management, financial transactions, intellectual property rights, and more (van Haaren-van Duijn et al., 2022). By identifying opportunities for blockchain integration, leaders can position their organizations at the forefront of digital transformation. Moreover, effective leadership in blockchain requires a keen focus on collaboration and ecosystem building (Yeung, 2021). Leaders must engage with partners, industry peers, regulatory bodies, and technology experts to foster innovation, establish industry standards, and drive the adoption of blockchain solutions (van Haaren-van Duijn et al., 2022).
Security and risk management are also paramount in the blockchain landscape. Also, Kayikci et al. (2022) explained that blockchain systems are built on principles of transparency, security, and immutability. Leaders in blockchain need to embody these values and demonstrate ethical behavior. Kayikci et al. (2022) further stated that transparency in decision-making processes, disclosing conflicts of interest, and ensuring data privacy and security are essential aspects of leadership in blockchain systems. Consequently, leaders must prioritize cybersecurity measures to safeguard the integrity and confidentiality of data stored on the blockchain (Alquwayzani & Rahman, 2023). They need to address potential vulnerabilities and design robust protocols that mitigate risks associated with hacking, fraud, and data breaches (Alquwayzani & Rahman, 2023). The reviewed studies demonstrate that leadership roles within blockchain demand a unique skill set that combines technical expertise with strategic thinking, innovation, and collaboration. As blockchain continues to reshape industries, effective leaders will be instrumental in harnessing the full potential of this transformative technology, driving organizational growth, and unlocking new opportunities in a decentralized digital future.
1.2 Problem Statement
The problem at hand is the gender gap within the blockchain industry, where African American women are underrepresented and face various challenges in their pursuit of opportunities and advancement. Despite the increasing interest in blockchain technology, the participation of women in the industry remains significantly lower compared to their male counterparts (Primack, 2018). This gender disparity not only limits the diversity of talent and ideas within the industry but also hinders the industry's overall growth, innovation, and potential for positive social impact. Existing studies on gender gaps in technology fields, while valuable, often provide a limited understanding of the specific dynamics and challenges within the blockchain industry (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). There is a need for focused research that examines the gender gap in blockchain systems and investigates the unique factors that contribute to women's underrepresentation. This study aims to fill this gap by investigating the gender gap in blockchain systems, focusing on African American women's perspectives and their involvement in blockchain technology. By addressing this research gap, we can gain insights into the barriers African American women face in the industry and identify strategies to foster a more inclusive and equitable blockchain ecosystem.
1.3 Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the gender gap in blockchain systems from African American women's perspectives. The study aims to explore the experiences, perceptions, and challenges encountered by African American women involved in blockchain technology, providing a comprehensive understanding of their involvement in the industry. By uncovering the factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of African American women and hinder their advancement, the study seeks to contribute to the broader goal of fostering gender diversity, inclusivity, and equal access to opportunities within the blockchain field.
1.4 Research Aims
i. To examine the experiences and perceptions of African American women engaged in various aspects of blockchain technology, including development, entrepreneurship, leadership, and academia.
ii. To identify the barriers, challenges, and biases that hinder African American women's participation and advancement in the blockchain industry.
iii. To explore the opportunities and strategies that can promote gender diversity and inclusivity within the blockchain ecosystem.
iv. To analyze the impact of gender diversity on innovation, decision-making, and the overall development of the blockchain industry.
1.5 Research Objectives
The main objective is to determine factors that lead to the gender gap in blockchain systems among African American women in the US who are influencers in the blockchain space.
The primary objectives are:
i. To determine how race influences gender inequality in blockchain technology among African American women in the US.
ii. To explore whether trust and transparency influence the leadership position of African American women in the blockchain system.
iii. To determine the key strategies or success factors to promote future gendered leadership of African American women in blockchain systems.
1.6 Research Question
The following are the proposed research questions that will guide the study: The general research question is: What are the potential factors that lead to the gender gap in blockchain systems among African American women in the US who are influencers in the blockchain space?
The sub-research questions are:
i How does race influence gender inequality in blockchain technology change among African American women in the US?
ii How do trust and transparency influence the leadership position of African American women in the blockchain system?
iii What are the key strategies or success factors to promote future gendered leadership of African American women in blockchain systems?
1.7 Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will contribute to bridging the knowledge gap in existing literature, providing insights into women's perspectives on their involvement in blockchain technology. Additionally, the study will offer actionable recommendations to industry stakeholders, policymakers, educational institutions, and organizations seeking to promote gender equality and diversity within the blockchain field.
Moreover, this study holds significant implications for various stakeholders within the blockchain industry. By providing a deeper understanding of the gender gap in blockchain systems, the research will uncover the specific challenges, biases, and barriers faced by women. This knowledge will inform the development of targeted initiatives aimed at promoting gender diversity and inclusivity within the industry. The findings can be utilized by industry leaders, organizations, and policymakers to develop strategies that address the underlying causes of the gender gap and create an environment that encourages women's active participation and advancement in the blockchain field. The study's insights will also contribute to the body of knowledge on gender gaps in technology fields, particularly in the context of blockchain. By focusing on women's perspectives, experiences, and aspirations, the research will provide a more comprehensive understanding of the gender dynamics within the industry. This will enable researchers and scholars to build upon the findings, refine existing theories, and develop new frameworks for studying gender disparities in blockchain systems and other emerging technologies. Furthermore, the study's findings can serve as a basis for educational institutions, industry associations, and organizations to design programs and initiatives that encourage more women to enter and thrive in blockchain-related professions. This could include mentorship programs, training and skill-building initiatives, networking opportunities, and the creation of safe and inclusive spaces within the blockchain community. By actively promoting gender diversity and inclusivity, these stakeholders can harness the untapped potential and perspectives that women bring to the industry, fostering innovation, creativity, and problem-solving. Moreover, the study aims to amplify women's voices and experiences within the blockchain industry. By highlighting their contributions, achievements, and challenges, the research seeks to challenge existing stereotypes, biases, and preconceptions surrounding women's involvement in technology fields. This can inspire and empower aspiring women to pursue careers in blockchain while also reshaping industry norms and practices to foster a more inclusive and equitable technology landscape overall.
Ultimately, this research seeks to drive positive change toward closing the gender gap in blockchain systems. By shedding light on the experiences, perspectives, and aspirations of women involved in blockchain technology, the study aims to foster dialogue, raise awareness, and garner support from industry leaders, policymakers, and stakeholders. The insights generated from this research will not only contribute to the advancement of knowledge but also catalyze actions and initiatives that promote gender equality, diversity, and inclusivity within the blockchain industry and beyond.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Blockchain technology has been touted for its potential to bring decentralization and democratic standards to organizations (Baym, Swartz, & Alarcon, 2019). However, despite its potential benefits, the field of blockchain has been found to have a significant gender gap, with women underrepresented in leadership roles and overall employment (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). To understand this issue, research has been conducted on the perceptions of women in blockchain systems and the potential factors that contribute to the gender gap. Using literature from reputable databases such as Emerald, EBSCOhost, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, this research has identified key themes such as the gender gap in blockchain systems, the implementation of blockchain technology, its impact on women's influential behaviors, blockchain adoption and its potential impact on the future of women's leadership and employment. These themes are used to organize the research and provide insight into the ongoing issue of gender inequality in the field of blockchain.
The gender gap in blockchain systems is a significant concern as it not only limits the potential of women in the field but also negatively impacts the diversity and innovation in the industry. According to recent research, only 14% of employees in blockchain systems are women, with only 7% occupying leadership roles (Frizzo-Barker, 2020). This disparity highlights the need for further research and action to address the gender gap in blockchain systems.
One of the key themes identified in the literature is the impact of the implementation of blockchain technology on women's influential behaviors. Research has shown that women tend to have a different approach to leadership and decision-making, and their participation in the blockchain industry can lead to a more inclusive and diverse decision-making process (Kshetri, 2018). However, the lack of representation of women in leadership roles in blockchain systems can limit their influence and participation in the decision-making process.
Another key theme identified in the literature is the potential impact of blockchain adoption on the future of women's leadership and employment. While blockchain technology has the potential to disrupt traditional power structures and bring about more democratic decision- making, research suggests that without proper attention to diversity and inclusion, the industry may continue to perpetuate existing gender disparities (Kshetri, 2018). Therefore, it is crucial to actively promote and support the participation of women in the blockchain industry to ensure a more equitable and inclusive future.
Overall, the research on the gender gap in blockchain systems highlights the need for further attention and action to address this issue. By understanding the perceptions of women in blockchain systems and the potential factors that contribute to the gender gap, the industry can work towards creating a more inclusive and diverse environment that promotes the participation and leadership of women in blockchain systems.
2.2 Digital Systems and Leadership Roles
Leadership plays a crucial role in motivating and influencing employees to embrace innovation. According to Aarons et al. (2016), leadership is a key determinant in implementing and sustaining innovative systems within organizations. These leaders create a supportive organizational culture that encourages the implementation of service systems and innovative devices. This highlights the impact that leaders have positively or negatively influencing a company's ability to foster innovation or technological changes (Aarons et al., 2016). In the digital age, leaders have adopted strategic leadership skills to make informed decisions regarding the implementation and use of information systems (Shawosh, 2018). This type of leadership can help organizations improve their agility and efficiency by utilizing new information systems (Shawosh, 2018). Additionally, leaders have a significant impact on encouraging their followers to achieve innovative project goals. Lai, Hsu, and Li (2018) explained that with the advent of new technologies across an organization's operations, leadership styles such as transaction and transformational leaderships have promoted a focus on implementing and using information systems to im- prove business operations.
The implementation of technological systems has transformed the way in which products, processes, and services are delivered via the internet. Ahram, Sargolzaei, Sargolzaei, Daniels, and Amaba (2017) explained that due to the conversion from analog to digital systems, public infrastructure has become more advanced with the use of actuators, sensors, and networks. This has changed or transformed the digitalization of various operations. Ahram et al. (2017) further explained that digital systems have enabled professionals to change their roles, including engaging in practices that protect the safety of the public and provide security and welfare as their first priority. Technology has resulted in the introduction of technological leadership in which security leaders take the necessary steps to focus on providing security and maintaining transparency while conducting online activities.
Chen, Yin, and Mei (2018) explained that with the emerging technological markets, leaders integrate their leadership skills into the innovation ecosystem to build competitive advantages over their rivals. This requires strategic leadership to upgrade business operations through organizational innovation. According to Chen et al. (2018), innovation technology has changed leadership practices, including how leaders manage and lead organizations, with the aim to boost their organization's ability to innovate in technology. Organizations can achieve sustainable development with such innovative leadership skills, especially in competitive business environments where most firms focus on using the internet to find and attract many customers (Chen et al., 2018).
Digital leadership has been found to be useful in various organizations, including education, to foster innovative processes. Baydar (2022) explained that in the new digital age and use of the internet worldwide, education systems have found the need for and importance of supporting digital leadership to allow students to develop digital citizenship skills in the learning journey. Also, Baydar (2022) asserted that with digital leadership, educational leaders and schools have emphasized teaching students about technology use for personal and professional purposes. However, the authors lacked detailed information on digital leadership in education focusing on female leaders. Also, the authors did not give information on the influence of female leaders on digital leadership (Baydar, 2022). Aldawood, Alhejaili, Alabadi, Alharbi, and Skinner (2019) discussed that digital leadership is a bold type of leadership that supports innovative changes in the educational field. The authors shared that effective digital leadership facilitates educational change and engages teachers, learners, and other school stakeholders in digital transformation. Aldawood et al. (2019) explained that technological advancement enhances efficient assessment of the way in which teachers and school stakeholders improve their leadership skills and grow professionally. Ruloff and Petko (2022) pointed out that leadership styles employed by school principals influence digital development in schools.
2.3 The Blockchain Systems
Blockchain technology is a digital system that uses cryptography and digital algorithms to execute and record online transactions. The focus of using blockchain is to remove the need for central authorities to record business transactions and make dispute arbitrations (Justinia, 2019). This is achieved through the transparency and immutability of blockchain, where business records are kept in a distributed ledger with cryptography solutions (Justinia, 2019). Blockchain systems facilitate decentralized and shared ledgers of transactions in which every transaction is confirmed by the parties in the system (Levis, Fontana, & Ughetto, 2021). When a transaction is made, like when one client sends value units to another client, the blockchain systems share or record the transaction encrypted within a particular technique to the entire network. This enables all users within the system to get a notification of the transaction they made (Levis et al., 2021). Thus, blockchain technology stands to be an exceptional technical solution for online transactions.
According to Leible et al. (2019), blockchain technology is an extraordinary technological advance that offers technical architecture for online business transactions because of its cryptography property. Leible et al. (2019) further discussed that blockchain technology is developed for private or open access to information, and it has an individual governance model that provides an additional unique opportunity for organizations or individuals to develop their business incentives. Moreover, the use of blockchain applications allows for online transactions because of people's trust while using the technology. Levis et al. (2021) explained that the undoubted advantage that fosters people or organizations to use blockchain technology is the potential to overcome trust issues when transferring value units. Levis et al. (2021) discussed that these blockchain systems provide investors and entrepreneurs, especially in the financial markets, with innovative tools to effectively exchange capital and values without trust issues and without deepening on central authorities to help solve trust problems. Larios- Hernández (2017) discussed that trust is one of the key reasons that many investors and other business owners focus on implementing blockchain systems as their potential mainstream to foster financial technology and online transactions in their future business operations.
Many organizations or sectors, including finance, education, medicine, and manufacturing sectors, have implemented and are using blockchain applications to acquire profit from the unique characteristics of this technology in terms of transparency, credibility, collaboration, and identification (Leible, Schlager, Schubotz, & Gipp, 2019). With a great potential to foster several sectors due to its unique combination of transparency, decentralization, and immutability, organizations focus on implementing this technology for market capitalization (Casino, Dasaklis, & Patsakis 2018). The development of cryptocurrencies is the key factor that supports implementing and using blockchain technology across organizations. Existing evidence demonstrates that various sectors, including Monero, Litecoin, Bitcoin, and Dash, have adopted and applied blockchain technology for crowdfunding, authentication, tracking of goods within the supply chain, voting services, and cryptocurrencies because of its outstanding market capitalizations (Hepp, Wortner, Schönhals, & Gipp, 2018; Cruz, Kaji, & Yanai, 2018; Ihle & Saancze, 2018). The need and typical use of blockchain technology are based on the exchange of value units without the involvement of any intermediaries and allow people to provide and sell their digital properties in the marketplace and enable the owners of such assets to transfer their own lands without any notary (Kombe, Manyilizu, & Mvuma, 2017). This is a major advantage as it allows for a more efficient and secure way of conducting transactions, as it eliminates the need for intermediaries and provides a decentralized system where transactions are recorded and confirmed by the parties involved.
2.3.1 Blockchain Systems and Technology in Financial Sector
Data privacy protection is a critical security concern in the financial industry, despite the implementation of proposed privacy protection schemes (Zhang et al., 2020). The increasing security issues in the financial sector are linked to the use of traditional data storage systems, which are unable to effectively address these problems (Zhang et al., 2020). As a result, emerging blockchain systems have been adopted in financial business operations to provide new solutions for data privacy protection (Zhang et al., 2020). Financial sectors are among the most common organizations that use blockchain technology for the exchange of value units. Leible et al. (2019) highlighted that the key role of financial sectors is to sell their value units through online transactions, particularly through the use of cryptocurrencies as the first blockchain application system for selling digital assets on the internet. Additionally, access to digital banking, particularly in remote areas, can be challenging for certain individuals (Zhang et al., 2020). Blockchain-based digital payment methods can help deliver reliable services to vulnerable populations through reliable networks in remote regions. This blockchain-based digital banking ensures that online transactions conducted by individuals in remote areas are securely protected through cryptographically protected networks (Zhang et al., 2020). One such proposed solution is Fastpay, a digital banking system utilizing blockchain technology for fast payment in these areas. Additionally, real-time gross settlement systems in blockchain-based payment schemes serve as the foundation for inter-bank transactions. These blockchain-based systems, such as the Hyperledger blockchain platform with end- to-end cryptocurrency, help maintain information security for all users' data (Zhang et al., 2020).
While blockchain technology is relatively new to some financial sectors, it has the potential to provide diverse benefits and improve financial management capabilities for users. Choi et al. (2020) explained that the adoption of blockchain technology in finance sectors enhances users' ability to manage their finances and improve trade value. The introduction of ledgers has made blockchain technology a key factor in transforming the way financial sectors operate in the global economy (Choi et al., 2020). The technology is highly valued for its top-end security features and its ability to distribute and share data across various parties in the system through manual verification for security purposes (Choi et al., 2020).
2.3.2 Blockchain Technology and Online Transactions
There has been a growing interest across organizations in blockchain technology, which is known as a distributed and open ledger for online transactions in cryptocurrencies. The technology is associated with peer-peer network interactions that allow any type of online transaction to be kept in a trustworthy and verifiable network system (Gaggioli, 2018). The distributed nature of the technology allows for centralized control authority surplus. Every transaction made is effectively approved and monitored by the users in the ledger, ensuring that the fairness of the process is maintained and guaranteeing that the information is not traced back to the individual through anonymization (Gaggioli, 2018). This shift towards blockchain technology has resulted in the emergence of a new accounting infrastructure. Kwilinski (2019) explains that as one of the modern information technology systems in businesses, blockchain systems have changed some organizations' preconditions for accounting and managerial procedures. The technology has also modified how information is shared, aggregated, and distributed through peer-peer networks. The blockchain decentralized cryptographic procedure provides a new and more scalable process to ensure online data are legitimate and that the online transaction processes are well defined (Ghosh, 2019). In addition, blockchain technology is considered the backbone of the internet of things, protecting the complex ecosystem of peer-peer networks or interconnected devices from physical tampering and information attack (Gaggioli, 2018).
Furthermore, digital cryptocurrency has been a trusted protocol for online transactions due to a set of rules that have been designed and implemented that guarantee the integrity and confidentiality of information or information exchanged and share in distributed computer networks across billions of systems worldwide (Ghosh, 2019). This online transaction is conducted without authentication provided by a trusted third parties, such as PayPal, bank, Mastercard, and Visa (Ghosh, 2019). The rise of online transactions, including digital money, has presented challenges in the current modern business world with the increasing threats of hackers aiming to steal bank details posted through the internet or online platforms (Niranjanamurthy, Nithya, and Jagannatha, 2019). This has led to the discovery and introduction of different kinds of cryptocurrency that involves the use of technology termed as blockchain technology (Niranjanamurthy et al., 2019). These digital cryptographic processes give online users the confidence to carry out their transactions without fear. Fadlil, Riadi, Nugrahantoro, Soepomo, and Warungboto (2021) explained that digital cryptography the use of blockchain systems has played a crucial role in motivating people to carry out online transactions due to its ability to maintain information security, which is achieved with the use of mathematical calculation techniques.
Leadership has been found to have a significant impact on an organization's operations when it comes to the implementation of blockchain technology. Sharif and Ghodoosi (2022) explains that as an open digital ledger, blockchain technology can significantly change or alter how people in the organizations, mainly human resource personnel, operate within the organization. With the transformation in business operations, blockchain technology changes the recruitment and selection process in the organization through shared leadership. Sharif and Ghodoosi (2022) further discussed that blockchain could create a new form of decision-making in the organization for leaders and employees to work towards a common goal. Thus, through shared leadership, leaders and other members of the organization decide on the appropriate employees to recruit by verifying their information through blockchain systems (Sharif & Ghodoosi, 2022). Chartier-Rueg and Zweifel (2017) explains that with the onset of blockchain technology, leaders and managers have seen their roles shift in their scopes due to the need to improve autonomy in organizations.
2.4 Resistance to Blockchain Adoption and its Impact on Future Employment
Technological advancements have provided organizations with valuable opportunities to improve efficiency and effectiveness in their business operations, such as investing in more secure tools for conducting business activities (Choi et al., 2020). The widespread use of network technology on the internet has enabled individuals and organizations to communicate and share information across networks (Chen et al., 2020). However, one technology that holds significant potential for various business operations, particularly in the financial sector, is blockchain technology. Blockchain technology can improve the efficiency and security of trade and financial management for users (Chen et al., 2020). This is demonstrated by the success of blockchain- based cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, which allow for the transfer of money without the need for a trusted third party (Makhdoom, Abolhasan, Abbas, & Ni, 2019). The unique structure of block- chain technology, which consists of blocks that are cryptographically linked and possess proper- ties of auditability and immutability, ensures transaction integrity and authentication (Makhdoom et al., 2019). Additionally, blockchain technology offers fault tolerance and trust-free operations, allowing for secure online transactions without the threat of information attacks or fraudulent behavior (Makhdoom et al., 2019).
Despite the many benefits of blockchain technology for business transactions, some organizations may be resistant to its adoption due to a variety of factors, which will be discussed in the subsequent section. It is important for organizations to understand the potential benefits of blockchain technology and assess whether it aligns with their business goals and strategies.
2.4.1 People's Perceptions of the Implementation and Usage of Blockchain Technology
The adoption of blockchain technology can be hindered by resistance from organizational members due to their perceptions of the technology. A qualitative study by Friedman and Ormiston (2022) surveyed 18 experts in food supply chains to investigate the opportunities and barriers to the adoption of blockchain technology as a means of achieving sustainability. The study found that the key factor contributing to resistance to blockchain adoption is the perception that the technology is inadequate and dysfunctional in meeting the organization's needs and usage.
Additionally, the study revealed that some organizational members perceived the implementation and use of blockchain technology as complex and uncertain in its ability to address or achieve expected goals (Friedman & Ormiston, 2022). This highlights the importance of understanding the perceptions and attitudes of organizational members towards blockchain technology to effectively address resistance and facilitate adoption. Furthermore, a study by Chen, Li, and Yang (2021) investigates the adoption and implementation of blockchain technology in supply chain management and found that resistance from employees plays a critical role in hindering the adoption. The study found that employees' resistance to change and lack of understanding of blockchain technology is a major obstacle to adoption. The study also found that the lack of standardization and regulatory compliance and the high costs associated with implementation and maintenance are also important factors that contribute to resistance.
Resistance to the adoption of blockchain technology can stem from a variety of factors, including perceptions of inadequacy, complexity, and uncertainty, as well as resistance from employees and high implementation costs. To overcome this resistance, organizations may need to provide education and training to employees to increase their understanding and knowledge of blockchain technology, as well as addressing concerns related to standardization, regulatory compliance, and costs.
2.4.2 Leaders' or Managers' Resistance to Change
Leaders' or managers' resistance to change is a significant factor that hinders the adoption of blockchain technology in organizations. Research studies have shown that managers' resistance to change is one of the key factors that prevents organizations from implementing blockchain technology. Walsh, O'Reilly, Gleasure, McAvoy, and O'Leary (2021) conducted mixed-method research to evaluate the key factors that lead to resistance to blockchain adoption in organizations. From the study's findings, Walsh et al. (2021) presented that managers' resistance to change is the key factor that hinders or prevents organizations from implementing blockchain technology. The researchers revealed that most managers perceived that introducing blockchain-based systems in their organizations is not within their capabilities; therefore, they have low self-efficacy to embrace the adoption because of a lack of expertise in using the technology (Walsh et al., 2021). Additionally, it was found that most managers lack awareness of the benefits and perceived value of adopting blockchain technology; hence they resist implementing it for business operations (Walsh et al., 2021).
Similar findings were shared by Choi et al. (2020) in their study on the adoption of blockchain technology in organizations. The scholars identified that some managers lack familiarity with the development, implementation, and use of blockchain systems, hence perceive that the technology can be incompatible with their daily operations. As such, they prevent the organization from adopting the technology, especially in competitive business environments (Choi et al., 2020). Furthermore, in a study conducted by Chen et al. (2020) on the implementation of blockchain technology in financial institutions, it was found that lack of trust in the technology and the lack of understanding of the benefits of blockchain were major factors that contributed to resistance to adoption among managers. This highlights the importance of providing proper education and awareness programs to managers on the benefits and potential of blockchain technology. In conclusion, managers' resistance to change is a significant factor that hinders the adoption of blockchain technology in organizations. Managers often lack the expertise, awareness and perceived value of blockchain technology, which leads to a lack of confidence in their ability to implement the technology in their organizations. Therefore, it is crucial for organizations to pro- vide proper education and awareness programs for managers on the benefits and potential of blockchain technology to increase adoption and implementation of the technology.
2.4.3 Lack of Support and Competencies
Lack of support from top management, security issues, and lack of competencies are significant barriers to the adoption of blockchain technology in organizations. Salah, Ahmed, and ElDahshan (2020) conducted a qualitative study with human resource experts to evaluate the potential challenges related to the adoption and usage of blockchain technology in human resource management practices. The researchers identified that heads of the organizations, or rather leaders, may not provide the needed support to successfully embrace the adoption of blockchain technology (Salah et al., 2020). Additionally, the study found that some organizations may be hesitant to adopt blockchain technology due to security concerns, as the technology is still relatively new and untested in some industries. This lack of understanding and perceived lack of security can create a barrier for organizations to fully adopt and utilize blockchain technology (Salah et al., 2020).
Furthermore, the scholars revealed that some employees and leaders do not have the competence or expertise to implement or adopt blockchain systems (Salah et al., 2020). These professionals may also lack the capabilities and knowledge needed to embrace blockchain usage in organizations, therefore preventing them from accepting the new technology as part of their business strategies (Salah et al., 2020). Additionally, research by Chen et al. (2020) highlights that lack of technical expertise and resources within an organization can be an obstacle to the successful implementation and adoption of blockchain technology.
2.4.4 Security Concerns
The adoption of blockchain technology is hindered by various factors, one of which is security concerns. Research conducted by Salah, Ahmed, and ElDahshan (2020) found that hu- man resource experts identified security as a potential challenge for the adoption and usage of blockchain technology in human resource management practices. The study revealed that many organizations are hesitant to adopt blockchain technology due to fears of hacking and data breaches. Hackers can potentially access sensitive information such as online transactions of individuals, putting both employees and clients at risk (Salah et al., 2020). This fear of jeopardizing the security of sensitive data has led many organizations to avoid implementing blockchain technology as part of their business strategies (Salah et al., 2020).
Additionally, studies conducted by Walsh et al. (2021) and Choi et al. (2020) also found that security concerns are a key factor hindering blockchain adoption in organizations. Walsh et al. (2021) found that managers have low self- efficacy to embrace the adoption of blockchain technology because of lack of expertise in using the technology, hence lack of awareness of the benefits and perceived value of adopting blockchain technology and lack of understanding of how to ensure security of the technology. Similarly, Choi et al. (2020) identified that some managers lack familiarity with the development, implementation, and use of blockchain systems and perceive that the technology can be incompatible with their daily operations and also lack of understanding of how to ensure security of the technology.
Furthermore, Makhdoom et al. (2019) argue that the blockchain technology ensures fault tolerance and trust-free operations where all the online users conduct their online transactions without information attacks or fraud behaviors, but the security still a major concern. Therefore, organizations must consider the necessary security measures and protocols to ensure the protection of sensitive data before implementing blockchain technology in their operations.
2.5 Gender Gap in Blockchain Systems
The blockchain system is an emerging technology that has been adopted in some organizations to help record essential information in computer systems. With the increasing use of blockchain systems, women and girls are empowered to take part in leadership roles; however, gender problems still exist. Frizzo- Barker (2020) explained that gender problems exist in the blockchain, with very few women recruited in organizations. The authors discussed that employees recruited in organizations with blockchain systems are very few, with a limited number of such populations taking up leadership roles. Additionally, Frizzo- Barker (2020) discussed that blockchain has gender problems in which decentralized technology, including Bitcoin has male- dominated sphere, which is associated with stereotypes. In regard to this, Primack (2018) presented gender problems with blockchain systems in which three out of 88 leaders or speakers in the North American Bitcoin Conference are women. Despite the onset of advocacy groups and social networks, including Crypto Chicks, gendered inequalities in blockchain systems remain the key issue with fewer women taking leadership roles (Primack, 2018).
A reduced number of women in blockchain leadership roles is also supported by recent research by Custer (2018) that showed that among employees in leadership roles for blockchain, women account for only 7%, with males dominating. The author indicated that regarding gender equality, the blockchain industry has a limited number of women, which is attributed to a lack of balance in the number of men and women employees. Based on the number of women on the executive levels and advisory boards, Custer (2018) indicated that women occupy only 14.7% of all the blockchain startup members, and only 8% take leadership roles on advisory boards. Similarly, Griffith (2018) showed gendered and racial inequalities in the blockchain industry, where women take the least leadership roles in advocacy groups. Griffith showed that at local levels, many women have expertise in various levels of the network, but their chance of leading is minimal. This gender gap or gender inequality in blockchain systems restricts women’s identities and experiences despite having the required education in blockchain technology.
Skogvang (2018) conducted a case study that entailed a women's blockchain project towards empowering girls and women in human settings showing a gender gap in blockchain positions. The study revealed that women and girls are underrepresented as potential entrepreneurs and innovators, which is associated with a high risk-low reward profile for marginalized women and girls (Skogvang, 2018). The study also revealed that with the underrepresentation of women in blockchain, this population is not empowered to take up leadership positions, which needs organ- izations to foster innovative strategies to support and empower women in the blockchain system (Skogvang, 2018). Similar information was shared by Thylin and Duarte (2019), which examined the opportunities and risks of women and girls in humanitarian settings, focusing on leveraging blockchain technology. Thylin and Duarte (2019) explained that with the introduction of emerging technologies like blockchain systems in organizations, there has been a higher risk of generating inequality because such introduction does not benefit all people equality with women and girls having no access to and being less involved in emerging technologies.
Further, Thylin and Duarte (2019) explained that in humanitarian settings, women lack access to blockchain and are not allowed to use the systems for the transfer of information than women. The scholar gave an example from a financial perspective and showed that in low- income countries, there is a gender gap in blockchain systems where 45% of women do not have the foundational personal identification and do not have access to financial systems compared to men (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). This gender inequality in access to blockchain systems was associated with the underrepresentation of women or girls. Thylin and Duarte (2019) explained that since blockchain operations can be conducted with the use of mobile phones, the gender digital divide has been witnessed in low and middle- income countries, with 10% of women perceived to be less likely to own a mobile phone (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). Also, it has been found that women are 23% less likely to use the internet than men because they are highly underrepresented (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). From the perspective of African American women in the blockchain system, gender inequality has also been witnessed; however, limited studies have been conducted on this population. For instance, Kaal (2020) presented a research article on blockchain technology focusing on discriminatory practices based on race in corporate America. The article seeks to present helpful information to reduce discriminatory practices faced by women in corporate America and create an equal society in blockchain systems.
Kaal (2020) explained that minority women face obstacles in securing positions in block- chain systems in corporate America due to race, which negatively impacts their ability to succeed. To get employed in top management ranks, high level of technical skills and significant capacity to navigate the business environment. However, in corporate America, there is some evidence of a promotion gap for monitory women, especially among African American women in cooperate America, who get promotions in blockchain management ranks (Kaal, 2020). Although the reviewed articles presented detailed information on gender gaps in blockchain, limited evidence was found to support the assertions from the perspective of African America women. Thus, exploring the perceptions of individual African American women about gender gaps in blockchain systems will help add value to the existing literature.
Additionally, New technologies have a key role in improving people’s daily life, connecting people globally, and crucial in driving development. They also serve as powerful tools for influencing gender inequality (Vai & Juli, 2020). Introducing and using new technologies has paved the way for people to connect. Vai and Juli (2020) explained that new online markets are highly dependent on mobile connections; however, there are offline population, which accounts for 75% of people from low income, older people, illiterate, and females. Vai and Juli (2020) discussed that more significant parts of the offline population are females, indicating that women do not engage in digital power and may have less access to technology than their male counter- parts. Due to the increasing availability and use of digital platforms across organizations or businesses, financial services have been expanded to marginalized communities or groups of people (Loko & Yang, 2022). However, most women do not use or have access to such platforms, including financial technologies. Loko and Yang (2022) presented that over 70% of women owning small and medium-sized enterprises also have inadequate or no access to financial technologies. Thus, there is a need to address such issues to ensure that women and men have equal use and access to advanced technologies.
Over the past years, several studies have constantly provided evidence of the gender gap in financial knowledge, with most of these studies showing that women have lower levels than men (Bannier, Meyll, Röder, & Walter, 2018; Bucher-Koenen et al., 2017). Similarly, the intro- duction of innovative technologies in the financial industry, mainly blockchain, is on the rise, with women perceived to have lower knowledge of using such technologies (Bannier et al., 2018). While some blockchain products provide attractive investment opportunities, having specific knowledge of financial technologies and correct assessment of risks is necessary. However, a gender gap exists, with women possessing low levels of using the technologies, thus making men the dominating group in blockchain technologies (Bannier et al., 2018). Following the emerging technologies across organizations, blockchain technology has been implemented as a digital register and is considered to have a shared block structure (Di Vaio, Hassan, & Palladino, 2023). Such technology is useful because of its shared application that helps record transactions of various assets, including cars and houses, and digital assets, including currencies. In particular, blockchain technology supports the creation of new transactions and allows recorded transactions to be read (Hechler, Oberhofer, & Schaeck, 2020). Specifically, blockchain technology is known to have the potential to connect people globally, making more equitable and inclusive operations, which foster democratic involvement and participation of all people (DiVaio et al., 2023). Also, equitability and inclusivity make financial services in block- chain systems more transparent, efficient, and secure in exchanging automatically replicated de- centralized information (Di Vaio et al., 2023).
Additionally, the application of blockchain technology is insightful because it involves digital interactions of different entities without performing authentication and verification operations. As such, the technology ensures greater effectiveness in the management and coordination of resources (Audia, 2018). Notably, blockchain technology has significant implications in guaranteeing social inclusion. However, introducing such technology in some organizations has raised specific concerns due to the accessibility in generating inequalities when the technology does not automatically benefit people equally (Di Vaio et al., 2023). Even though some studies demonstrate the ability of blockchain systems to open up fi- nancial systems and promote the capability of people to take full responsibility in terms of the inclusion of marginalized people from economic infrastructure, some organizations report in- creasing cases of the gender gap, mainly gender inequality in blockchain systems (Di Vaio et al., 2023).
Additionally, other existing studies demonstrate that applications of blockchain systems improve the living conditions of disadvantaged people by managing and controlling the use of resources and conducting essential social and humanitarian functions (Casino, Dasaklis, & Patsakis, 2019; Thylin & Duarte, 2019). With blockchain technology, financial inclusion is enhanced since individuals and businesses get easier access to affordable and helpful financial products and services that meet their beds, including savings, insurance, transactions, and payments, which are provided responsibly and sustainably (Di Vaio et al., 2023). Meanwhile, the financial framework in blockchain technology is a useful premise to minimize poverty, encourage the development of people’s living standards, especially among vulnerable groups, and help bridge the gap between poor and wealthy people. Various studies that reviewed blockchain technology discovered the egalitarian drift in replacing personalism with democratic institutions, which protects people's rights and enables them to thrive and share teamwork and cooperation (Scott, 2019). Nonetheless, regarding the art of blockchain- enabled applications, there is little attention paid to the gender gap or gender equality (Di Vaio et al., 2023). Specifically, there is inadequate attention paid to the opportunity to target blockchain systems, in particular, leadership roles among women where the risks of gender bias are becoming overbearing for social progress in organizations (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). Besides, the United Nations has reported the risk of new technologies generating disparity and valence due to the lack of fair engagement of females in using blockchain technology (Di Vaio et al., 2023). Due to such issues, the blockchain system's inequality of men and women hinders sustainability and social equity in organizations (Di Vaio et al., 2023). There is a need to understand the confounding factors or underlying determinants that drive potential gender gaps in blockchain systems to counteract the trend of gender inequality. Surprisingly, studies on gender gaps in blockchain systems, particularly among African Ameri- can women, are markedly sparse since no studies have been conducted. Thus, there is a need to explore gender gaps in blockchain systems among African American women to get better insights into gender inequality and determinants driving such inequality.
2.6 Implementation of Blockchain Technology and Women’s Influential Behaviors
Implementing blockchain technology is a key process in organizations to allow for the effective automation of data recognition and other online transactions. Kwilinski (2019) explained that implementing innovative systems, including blockchain technology, is crucial for organizations to achieve new or modern online infrastructure to improve the processing of large arrays of data and enhance optical data recognition. Similarly, Tijan, Aksentijević, Ivanić, and Jardas (2019) discussed that implementing blockchain technology in organizations aims to improve business processes, including supply chain management practices. The scholars described that due to the demand for transparency in organizations, especially in the supply chain, comprehensive technical solutions are needed to address the complex access rights (Tijan et al., 2019). Thus, influential factors are required to support and facilitate such implementation. According to Fernando, Meyliana, and Surjandy. (2019), success factors, including track, trust, real-time, traceability, and transparency, are essential for the successful implementation of blockchain technology. Fernando and colleagues established track and traceability factors are crucial because they provide the complete source of information about data storage and documentation, which is essential to tracking the data (Fernando et al., 2019). With these factors, organizations can overcome the threats that may lead to distribution deviations during the implementation process. Further, Fernando et al. (2019) explained that trust factors are necessary because they boost stakeholders' interest and ensure data transparency. Regarding transparency in blockchain implementation, Fernando et al. (2019) demonstrated that transparency factors are the main factors because they provide no data change by the stakeholders involved in the networking process. Thus, data are shared across networks effectively during the transaction process because the data can be easily tracked and traced. With such processes, the quality of data transacted and users' trust in the system is enhanced or improved, hence facilitating effective implementation (Fernando et al., 2019).
Women can also serve as the influencers in the implementation of blockchain technology in organizations. Thylin and Duarte (2019) asserted that women serve as influencers of blockchain adoption based on their empowerment and commitment to innovative advances in organizations. These scholars presented an example of UN women who collaborated with innovators in developing technology-based solutions in humanitarian settings to explore the adoption or implementation of blockchain technology (Thylin & Duarte, 2019). These UN women collaborated with innovators to gain more specialized experiences, understand the use of blockchain technology, and comprehend the benefits of the technology (Thylin & Duarte, 2019).
Similarly, Skogvang (2018) presented how UN women are influencers of blockchain adoption by engaging in innovative partnerships with other innovators to promote the involvement of women in the implementation of blockchain systems. In the study, Skogvang (2018) explained that the UN women believe in blockchain technology and are empowered in humanitarian settings to be involved in implementing blockchain technology.
Similarly, these UN women focused on ensuring marginalized women were involved in the innovation process and on collaborating with Innovation Norway, which is the Norwegian government's support for innovation and development in Norwegian industries. Thus, with these women's dedication to working with innovators, they also aim to improve their expertise in blockchain to foster future implementation processes and involvement of underrepresented women in blockchain systems and their adoption in Norwegian industries (Skogvang, 2018). This shows that women serve as the influencers for the effective implementation of blockchain systems. Even though the reviewed articles presented detailed information about women as influencers in implementing blockchain, there were limited studies to support the assertions. Also, no study or research has been conducted from the perspective of African American women, creating a gap that should be addressed.
2.7 Blockchain Adoption and Future Women Leadership and Employment
Leadership has a crucial role in the adoption of blockchain technology across organizations. Leaders lead and motivate other organizations changes to embrace innovation with the implementation of blockchain technology. Alshareef and Tunio (2022) explained that effective leadership fosters creative business models, and leaders focus on motivating others to adopt new blockchain adoption changes. Similarly, Alshareef and Tunio (2022) discussed that with the successful adoption of blockchain, leaders seek to create new employment opportunities for many people. However, there have been reported cases of gender inequality after blockchain adoption. For instance, some existing literature has reported the underrepresentation of women in block- chain systems compared to their men counterparts (Alshareef & Tunio, 2022). It is well- indicated that women occupy the least leadership positions in blockchain systems than men, which indicates the need for organizations to foster women’s involvement in the positions. Women, mainly the marginalized or minority women, are underrepresented in blockchain leader- ship, which could be attributed to gender and race (Kaal, 2020). As such, the adoption of block- chain technology in organizations in the future should ensure women's participation at executive levels.
Also, employing women in leadership positions of blockchain will be crucial in the future operations of organizations because they will bring in new expertise and innovative solutions to help overcome blockchain problems (Skogvang, 2018). Additionally, Thylin and Duarte (2019) explained that women’s explorations of blockchain expertise and how they are used are crucial for future operations in humanitarian settings because it will improve future women’s employment to explore new technology. Also, Thylin and Duarte (2019) discussed that by addressing gender inequality, women would get the ability or capacity, and resources to influence and harness the use of emerging blockchain systems in organizations. Thus, exploring the perceptions of women about blockchain adoption and future female leadership and employment will be essential to add to the existing knowledge on actions organizations may take to ensure women’s involvement in blockchain management positions.
2.8 Gendered Leadership
With many people, both men and women, having the passion to lead, gender diversity has been the key concern with organizations facing the challenges of improving diversity so that both men and women get the opportunity to lead (Kiser, 2015). Perceptions and attitudes of men and women in leadership roles have a significant role in the organization’s culture. Kiser (2015) explained that when it comes to leadership roles and positions, both men and women qualify, but their perceptions differ based on the culture of an organization. In such organizations, women can be promoted to middle management levels, but are bottlenecked where men have a clear ad- vantage when it comes to promotion (Kiser, 2015). Therefore, men take control of leadership roles and management promotion, which shows that some organizations do not promote the culture of gender diversity; hence women are left behind when it comes to promotion for leadership roles or positions unlike men (Kiser, 2015).
Similarly, women face barriers when it comes to leadership roles based on society’s perceptions of the roles of women and men in society. Pranathi and Lathabhavan (2021) explained that women face multiple challenges and barriers to entry into career and leadership positions than their male counterparts due to the perceptions in society, where people have become masculine with the fact that men are considered to be superior to women. As such, men are perceived to be the key leaders, limiting the chances of women leading. Due to such perceptions and attitudes, women are confined to household and domestic chores while men are allowed to dominate, even in leadership roles (Pranathi & Lathabhavan, 2021). In another research that investigated gendered leadership, focusing on the roles of women in leadership positions, it is evident that women occupy less positions in senior-level than men, indicating that men dominate across all levels of leadership roles in some organizations (Elliott & Kellison, 2020).
Elliott and Kelliso (2020) found that despite the involvement of women in the leadership decision-making process, they take the least administrative and governance roles, this negatively impacts their professional development opportunities when it comes to leadership. Rink, Stoker, Ryan, Steffens, and Nederveen Pieterse (2019) discussed that despite the current perceptions that women are more successful than men in terms of advanced educational degrees and are increasingly taking part in labor markets, these women only take up an average 20% of senior corporate leadership roles (Rink et al., 2019).
Additionally, negative perceptions from men regarding women in leadership make them less optimistic about their chances of securing leadership roles. These women anticipate difficulties once they secure such positions, which makes them doubt their leadership skills and competencies (Rink et al., 2019). Also, men are perceived as more capable leaders than women in workplaces. This is associated with stereotypes towards women. Player, Randsley de Moura, Leite, Abrams, and Tresh (2019) explained that stereotypes result in penalties for women in workplaces due to the perception that men are considered more effective than women. The researchers perceived that when women express or demonstrate their success in leadership positions and leadership roles, they are penalized due to the notion that they are violating gender-prescriptive norms and contextual expectations (Player et al., 2019). Also, women who put themselves in leadership positions face more backlash than men, hence undermining the status of women in leadership roles (Player et al., 2019).
Also, women are rated lower in their possibility to lead than men, which reduces their leadership competence. Williams and Tiedens (2016) explained that even though display or show explicitly dominant behaviors, they are considered less hirable for leadership positions because they are rated lower in their likeability to lead, which reduce their perceived competence in leadership. Gendered leadership is also associated with selection biases, where men are selected over women. Rink et al. (2019) explained that gendered selection biases, in terms of gendered beliefs or stereotypes on what it takes to be an appropriate leader leads to gender bias where men are endorsed over women. It is a belief that some organizations believe that effective leaders should demonstrate stereotypically masculine traits, hence preventing women from seeking leadership.
Additionally, it is indicated that internalized stereotypes in organizations regarding leadership and gender and how succession decisions are conducted place women in the least positions than their male counterparts (Cuddy et al., 2015). Due to such stereotypic behaviors against women, male leaders are preferred for socially similar leadership roles and positions because they feel highly motivated while women with the ability to lead feel less motivated (Cuddy et al., 2015. This creates an elite informal network structure based on interpersonal fits and women with leadership behaviors do not have the opportunity to lead (Cuddy et al., 2015). Considering the work culture, most organizations' environment is masculine, thus gendered roles are based on the idea that men tend to be stricter and career-oriented than women. Pranathi and Lathabhavan (2021) explained the masculine nature in an organization's environment where the work culture supports that men should be given priority in leadership roles. The scholar explained that many top management executives and senior executives who are male claim that women have no capacity or inspiration to excel and lead in their current leadership job positions (Pranathi & Lathabhavan, 2021). They perceived that with such stereotypes, many women lose their interest in top management executive positions due to discrimination, prejudice, stereotyping, family demands, and lack of leadership opportunities (Pranathi & Lathabhavan, 2021). In terms of leadership styles, women tend to be more inherently interpersonal and have democratic leadership styles than men, who are autocratic. With the varied leadership styles, men are perceived to have more qualities to lead than women (Kiser, 2015). As such, men are perceived to have more managerial success, including self-confidence, assertiveness, ambition, competitiveness, and emotional stability than women (Kiser, 2015). Such perceptions could be associated with the perceptions that women lack leadership skills at some highest levels of organizations. Thus, if women are considered to be less competent than men, this could be one of the reasons why women are not promoted to the extent men are promoted for leadership roles or positions (Kiser, 2015). Lack of promotion or inequality in job promotion causes men to choose between professional and personal goals, which have been the key restrictions and demands of leadership jobs being insignificant. Pranathi and Lathabhavan (2021) explained that the lack of women’s promotions in organizations has resulted in very few women seeking leadership positions, such as chief executive officers’ roles because most of them choose perusal goals, such as caring for their children, which has significantly, impacted the career they would have achieved in the future. This decline in leadership positions among women demonstrates male preferences in organizations, which negatively affect women's positions in leadership roles (Pranathi & Lathabhavan, 2021).
Also, leadership styles demonstrate gendered differences in leadership positions. In research by Sebastian and Moon (2018), it is evident that having a more participatory style describes gendered leadership in organizations. Sebastian and Moon (2018) conducted a study to determine the leadership style appropriate for both men and women to lead in organizations. The study revealed that even though there is an increasing number of women seeking and moving into leadership positions in various organizations, including business firms, men are known to have more participatory leadership styles than women which enables them to have higher leadership roles (Sebastian & Moon, 2018). However, such assumptions were not supported in another research by Hoyt and Simon (2016) that showed the increasing number of women in leadership positions is attributed to their superior leadership qualities to men. Also, Sebastian and Moon (2018) explained that women entering leadership positions lead more in a more participatory and democratic manner than men. Also, these women are more transformative than men, which shows that women have leadership ability to inspire, stimulate, and support their followers (Sebastian & Moon, 2018). This diverse and contradictory information from the reviewed studies diminishes the validity of assertions that gendered leadership influences the way women are treated in organizations.
In blockchain systems, it is evident that gender differences play a crucial role in leadership positions. Di Vaio, Hassan, and Palladino (2022) explained that in blockchain technology leadership, gender equality plays a crucial role in which women and men have a significant influence on leadership roles. The researcher establishes that from the perspective of gender equality and blockchain leadership, men and women do not engage fairly in leadership roles. However, these scholars lacked detailed information about fairness between men and women in blockchain leadership. This, therefore, provides the basis for a further investigation to determine gendered leadership in blockchain and the positions of women when it comes to leadership positions in blockchain systems.
Gender equality in a leadership position is associated with biases. Since most people in society are normally exposed to sex-typed behaviors, women are considered and expected to be communal, while men are perceived as agentic or determined and competitive (Player, et al., 2019). In workplaces where both men and women work together, stereotyping towards women is common, with leadership roles viewed to be for men only. When these women express their interests and success in leading, they are panelized due to the perception that they are going against gender-prescriptive norms (Player et al., 2018). Additionally, stereotypical behavior against women when it comes to leadership roles, and such behaviors devalues and undermines their economic and social status (Player et al., 2019). When these women also see themselves to be fit for leadership positions, they face backlashes that devalue their status. This undermining of women is pronounced when they occupy male-dominated positions or roles (Player et al., 2019).
A meta-analysis by Williams and Tiedens (2016) also discussed that when some women display dominant behaviors to lead, they are considered to be less hirable because they are perceived and rated lower in terms of perceived competence than men. This incongruence regarding feminine traits and stereotypical behaviors indicates why most women experience challenging thresholds for promotion, especially in leadership roles or positions (Player et al., 2019). Besides, Plater and colleagues presented that women who have occupied management positions characterized by organizational influence and power also show lower performance rates than men. Similarly, the gender gap in terms of leadership roles and positions is supported by research by Appelbaum, D’Antico, and Daoussis (2019), which showed that despite some progress to involve women in leadership opportunities, very few women occupy such posts. The researchers gave an example of the 2018 Fortune list in which only 4.8% or 24 women were reported to occupy management positions, mainly as Chief Executive Officers at Fortune 500 companies (Appelbaum et al., 2019). The research demonstrated that even though women have gained some recognition in leadership positions, they only make up only 22% of all the leadership positions available in other companies (Appelbaum et al., 2019). This, therefore, shows that women are undervalued and represent a very small percentage of leadership positions in some companies. Additionally, it is perceived that women take the least position than men when it comes to leadership roles due to character. Appelbaum et al. (2019) explained that traditional managerial effectiveness is considered a masculine trait, and the more women exude such traits, they are perceived to be inappropriate for a leader’s role. It is shown that in leadership roles that are beyond managerial positions, gender stereotypes toward women are common due to the assertive or agentic leadership styles where men are more valued, and the majority of leadership roles are associated with men than the participative or expressive leadership styles, which are mainly associated with women (Appelbaum et al., 2019).
Another factor that describes gender leadership, focusing on women in leadership roles when compared to men, is competencies. Callahan and Grunberg (2016) explained that competencies are essential; decision-making, critical thinking, management, and problem-solving skills that influence essential leadership in organizations. Emotional intelligence is also one of the competencies and lesser use traditional skills that entail an individual’s ability to understand ad emotions of oneself and others. In terms of leadership, women are perceived to have reduced levels of such skills than men, hence are not suitable to lead (Callahan & Grunberg, 2016). Also, it is evident that the way in which women communicate in organizations makes them lose their position of leadership. It is shown that women tend to communicate among themselves and with other people in a more indirect, emotional, and elaborate way than men, who are described to be instrumental, direct, and concise in their communications (Appelbaum et al., 2019). Thus, how women communicate reinforces the perception that they have poor leadership skills and hence can be less effective leaders. When women communicate in a more typical manner than men, they are perceived to be less competent in leadership roles. However, if the same women take masculine traits, they can be perceived to have the needed qualifications of an effective leader, but they do not gain recognition during the hiring process because they are perceived as arrogant (Appelbaum et al., 2019).
Less representation of women in leadership roles has shaped leadership where men and symbols of masculinity are used to deny women the same positions. The masculine traits that are linked to efficient leaders have thus become the standards that women in leadership are evaluated upon. As such, these women are considered intruders in male-dominated territories, which deny them from experiencing leadership opportunity and success (Appelbaum et al., 2019). Some women who make their decisions to behave in a typically masculine way and challenge gendered social order face difficulties because they put their efforts into meeting masculine standards to get leadership positions or gain access to leadership recognition in organizations (Appelbaum et al., 2019). The perception that women do not occupy significant executive space in some organizations is true, and despite the fact that they can perform well, especially in middle management positions, they fail to be recognized as potential leaders, and they face difficulties and fail to secure a high level of executive positions and roles than levels of men (Appelbaum et al., 2019). In a more recent study that investigated gender diversity in organizations, mainly the financing sector, it was found that gender diversity has a significant relationship with leadership (Vieira, Madaleno, & Lobão, 2022). The authors used existing evidence and showed that the presence of women in the financial sector, especially in leadership roles of financing and entrepreneurship, is limited (Vieira et al., 2022). This is supported by another research by Farooq et al. (2022), who investigated an association between party transactions and females in the position of chief executive officer. The study found that females in executive positions or who serve as chief executive officers engage in fewer party transactions, which showed women who obtain leadership roles are not allowed to carry out some financing activities (Farooq et al., 2022). Also, there is a perception that adding women to leadership positions can be counterproductive. Vieira et al. (2022) explained that indiscriminately adding more women to the position of the board of directors is perceived to influence the performance of the organization because women are considered to be counterproductive, therefore causing a lower performance.
Further, despite that, in the current organizations, women are found to occupy specific leadership; however, they remain in minority groups in the same position due to a lack of aspiration and communal orientation. Fritz and Van Knippenberg (2017) explained that although most women with leadership qualities have stronger communal orientation, their number in leadership roles is less than that of their men counterparts, making them the minority groups in the organization. These scholars discussed that in this current labor market, there exists a gender dis- parity between men and women occupying leadership roles and leadership positions (Fritz & Van Knippenberg, 2017). Even though there is a significant rise in the percentage (from 12% to 23%) of women with board positions in the leading listed EU companies, women still become the minority groups in such organizations due to lower leadership aspirations (Fritz & Van Knip- penberg, 2017). Moreover, both men and women make their employers feel good once they attain the expected goals. However, when it comes to employing women in leadership positions, these employers do not consider their contributions and hence find themselves in difficulties obtaining such roles due to communal orientation. Moreno and Ferreira (2021) explained that in business leadership, women had limited positions to become leaders despite their significant contributions to shaping the organization’s performance. The scholars described that due to organizational cultures, female employees ate treated differently from men counterparts because of communal orientation where women value attention to workplace relationships, equal opportunities, and balance between personal and work life (Moreno et al., 2021). Thus, in regard to work and personal life, women are perceived to be not ready and unreliable when it comes to leader- ship. Also, it is evident that due to organizational culture that supports male-dominating roles, men get higher leadership roles than women because of the perception of men as dominant in organizations (Moreno et al., 2021). Thus, from the reviewed studies, gender diversity and gender inequality exist, and this has resulted in less number of women in leadership positions. Due to such gendered leadership, more is needed to improve the number of women in leadership roles.
2.9 Trust And Transparency in Blockchain Systems
Digital platforms have changed business horizons over the past decade. Due to such changes, organization’s roles and relationships have also been transformed due to the evolving network of interactions (Akram & Bross, 2018). Blockchain technology is perceived as a revolutionary digital innovation with the potential to change business landscapes (Akram &; Bross, 2018). However, in the past, blockchain in the bitcoin era involved mutually mistrusting stakeholders to perform financial transactions without engaging trusted third parties, such as banks (Avital et al., 2016; Crosby et al., 2016). Thus, with transactions made between mistrusting third parties, blockchain systems are considered to provide transparent and integrity-protected data storage. This is because of decentralization, verifiability, trust anchor, and transparency while using the systems (Akram & Bross, 2018). Further, blockchain systems are considered trustless but confident machines to their transparency nature. De Filippi, Mannan, and Reijers (2020) explained that the governance structure of blockchain systems shapes people's confidence and trust in using the systems for transactions. The authors described that blockchain systems are the most trusted technologies for online transactions due to the reported cases of abuse of information and communication systems for dissemination of information, surveillance, and public coercion. De Filippi et al. (2020) further stated that this blockchain technology has emerged as the potential solution trust issues in online intermediaries and institutions because it promotes transparency during transactions between parties. However, no studies have explored or examined people’s perspectives regarding trust and transparency in using blockchain systems. No studies have investigated trust and transparency in blockchain from the perspective of women. Also, studies have yet to focus on African American women's perceptions of trust and transparency in blockchain technology. Thus, the present study will focus on gender inequality in blockchain systems, focusing on the perceptions of African American women on trust and transparency of blockchain technology. Exploring their perceptions will add value to the existing literature on the application of blockchain systems and the perceptions of women on their use. Exploring the perceptions of African American women on trust and transparency will be essential to recommend using the blockchain system as the trusted platform. This is expected to promote confidence in using blockchain technology for online transactions and related operations.
- Quote paper
- Amanda Van Annan (Author), 2024, Gender Gap in Blockchain Systems, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1606224
