Human trafficking remains a significant and persistent challenge in Malawi, with the country serving as a source, transit, and destination for victims of various forms of exploitation, including forced labour, sexual exploitation, and child trafficking. This study investigates the role of the Malawi Defence Force (MDF) in combating human trafficking, with a focus on its operations within Lilongwe City. Guided by Human Security Concept, Social Network Theory, Institutional Theory, and Securitization Theory the research evaluates the extent to which the MDF contributes to border security, victim rescue missions, and inter-agency collaborations aimed at dismantling trafficking networks. The research indicates that the MDF plays a supportive but increasingly strategic role in national anti-trafficking efforts. The Force’s contributions include surveillance of high-risk border areas, tactical support during rescue missions, and limited but growing participation in inter-agency training and coordination efforts. However, challenges persist in the form of jurisdictional overlaps, limited resources, weak inter-agency communication, and absence of clear operational protocols. The study recommends the establishment of a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC) to facilitate intelligence sharing, coordinated responses, and cross-border collaboration. It also calls for the integration of trafficking awareness into MDF training curricula, improved institutional mandates, and broader stakeholder engagement. The findings contribute to the body of literature by offering new insights into the military’s evolving role in human trafficking prevention and the need for cohesive, multi-sectoral strategies in Malawi.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
DEDICATION
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABSTRACT
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background ofthe Study
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
1.3 Research Questions
1.4 Research Goal
1.5 Research Objectives
1.6 Research Methodology
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.8 Significance of the Study
1.9 Organisation of the Study
1.10 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Theoretical Framework
2.2.1 Human Security Concept
2.3.2 Social Network Theory
2.4.3 Institutional Theory
2.5.4 Securitization Theory
2.6 Literature Review
2.6.1 Introduction
2.7 Definition of Concepts and terms
2.7.1 Human Trafficking
2.7.3 Forms of Human Trafficking
2.8 Global Perspectives on Human Trafficking
2.9 Regional Context: Human Trafficking in Africa
2.10 Human Trafficking in Malawi
2.11 Policy and Legal Frameworks
2.11.1 International Legal Frameworks
2.12 Challenges in Combating Human Trafficking
2.13 The Role of the Malawi Defence Force
2.14 Gaps in Literature
2.15 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Research Approach
3.3 Selection of the area of study
3.4 Population of the Study
3.5 Target Population
3.6 Sampling Technique
3.7 Sample Size
3.7.1 Sample Size Determination
3.8 Data Collection Instruments
3.8.1 Primary Data Collection Tools
3.8.2 Secondary Data Collection
3.8.4 Data Management and Analysis
3.8.5 Ethical Consideration
3.9 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND FINDINGS
4.1 Demographic Information of Study Participants
Table 1: Gender Distribution of Participants
Table 2: Participant Categories/Organisations
Table 3: Roles/Positions of Participants
Table 4: Years ofExperience
Table 5: Educational Background of Participants
4.2 Discussion of Findings
4.2.1 Objective 1: Assess the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
4.2.1.1 Border Patrol and Safety Measures
4.2.1.2 Tactical Support During High-Risk Rescue Missions
4.2.1.3 Inter-Agency Capacity Building and Training Participation
4.2.2 Objective 2: Identify and Analyse Policy Measures Aimed at Combating Human Trafficking in Malawi
4.2.2.1 Institutional Constraints and Legal Mandate Limitations
4.2.2.2 Inadequate Policy Measures on Victim Protection and Reintegration
4.2.2.3 Donor-Driven Policy Influence and Sustainability Concerns
4.2.3 Objective 3: Evaluate the Collaboration Between the Malawi Defence Force and Other
Law Enforcement Agencies in Managing Human Trafficking Cases
4.2.3.1 Formal and Informal Collaboration Mechanisms in Joint Operations
4.2.3.2 Lack of Interagency Coordination
4.2.3.3 Opportunities for Strengthened Collaboration and Regional Integration
4.2.4 Objective 4: Develop Actionable Strategies for Strengthening the Role of the Malawi
Defence Force in Addressing Human Trafficking
4.2.4.1 Institutional Policy Gaps and Need for Mandate Clarity
4.2.4.2 Need for Integrated Training, Human Rights Sensitization, and Enhanced InterAgency Coordination
4.2.4.3 Unlocking the Military’s Intelligence Edge in Anti-Trafficking Efforts
4.3 Conclusion
References
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Summary of Findings
5.2.1 Objective 1 - Assess the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
5.2.2 Objective 2 - Identify and Analyse Policy Measures Aimed at Combating Human
Trafficking in Malawi
5.2.3 Objective 3 - Evaluate the Collaboration Between the Malawi Defence Force and
Other Law Enforcement Agencies in Managing Human Trafficking Cases
5.2.4 Objective 4 - Strategies for Strengthening the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
5.3 Conclusions
5.4 Recommendations
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to convey my sincere and unique debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. Boni Yao Gebe, for his inspiring and outstanding mentoring during the research study. His words of wisdom and encouragement were extremely helpful in my accomplishment. It is a process that has molded me both as a person and as a researcher.
My wife Angel, my sons Louis Jnr, Garvey and Palisha, and my daughter Shekinah deserve my sincere gratitude for putting up with my sporadic interruptions of their focus during the study period. I can't express how grateful I am for your immense help and motivation during my studies.
My appreciation also goes to the faculty, staff and colleagues at the Ghana Armed Forces Command and Staff College. The importance of time and the idea that it cannot be a limiting factor have been ingrained in me by your acuity. I have learnt a lot from the lessons, the group work, the assignments, and the examinations have all worked through to make my paper what it is today.
I truly and tenderly thank my father, Mr. Eneya Msukwa, for his fatherly advice, motivation, and encouragement. My sincere gratitude also goes out to my friends who helped me out of the goodness of their hearts to carry out this study endeavor in order to accomplish my goal. Above all, I give thanks to God for His guidance and fortitude during the course of my education.
DEDICATION
I dedicate this thesis, above all, to God the Father, who has guided me and made everything else possible. This thesis is a success thanks to my wife, kids, my father and mother's patience and unwavering support. May the Almighty God continue to protect us and be with us as we travel through this world.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Gender Distribution of Participants
Table 2 Participant Categories/Organisations
Table 3 Roles/Positions of Participants
Table 4 Years of Experience
Table 5 Educational Background of Participants
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
ABSTRACT
Human trafficking remains a significant and persistent challenge in Malawi, with the country serving as a source, transit, and destination for victims of various forms of exploitation, including forced labour, sexual exploitation, and child trafficking. This study investigates the role of the Malawi Defence Force (MDF) in combating human trafficking, with a focus on its operations within Lilongwe City. Guided by Human Security Concept, Social Network Theory, Institutional Theory, and Securitization Theory the research evaluates the extent to which the MDF contributes to border security, victim rescue missions, and inter-agency collaborations aimed at dismantling trafficking networks. The research indicates that the MDF plays a supportive but increasingly strategic role in national anti-trafficking efforts. The Force’s contributions include surveillance of high-risk border areas, tactical support during rescue missions, and limited but growing participation in inter-agency training and coordination efforts. However, challenges persist in the form of jurisdictional overlaps, limited resources, weak inter-agency communication, and absence of clear operational protocols. The study recommends the establishment of a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC) to facilitate intelligence sharing, coordinated responses, and cross-border collaboration. It also calls for the integration of trafficking awareness into MDF training curricula, improved institutional mandates, and broader stakeholder engagement. The findings contribute to the body of literature by offering new insights into the military’s evolving role in human trafficking prevention and the need for cohesive, multi-sectoral strategies in Malawi.
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study
Human trafficking is still a huge problem worldwide. It is a major violation of human rights and a crime that crosses borders. The United Nations says it is when people are recruited, moved, or held using force, lies, or abuse of power, all for the sake of exploiting them. Worldwide, around 27.6 million people are trapped in modern slavery, which generates over $150 billion each year (according to the ILO in 2022). These individuals are forced to work, do sex work, serve in homes, and even have their organs removed. Most victims are women and children, accounting for over 70% of reported cases.
This is a big problem in Africa due to widespread poverty, weak borders, conflicts, and not enough done to stop trafficking. In Sub-Saharan Africa alone, about 7.6 million people are enslaved. Trafficking routes run from East Africa, through the center of the continent, and into Southern Africa and elsewhere (Global Slavery Index, 2023). There have been plans to fight trafficking in the area, like the African Union’s plan from Ouagadougou and its plan for 2019-2023. But it has been tough to get things done because countries have different things they care about, not enough money, and are not working together very well.
In Malawi, trafficking occurs within the country and across borders. It is a source, transit, and destination for trafficking victims. Women, children, and undocumented migrants are often targeted. They are tricked by fake job or education opportunities, and then find themselves stuck in forced labor, sex work, or involuntary marriages. Malawi is also a trafficking route, mainly from the Horn of Africa. Like, Ethiopians heading to South Africa often get caught passing through Malawi (Osman, 2024). Refugee camps such as Dzaleka, where over 50,000 are seeking asylum, have become crucial spots for these trafficking groups.
This problem is all over the place, judging by reports from Malawi and other countries. In Malawi alone, they found 145 victims in 2021 and 81 more in 2022. Plus, 80 victims were rescued from other countries (Masina, 2023). Just as one example, there was that terrible situation where 50 women were trafficked to Oman. Only 3 of them were able to come back because of issues with diplomacy and the exploitative ‘ Kafala system.’ In 2022, a grave was found in Mzimba with 25 bodies of people who had been trafficked, showing how deadly it can be when there is not enough control and protection (Masina, 2022).
Lilongwe, the capital of Malawi, is at higher risk for trafficking because it is growing quickly, has a lot of people living there, and is close to the Dzaleka Refugee Camp and the border with Zambia. Informal areas like Area 25 and Mtandire have many people who are easily targeted, like those who have been forced to leave their homes and those without documents. Traffickers often target these people because the rules are not strict in these areas. Between 2021 and 2022, about 137 people were trafficked from Dzaleka. Most were young women from Ethiopia, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, forced into labor or sex work (UNHCR, 2023).
Malawi passed the Trafficking in Persons Act in 2015 to stop trafficking and help victims, but it is hard to make it work. The law says trafficking adults gets you 14 years in jail. For children, it is 21 years (Chikoti, 2023). But problems like not enough money, groups not working well as a team, and dishonesty mess things up. Many trafficking cases get called smuggling instead, and few traffickers are found guilty in court. Because of this, criminals keep doing what they do without much fear, and victims do not get the care or fairness they deserve.
That is why the Malawi Defence Force (MDF) is being asked to help the police guard the borders more often. The MDF usually deals with keeping the country secure, but they are doing more to protect the country, mostly at borders and refugee camps. In 2024, the MDF went into the Dzaleka Refugee Camp and nearby areas, grabbing over 200 people mixed up in smuggling and trafficking. The MDF faces certain challenges, including unclear mandates regarding their role in managing human trafficking efforts, limited specialised training on human trafficking and insufficient resources to sustain the operations.
Since trafficking is always changing and security forces are pitching in more, it is important to see what the MDF is up to, what is hard for them, and how they fit into Malawi’s plan to beat trafficking. This study looks at what the MDF does to stop trafficking in Lilongwe. It checks out what they do, who they work with, and what they need to improve. The idea is to give advice on how to make the MDF and Malawi better at stopping human trafficking.
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem
Human trafficking is an issue in Malawi, driven by factors like poverty, porous borders, and lack of enforcement of anti-trafficking legislation. Malawi is both a source and transit point for numerous women and children that become victims of forced labor and sexual exploitation. The Trafficking in Persons Act of 2015 was passed to address this, but there are still problems with the enforcement of the legislation owing to a lack of resources, corruption, and inadequate coordination between agencies (Nkhoma, 2020).
The nation has open borders, thereby making it easy for victims and traffickers to move into surrounding nations such as South Africa and Mozambique. Specifically, Lilongwe City has also been a hub of trafficking since it is a big urban area with a large population and hence fertile ground for exploitation. Most individuals, particularly women and children, are in economic challenges that render them soft targets for traffickers who lure them with the promise of employment and education. (Matewere, 2022).
The MDF has been at the forefront of anti-trafficking operations particularly in border security and has been collaborating with other law enforcement agencies (Mninde-Silungwe, 2017). Despite all these efforts, the biggest challenge facing the MDF is inadequate training, stringent budgets, and the lack of a comprehensive strategy for dealing with trafficking (Banda HC, 2018). Furthermore, it has been observed that there are gaps in victim support services like shelters and psychosocial rehabilitation affects efforts for instance reintegrate survivors into their communities (Phiri, 2024). This research seeks to investigate the role of the MDF in addressing human trafficking in Lilongwe City. The goal of this study is to provide evidence-based recommendations to strengthen anttrafficking efforts in Malawi by assessing the measures that have been put into place, challenges associated with operations, the effectiveness of policy measures and collaborations with other partners.
1.3 Research Questions
1. What is the role of the MDF in combating human trafficking?
2. What policy measures exist to combat human trafficking in Malawi, and how effective are they?
3. How effectively does the MDF collaborate with other law enforcement agencies in managing human trafficking cases?
4. What strategies can be used to strengthen the role of the MDF in addressing human trafficking?
1.4 Research Goal
The goal of the study is to assess the role of the MDF in the management of human trafficking, with a specific focus on Lilongwe City, and to explore the effectiveness of interventions and propose policy measures and recommendations.
1.5 Research Objectives
1. Assess the role of the MDF in combating human trafficking.
2. Identify and analyse policy measures aimed at combating human trafficking in Malawi.
3. Evaluate the collaboration between the MDF and other law enforcement agencies in managing human trafficking cases.
4. Develop actionable strategies for strengthening the role of the MDF in addressing human trafficking.
1.6 Research Methodology
This research takes a close look at how the MDF tackles human trafficking in Lilongwe City using a qualitative approach. This method was picked to really get a feel for the experiences and views of different people involved in the issue. The research will collect depth data from semi-structured interviews, focus group discussion, and documentary analysis.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted with major stakeholders such as MDF officials, police officials, policymakers, and representatives of NGOs involved in combating human trafficking. In this environment, the participants can freely respond, and this further helps in understanding the various roles, issues, and collaboration among the various stakeholders in combating human trafficking.
Resident and trafficking victim focus groups took place where and when relevant. It was through these interviews that insight into how individuals perceive the activities of the MDF and what real impact human trafficking has on local communities was obtained. They also assisted with determining what the activities of the MDF are perceived like by impacted individuals.
Throughout the research, serious ethical concerns were taken into consideration. The researcher made sure that they got permission from all the participants involved, concealing their details and maintaining participants' privacy, especially the survivors of trafficking. Extra caution was exercised to be respectful of the vulnerable situations of some of the participants during the whole process.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study explored how the MDF helps combat human trafficking in Lilongwe, the capital city of Malawi. It looked into what the MDF is doing to prevent, detect, and intervene in trafficking. It highlights their operations in border patrol, crime areas patrols, and rescuing victims. The research tries to determine the effectiveness of such programs in breaking the trafficking chains, particularly across the area of Lilongwe and within the country's borders.
Apart from the operations that the MDF undertakes directly, this study also delved into how they collaborate with other law enforcement bodies. It examined how these bodies collaborate, exchange information, and conduct joint operations, particularly in the war on cross-border trafficking. The study focused on the MDF's strengths and weaknesses in the collaborations and investigate how they can contribute to the broader war against human trafficking.
While the central emphasis was placed on the work of the MDF in Lilongwe, the research took into account the wider context of these activities within national and regional policy. It examined how the work of the MDF against trafficking is placed within the national policies of Malawi and regional security strategies, especially those that address trafficking across the border. For a complete picture, this study considered trends of the last five years (2019-2024), from case studies, reports, and interviews with the most influential groups. Although the MDF is the prime consideration, briefly it also considered the work of other military and non-military units where the situation demands, in balanced consideration of the team effort against people trafficking.
1.8 Significance of the Study
This study investigates the role of the MDF in combating human trafficking, with a particular focus on the city of Lilongwe. It explores ways in which the MDF contributes to the prevention, detection, and intervention in cases of human trafficking, while also assessing its collaboration with other law enforcement bodies such as the police and immigration authorities.
The study helps to uncover the effectiveness of the MDF's involvement in human trafficking prevention and intervention. While the MDF is traditionally seen as a military institution, its role in law enforcement, particularly in addressing security concerns like human trafficking, has become more prominent in recent years. This research explores how the MDF’s military expertise contributes to addressing human trafficking, while also identifying any areas where its involvement may fall short. In doing so, it provides insights into how the MDF’s capacity to handle such challenges can be improved.
This study also focuses on the challenges the MDF faces in tackling human trafficking. Limited resources, lack of specialised training, and difficulties in coordination with civilian law enforcement agencies are common obstacles faced by the MDF. This research explores how these challenges affect the MDF’s ability to effectively contribute to the fight against human trafficking and the potential consequences for victims of trafficking. The study aims to provide practical recommendations on how to address these gaps, ensuring that the MDF’s contribution to anti-trafficking efforts is as effective as possible.
Finally, the findings from this study will be used to inform policy development and improve interagency cooperation in tackling human trafficking. The research contributes to strategic planning for human trafficking prevention in Malawi by assessing the MDF’s role and its collaborative efforts with other agencies. The study’s recommendations offer guidance on strengthening the MDF’s operational capabilities, enhancing coordination between agencies, and ensuring that the national response to human trafficking is more integrated and effective. The research is vital for developing informed, actionable strategies to combat human trafficking in Malawi and improve the safety and wellbeing of vulnerable populations.
1.9 Organisation of the Study
This study has been structured into five chapters. Chapter One provides background to the study of human trafficking and presents the contribution of the MDF in combating this problem. It also provides the research problem, aims, questions, and provides a brief description of the approach and scope of the study. Chapter Two discusses the literature review and theoretical framework employed. It examines closely previous research in human trafficking, including how the military cooperates with other law enforcement bodies to fight them. This chapter establishes theories behind this study and provides a better understanding of how networks of human trafficking operate with organizations that wish to shut them down.
Chapter Three discusses the process of research, in that it outlines how data was gathered, how it was sampled, and how data was analyzed. Chapter Three also discusses ethical issues in that the research is respectful of participants' rights and adheres to traditional standards. Chapter Four interprets the data gathered, against the background of the questions and objectives of the research. On this page, you will get the most important trends and insights regarding the activity of the MDF against human trafficking and how efficient their operations and methods are. Chapter Five presents the main findings, sums up the analysis, and provides recommendations on how to enhance the operation of the MDF against human trafficking. There is also a section of references and appendices for extra information.
1.10 Conclusion
Chapter One provides the MDF's contribution to combating human trafficking. It mentions economic and social reasons for human trafficking, such as porous borders, inadequate law enforcement, and insufficient training, and calls for increased collaboration with other law enforcement agencies. The chapter also provides the study objectives, research questions, and the problem statement. This study seeks to provide recommendations on how the anti-human trafficking operation of the MDF can be enhanced and establish the extent to which there is cooperation between various agencies by examining how far the MDF is fighting it and what their challenges are. The chapter concludes by providing an overview of what each subsequent chapter will address.
References
Banda, H. C. (2018). Migration from Malawi to South Africa : AHistorical and Cultural Novel. Baltmore: Oxford University.
Chikoti, M. (2023, March 28). News. Retrieved from Malawi24: https://malawi24.com/2024/03/28/trafficking-in-persons-act-needs-to-be-revised-says- ministry-of-homeland-security/
Jegwa, P. (2022, October 21). News. Retrieved from BBC: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa- 63341709
Masina, L. (2023, August 19). News. Retrieved from Voice of Africa: https://www.voaafrica.com/a/malawi-struggles-to-repatriate-alleged-abused-girls-in- oman/7230207.html
Matewere, M. (2022). Human trafficking in Malawi : The untold stories. Blantyre: Montfort Press.
MHRC. (2023). Mid-term progress report on the implementation of the United Nations Human Rights Council's universal periodic review recommendations to Malawi. Lilongwe: Malawi Human Rights Commission.
Mninde-Silungwe, F. (2017). Trafficking in Persons (Article 28J) and Trafficking in Drugs (Article 28K). Malawi: African Criminal Court.
Mpanyula, J. (2018). Different forms of human trafficking in Malawi : a survey of selected cases. Mzuzu: Mzuni Research Directorate.
Nkhoma, P. (2020). Moving beyond contemporary discourses: children, prostitution, modern slavery and human trafficking. Critical and Radical Social Work, 206-221.
Osman, H. (2024). A Human RIghts Perspective to Human Trafficking in Malawi. Lilongwe: Malawi Human Rights Commission.
Phiri, F. (Director). (2024). Trapped in Oman: Series 1 - Ep 1 [Motion Picture].
Staff. (2024, August 4). Investigations. Retrieved from The New Humanitarian: https://www.dzaleka.com/2024/08/malawi-refugee-camp-raid-unlikely-to.html
State, D. o. (2024). Trafficking In Persons Report. Washington DC: Department of State.
UNHCR. (2021). Malawi: UNHCR Factsheet. Lilongwe: United Nations High Commission for Refugees.
CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Theoretical Framework
For this study, Concept and theories that have been chosen are the Human Security Concept, Social Network Theory, Institutional Theory, and Securitization Theory which will help us to understand the involvement of the MDF in combatting human trafficking in Lilongwe City. Each theory helps to understand how the operations of the MDF relate with human trafficking management by showing a fresh perspective on the military’s capacity to deal with non-traditional security threats, the challenges of trafficking networks and difficulties posed by institutional limitations.
2.0.1 Human Security Concept
Human Security Concept was introduced in the 1990s by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This concept revolves around safeguarding the individuals from all forms of threats in life, for example, violence, human rights violations, and economic insecurity (MacDonald, 2002). This concept differs from other security concepts that focus more on state security and borders in that it considers the security and well-being of the individual. It focuses on the idea that security must be more than a matter of military power or frontiers, but of safeguarding the rights of weak individuals.
There are critics who bemoan that the concept is too expansive, and therefore difficult to define and apply practically since it addresses everything ranging from economic matters to environmental matters, which can weaken its practical application (Paris, 2001). Other critics bemoan that the focus on human security could weaken state security and national borders and would be inimical to international relations (Newman, 2010). Moreover, it has no conceptual foundation, thus making it hard to develop good policies (Chandler, 2008). In human trafficking, concept assists in comprehending the manner in which the MDF safeguards people from exploitation.
Human trafficking is a blatant abuse of human security that exposes predominantly women and children to sexual exploitation, violence, and forced labor. The combat of human trafficking by the MDF falls under its role of safeguarding Malawian citizens from not only conventional threats, but also from such aspects as trafficking. MDF is involved in border patrol, intelligence sharing with law enforcement agents, and rescue missions to save the most vulnerable from traffickers. This concept supports the fact that the activities of the Military in the fight against human trafficking are significant in sustaining lives, dignity, and fundamental rights.
2.0.2 Social Network Theory
Founded by sociologist and anthropologist J.A Barnes with additional research contributions by other authors like Mark Granovetter and Duncan J. Watts, the theory defines how people or groups of people establish relationships with one another within a vast system like community or criminal network (Gerna, 2014). This is crucial since trafficking operations typically involve a web of players acting across countries and territories. Such operators include traffickers, recruiters. Transporters and intermediaries who form a network that smuggles victims across the border. Thus, one should have a knowledge of the organizational designs of these networks, how information is being exchanged between various actors, and how power is being distributed within the network to effectively identify and break trafficking rings.
Despite this Social Network Theory effectively explaining social structures and relationships, critics have noted limitations such as the tendency to emphasize structure over individual agency, thereby overlooking personal decision-making and motivations (Emirbayer &Goodwin. 2012). Moreover, it has been noted that this theory assumes that all social connections are equally important, failing to account for power dynamics and inequalities within network (Borgatti & Lopez-Kidwell, 2011). It has further been noted the theory lacks a strong predictive framework and makes it difficult to develop testable hypothesis or policy applications (Butts, 2009).
This theory is important in understanding the MDF’ role in combatting human trafficking because the trafficking networks span international borders and involve many actors that are connected together operating in different locations. The MDF’s role in disrupting these networks focuses on border points, trafficking routes, hotspots and intervening before traffickers can successfully transport victims across borders. The MDF works with the Malawi Police Service (MPS) to gather intelligence, track movements and intercept traffickers. Intelligence sharing is important in identifying trafficking routes and network structures, making it easier to target operations that disrupt those illegal operations. MDF also further participates in community outreach programs to inform citizens especially in border areas about how traffickers operate which enables communities to detect and report suspicious activities.
2.0.3 Institutional Theory
Institutional theory looks at how organizations and institutions fit into a social system and how they affect behavior. This theory will help us understand the role of the MDF in relation to other groups, like law enforcement, the courts, and civil society organizations. It takes into account the manner in which such institutions work together or are unable to work together and how their organisation and resources can impact anti-trafficking success. Reforms that can enhance co-operation and enhance the ability of agencies that combat trafficking are part of the changes encompassed in the theory (Meyer, 2001).
Others have criticized this theory as too focused on stability and not actually considering how institutions change over time. Others say that it can lead to the implication that organisations merely react to institutional pressures instead of actually making an effort to shape their environment. It also has problems with identifying cause and effect, and this causes problems with trying to build models that can make predictions about what will occur (Greenwood et al., 2008).
Since human trafficking is an interstate offense, the MDF cannot act alone and must collaborate with other institutions and coordinate efforts with law enforcement and social services. In addition to military action, collaboration involves, collaborating with the police, immigration officials, and NGOs. But they are also hindered by constraints such as limited resources, corruption, and weak coordination. The MDF helps by providing support, intelligence, and manpower, but without strong institutional frameworks and better cooperation, their effectiveness is limited.
There is a need for reforms in both the MDF and the law enforcement agencies it collaborates with, so they can function better together. This theory suggests that improving resource allocation, clarifying roles, and ongoing training can really enhance anti-trafficking efforts.
2.0.4 Securitization Theory
Securitization Theory, which came out of the Copenhagen School of Security Studies with people like Barry Buzan, Ole \Wuver, and Jaap de Wilde writing about it in their book Security: A Framework for Analysis (1998), gives us a way to think about how stuff that's not usually seen as a security issue can become a perceived threat. The main idea is that security isn't just a given; it is something people make up. Leaders or institutions talk about things in a way that makes them sound like a danger to the country, its people, or how well people are doing. When they do this speech act, they are trying to get everyone else to agree that this threat is serious enough to warrant drastic action, like sending in the military, making emergency laws, or shifting where the government's money goes.
Now, not everyone agrees with this theory. Some say it focuses too much on what the big guys at the top are doing and does not pay enough attention to what regular people and smaller groups think. Other people point out that is too focused on just talk and ignores the real-world problems that cause security issues in the first place, like poverty, weak governments, and past wrongs. People like Lene Hansen and Matt McDonald say it does not consider gender issues or whether this idea is used to shut people up or give dictators a pass.
Even with these criticisms, Securitization Theory is still key to understanding the MDF and what they are doing about human trafficking. Lately, human trafficking in Malawi is not just being viewed as a crime, but as a danger to the country's security, its society, and even the whole region. Because of this, the MDF (which is mainly for defending the country from outside threats) is now involved in stuff like patrolling borders, raiding places where trafficking happens, and working with other agencies.
Using Securitization Theory, we can look at how trafficking became such a big deal in Malawi, who made it that way, and how this change has affected what the military and other groups do. It also brings up questions about what happens when something that's really about human rights and helping people becomes a military issue, like who is in charge, how the military and regular folks work together, and whether these anti-trafficking plans will actually work in the long run.
2.1 Literature Review
2.1.1 Introduction
Millions of people have been affected by human trafficking in the 21st Century making it one of the most pressing issues. According to the report on advanced surveillance and detection systems using deep learning to combat human trafficking, more than 27.6 million people are currently trapped in modern slavery, including forced labor, sexual exploitation, and other forms of coercion (Ijiga, 2024). Traffickers generate over $150 billion annually from these illicit activities, highlighting the vast scale and profitability of this transnational crime. Human trafficking manifests in various forms, including forced labor, sexual exploitation, the recruitment of child soldiers, and even organ trafficking. Vulnerable populations, such as women, children, migrants, and those in poverty-stricken regions, are often the primary targets (Barrick, 2024).
Efforts to combat human trafficking have traditionally centered around law enforcement, judicial systems, and social services. However, there is a growing recognition of the role that military institutions can play in addressing this issue, particularly in regions characterised by conflict, porous borders, and weak governance structures. The strategic advantage military forces have in disrupting trafficking networks, gathering intelligence, and providing logistical support in rescue operations (Giommoni, 2024).
This literature review examines the involvement of military forces in combating human trafficking at three levels: globally, regionally in Africa, and locally in Malawi. Special attention is given to the MDF and its role in counter-trafficking efforts within Lilongwe City, a known hotspot for trafficking activities. The review explores how the MDF collaborates with law enforcement agencies, participates in border control, and engages in public awareness campaigns to mitigate trafficking risks, reflecting the evolving role of military institutions in safeguarding human rights
2.2 Definition of Concepts and terms
2.2.1 Human Trafficking
Human trafficking is recognised universally as a grave violation of human rights and a form of modern-day slavery. It affects millions of people worldwide, transcending borders, cultures, and socio-economic classes. Human trafficking the phenomenon involves the exploitation of individuals through coercion, deception, or force, and it manifests in various forms, including forced labour, sexual exploitation, organ trafficking, and involuntary servitude (Hughes, 2023).
The most authoritative and widely accepted international definition of human trafficking is in the United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children (commonly known as the Palermo Protocol), which was adopted in 2000 as a supplementary protocol to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime (Aronowitz, 2024). This protocol marked a significant milestone in international efforts to combat trafficking, establishing a unified legal framework and encouraging cross-border cooperation among states.
According to Article 3 of the Palermo Protocol, human trafficking is defined as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons, by means of threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability, or the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation. Exploitation will at least include the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, slavery or slave-like treatment, servitude or forced organ removal.
This coming together of definition comprises three requirements that must co-exist so that an act can be human trafficking. One, the act, or acts done, such as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of a person. Two, means, or the means used by the act, such as threats, use of force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power, or exploitation of vulnerability. Lastly, the cause that accounts for the ultimate goal of the act is exploitation, whose forms may be numerous, e.g., forced labour, sexual exploitation, slavery, servitude, or removal of organs.
An essential clarification provided by the Palermo Protocol is that the consent of the victim is considered irrelevant when any of the coercive means listed above are used. This provision ensures that even if a victim agrees to their situation under duress, deception, or manipulation, the act is still legally recognised as trafficking (Guta, 2021). Furthermore, when children are involved, any form of recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt for the purpose of exploitation is considered trafficking, regardless of whether coercion or deceit is used. While international conventions set a global standard, individual countries have developed their own definitions and legal frameworks to address the unique socio-economic, cultural, and political contexts of trafficking within their borders. These national laws often emulate the Palermo Protocol but include specific provisions tailored to local challenges.
In Malawi, the Trafficking in Persons Act of 2015 represents a significant legal advancement in the country’s fight against human trafficking. The Act defines human trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, or receipt of persons by means of threat, force, coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power, or exploitation of vulnerability, for the purpose of exploitation, whether within or across national borders.
Malawi's legislation aligns closely with the Palermo Protocol but is distinct in its emphasis on crossborder trafficking and the protection of vulnerable populations, including women, children, and individuals in impoverished or rural communities. The Act also criminalises related offences, such as the confiscation of victims' identification documents and the use of trafficked persons for criminal activities, reflecting a comprehensive approach to combating trafficking.
2.2.3 Forms of Human Trafficking
The most common form of exploitation in human trafficking that affect people include forced labor, sexual exploitation, use of child soldiers, organ trafficking, forced marriage as well as exploiting children. One of the most frequent is forced labor that appears in form of individuals coercing others into working against their will, often in exploitative conditions. This mostly happens in sectors like agriculture, construction, manufacturing and domestic work. Based on statistics from the international labor Organisation report of 2022, there are at least 27.6 million people every year that are into forced labor and it is a very profitable illegal market that generates over 150 billion American dollar. This is a big burden as noted by the Human Rights Watch report of 2010 which revealed the long-lasting impact of forced labor on both the victims and the world economy at large (HRWO, 2020). Another frequent form of exploitation is sexual abuse which is very widespread with trafficking involving coercing innocent people into prostitution, immoral material like pornography or commercial sexual activity. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime report of 2021 revealed that more than 70 percent detected trafficking victims for sexual exploitation are women. The impact is too big with for instance lasting psychological trauma, including Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), and face increased vulnerability to sexually transmitted infections (Ramirez, 2019).
In war-torn areas, children are abducted and forced into serving as child soldiers, spies or porters and this especially happens in the sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle-East, where it is estimated over 8,000 children were recruited into armed conflicts in 2022 alone (UNICEF, 2024). Children experience trauma and struggle to be reintegrated in the society again for a long time. Organ trafficking includes the buying and selling of human organs acquired through coercion or deceit, just unlawfully. Victims are often promised things like big money payments or medical care only to have their organs harvested without their approval. Organ trafficking has been identified as very common by the World Health Organisation in countries with weak healthcare systems and also regulatory frameworks that are inadequate. Studies show that organ trafficking is rampant in countries like India, Pakistan and China (Poja, 2021).
There is also a rise in forced marriages with the most affected being women and girls where the victims are sold into marriages against their will or subjected to domestic servitude and denied basic human trafficking. According to a study on gender, political and economic instability, it has been found that forced marriages make up 14 percent for detected trafficking case (Kakkar, 2021). According to this study, there is a link between forced marriages and gender inequality issues showing how forced marriage limits access to education and economic opportunities. Furthermore, child exploitation takes many forms like some children are forced to go and beg in the streets, sell goods as vendors and domestic servitude. The most vulnerable groups are children because of their reliance on adults and their limited ability to advocate for themselves. In addition, systemic factors such as poverty, lack of education, and weak legal protections contribute significantly to the vulnerability of children to trafficking (Quek, 2018).
Human trafficking is not confined to any one region; it is a global phenomenon affecting virtually every country. The report on Trafficking in Persons in US reveals that trafficking cases have been detected in 148 countries, with victims originating from at least 137 nations (Anderson, 2011). The report shows that women and girls account for 65% of identified trafficking victims globally, while men and boys, though affected, are particularly vulnerable to forced labor and child soldiering. Children make up 30% of trafficking victims, with girls being trafficked at higher rates than boys. Regional patterns of trafficking vary widely.
In Europe and Central Asia, sexual exploitation is the most commonly detected form of trafficking, whereas forced labor and child exploitation are more prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. In the Americas, trafficking for both sexual exploitation and forced labor is widespread. Based on findings on a study on “Human trafficking and violence: Findings from the largest global dataset of trafficking survivors,” stresses the importance of regional cooperation in combating human trafficking, as trafficking patterns and strategies vary across different regions. During the COVID-19 pandemic, there was an increase in human trafficking activities because of factors like school closures, economic instability and increased online activity which made the culprits of this to be innovative and recruit people online especially through social media platforms and encrypted messaging apps. In a study titled, “Internet-Era Human Trafficking and the Need for a Better International Legal Instrument,” it was found that technology played a role in facilitating as well as combatting human trafficking and called for innovative digital solutions to counter exploitation of vulnerable individuals (Schrock, 2021).
The Balkan route has been noted as a major trafficking hub due to its geographical location and social economic conditions leading it to serve as a major transit corridor for trafficking victims being transported from Eastern Europe to Western Europa, while the Mediterranean route is used to traffic individuals from North Africa to South Europe. One study on “Sex Trafficking and Technology: A Systematic Review of Recruitment and Exploitation,” has found that trafficking networks in these routes exploits the weaknesses in these regions like political instability and civil strife as well as a porous border (Gezinskia, 2022). Wareness efforts to combat human trafficking have not been successful. Slowly over the years more people are becoming aware of human trafficking, there are still very few convictions made. A case study on College Students Conspiracy Theories About Human Trafficking Knowledge Diversity, “Conspiracy Theories of Human Trafficking: Knowledge and
Perceptions Among a Diverse College Population,” suggests that only one out of ten tries to convict a human trafficker, pointing out the strife that comes with prosecuting a human trafficker and providing justice for the victim (Borelusb, 2023). The report on “Law enforcement considerations for human trafficking,” outlines gaps in the constructions of laws as well as other issues like lack of uniform application of the law and the tangled web of international connections that make human trafficking complex (Osgellas, 2022).
Malawi is just as vulnerable to the issue of human trafficking as other nations are. The country serves as a starting point, a passage, and a destination for human trafficking. Women and children mostly fall victims to forced marriages, sexual exploitation, and child labour. Based on a report “Good Governance and Human Welfare Development in Malawi,” a lack of education, poverty, and weak law enforcement are major causes of human trafficking in Malawi. It is even more troublesome when it crosses borders with victims being trafficked to neighbouring Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania. Although the 2015 Trafficking in Persons Act was a step in the right direction towards reducing trafficking, inadequate regulation makes enforcement erratic at best. Msuya’s “Tradition and Culture in Africa: Practices that Facilitate Trafficking of Women and Children” advocates antitrafficking measures which require public education and outreach plus international collaboration (Msuya, 2017). Additionally, Nkhoma’s “Child Protection and Social Inequality: Understanding Child Prostitution in Malawi” advocates that children need better protecting, especially in rural areas where educational and occupational advancement is highly restrictive (Nkhoma, 2017).
Along with these studies, other scholars advance the understanding of the more complex phenomena of human trafficking. In “Assessing and Managing the Risk of Organised Crime, Human Trafficking and Modern Slavery” (Davies, 2024), organized crime syndicates and their role in facilitating global trafficking operations are analyzed within the context of organized crime. The study further contends that these unlawful groups are part of the very trafficking networks they seek to control, employing complex strategies to avoid detection by law enforcement and take advantage of inconvenient institutional frameworks. In “Human Smuggling and Human Trafficking” (Sayapin, 2022) frames human trafficking within the realm of global economic systems, contending that trafficking acts as a catalyst within contemporary capitalism, particularly when cheap labor is in high demand. From another report “Who researches organised crime? A review of organised crime authorship trends (2004-2019)” adds to this economic study, documenting the vast profits traffickers’ control and the financial institutions that sustain and support trafficking activities (Hosfold, 2021). Lastly, a Handbook on “The Practice of Transnational Organised Crime” scrutinizes the primary processes of victim rehabilitation and reintegration and notes how the survivors.
2.3 Global Perspectives on Human Trafficking
A commentary on the UN Convention against Transnational Organised Crime points out that human trafficking is one of the biggest criminal trades in the world, coming in just after drug and arms trafficking (Schroenhardt, 2023). The global reach of these trafficking networks, which often take advantage of things like globalization, online platforms, and corrupt officials, makes it tough to tackle this issue. More military forces are getting involved in anti-trafficking efforts, especially in areas dealing with conflict, humanitarian issues, or high rates of migration.
For example, in Kosovo during the early 2000s, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) peacekeeping forces played a key role in identifying and dismantling trafficking networks that thrived in the post-conflict vacuum. Trafficking in the Balkans was closely linked to organised crime, and NATO’s involvement was crucial in stabilising the region and curbing these networks (Tennant, 2021). Similarly, the survey on Transnational organised crime entitled “Transnational organised crime: A survey of laws, policies and international conventions 1,” reports that the U.S. Department of Defense has implemented comprehensive training programs to educate military personnel on identifying trafficking victims during deployments, particularly in areas like Afghanistan and Iraq, where trafficking often links with other forms of exploitation such as child soldier recruitment and forced labor in military supply chains (Wheatley, 2021).
A study on “The European Union as a Maritime Security Provider, The Naval Diplomacy Perspective,” highlights how the European Union’s Operation Sophia in the Mediterranean, launched in 2015 to combat human smuggling and trafficking networks exploiting the migrant crisis (Larsson, 2021). The naval operation aimed to intercept vessels used by traffickers, rescue victims, and dismantle the logistical chains of trafficking syndicates operating between North Africa and Southern Europe. Even though some people criticized the operation for not really helping to stop migration, it showed that military forces are playing a bigger part in fighting trafficking across borders.
Research shows that involving military forces in fighting trafficking can work well if done right. A 2019 study titled “Organised Crimes in A Globalised World: Implications for Social Studies Education,” found that training military personnel in recognizing trafficking situations helped them respond better and report incidents more often, which led to more rescues (Odey, 2021). Another 2020 report titled “Domestic military missions in Latin America: Civil-military relations and the perpetuation of democratic deficits,” talked about how military involvement in Latin America can be key to breaking up trafficking networks, especially in places where regular law enforcement struggles, like the Democratic Republic of Congo and South Sudan Jenne, 2021).
There are cautions against over-reliance on military methods, however. A UK document entitled "Crime and Money: Understanding Human Trafficking and its Finances in the United Kingdoms,” was concerned that militarized methods may drive trafficking operations further underground and more difficult to uncover (Antonopoulous, 2023). It put forward an approach which strikes a balance between military response and community support and victim aid. Another report titled "Human Trafficking in Conflict: Context, Causes and the Military, Crime Prevention and Security Management," pointed out that military campaigns against human trafficking endanger human rights violations, especially when the laws are ineffective, and the governance is weak. It called on governments and agencies to put the victim's rights first and ensure that the military campaigns adhere to international human rights norms.
2.4 Regional Context: Human Trafficking in Africa
The hotspot for human trafficking is sub-Saharan Africa. According to the Global Slavery Index (2023), approximately 7.6 million people on the continent live in modern slavery (Mofokeng, 2022). It can be determined through the factors of socio-economic conditions, political instability, and environmental destruction. Poverty, conflicts, and the lack of legitimate law enforcement are factors that give the traffickers the favorable environment in which they can operate. The continent is confronted with challenging cases of cross-border trafficking, children's recruitment into the armed forces, and exploitation from internal displacement and refugee conditions. The region's multiple borders facilitate movement by traffickers and victims.
In Nigeria, human trafficking is a serious problem, largely driven by economic struggles and political unrest. The Boko Haram insurgency has been a big part of this issue, especially in the northeast, where it has been linked to the abduction of women and children for forced labor and sexual exploitation. The 2014 kidnapping of the 276 Chibok schoolgirls is a well-known case that drew global attention to the ties between trafficking and terrorism. While the military and international forces, like the Multinational Joint Task Force (MNJTF), have carried out many rescue missions, helping survivors reintegrate into society is tough. Reports from groups like Amnesty International titled “Socio-Cultural Factors and Human Trafficking in Nigeria,” indicate that many rescued victims do not get the support they need, facing stigma and limited access to healthcare, education, and job opportunities (Olanrewaju, 2022). A 2020 study by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) found that only 30% of rescued trafficking victims in Nigeria received proper psychosocial support, pointing out the gaps in the country's anti-trafficking strategies.
South Africa, a key destination for trafficking victims, faces its own challenges. Its stable economy attracts traffickers bringing victims from nearby countries like Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The military has been active in securing borders, especially in regions known for trafficking, but corruption within border security agencies often gets in the way. Human Rights Watch reports that traffickers often bribe officials to help them move victims across borders, showing a need for reforms alongside military action. A study on “Poverty, Gender and Human Trafficking” noted that internal corruption in South Africa’s border control is one of the biggest obstacles to effective anti-trafficking efforts (Truong, 2021).
On a continental level here in Africa, the African Union (AU) has recognized human trafficking as a human rights issue and part of security concerns, putting into place measures in its peace and security agenda. The AU’s 2019-2023 Action Plan on Trafficking in Persons emphasizes addressing trafficking during peacekeeping missions and regional security initiatives (Frankel, 2023). For example, the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM) has worked to disrupt trafficking routes used by groups like Al-Shabaab. Despite some limited progress, a 2022 UN report pointed out that limited funds and ongoing political instability in Somalia hinder long-term success (Huncke, 2023).
The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) shows how armed conflict ties into human trafficking as well. Years of civil war and armed groups create an environment where trafficking flourishes, especially for women and children. The military, with support from UN peacekeepers, has rescued trafficking victims and taken down networks. According to a study on “An analysis of strategic- military issues in the ending of Civil wars: a case study of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1994 - 2004 ” it was found that internal corruption and a lack of training for victim protection often limit their effectiveness (Alusala, 2015). Many rescued victims struggle due to a lack of support services in the DRC.
The Sahel region in West Africa has also become a trafficking hotspot due to armed conflict and climate change. Countries like Mali, Niger, and Burkina Faso see a rise in trafficking, with victims often moved to North Africa and Europe. The G5 Sahel Joint Force has included anti-trafficking efforts in their operations, but a 2020 report highlighted that vast ungoverned areas and weak national law enforcement hinder their work (Raineri, 2021). Greater international support is needed to improve these initiatives.
Despite the challenges, there have been some successes against human trafficking in Africa. Ethiopia is making progress with a National Action Plan aimed at bolstering law enforcement and victim support (Blanchard, 2020). A 2022 International Labour Organisation (ILO) evaluation found a drop in trafficking cases in the capital, Addis Ababa (Zhang, 2022). Ghana is also working to combat child trafficking through partnerships with organizations like IOM and UNICEF, leading to the rescue of many children, although issues such as poverty and lack of education still need addressing (Clay- Warner, 2021).
2.5 Human Trafficking in Malawi
Malawi, like many countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, is a spot for human trafficking, serving as a source, transit, and destination. According to the 2023 U.S. Trafficking in Persons Report, Malawi falls under Tier 2, meaning the government is trying to fight trafficking but has not fully met the necessary standards to stop it. The issue mainly affects children and women, pushing them into forced labor, domestic work, agricultural jobs, and sexual exploitation. Those most at risk include orphans, street kids, and women from struggling rural areas.
The Trafficking in Persons Act of 2015 was a big step in making trafficking illegal in Malawi. Still, enforcing the law is tough due to limited resources, corruption, and a lack of training for those handling these cases. A study entitled “Police officer understandings of human trafficking and awareness of anti-trafficking measures,” showed that even though the law says there should be shelters for trafficking victims, there are only a few, and they are usually low on funds (Irwin, 2017).
Lilongwe City, the capital, has become a hotspot for trafficking. Its central location, urban growth, and economic gaps make it easy for traffickers to operate. They often take advantage of vulnerable groups like displaced persons, undocumented migrants, and rural kids by promising job opportunities. A 2021 report “Recite the last bylaw: Chiefs and child marriage reform in Malawi,” noted that Lilongwe is a crucial transit point for traffickers moving victims to countries like Mozambique, Zambia, and South Africa.
The MDF has typically been focused on national security and peacekeeping, but its role in fighting human trafficking has increased lately, especially with the rise in cross-border trafficking. In 2021, the MDF worked with police and immigration to break up a trafficking ring between Lilongwe and Mozambique, rescuing 35 victims, mostly children forced into farm labor (Nundwe, 2023).
In another instance in 2022, the MDF stopped a truck at the Mchinji border, trying to smuggle 20 Malawian women to South Africa. The women thought they were going to do domestic work, but the reality was much darker, and they were being sent to the sex trade. This operation showcased the MDF's new role in border security against trafficking, especially given Malawi's easy-to-cross borders. The MDF’s efforts are not just about stopping trafficking at the borders. In 2023, they took part in training sessions with the IOM to better identify and handle trafficking cases, focusing on victim support rather than criminalizing them (Chazema, 2024). In addition, in July 2024 MDF conducted an operation and arrested 220 illegal immigrants from Dzaleka Refugee Camp in Dowa District suspected of being trafficked (Chimjeka, 2024).
Despite these positive moves, there are still challenges. The MDF is not officially tasked with antitrafficking work, causing coordination problems with police and NGOs. Plus, the lack of resources and training makes it hard for them to tackle trafficking effectively, especially in places like Lilongwe where traffickers often hide in informal job markets and brothels.
2.6 Policy and Legal Frameworks
2.6.1 International Legal Frameworks
Human trafficking is a grave violation of human rights, and international law has a central role to play in eradicating the offense. In a study titled "Counteracting illegal border crossing and human trafficking: comparative analysis," the Palermo Protocol, adopted by the United Nations in 2000, stands at the center of the global campaign against human trafficking. It is a system known as the 3Ps: Prevention, Protection, and Prosecution Pryimachenko, 2003). It provides incentives for nations to criminalize the trafficking, offer services to assist the victims, and coordinate with each other across borders to close down the trafficking networks. The Protocol also emphasizes the assistance of victims through the rehabilitation and reintegration process. The Palermo Protocol has been signed by Malawi, and its laws have been modified to criminalize human trafficking and assist victims. It is, however, hindered by sectors such as corruption, lack of coordination among agencies, and insufficient resources that hinder complete implementation.
A report titled “Ending Human Trafficking in the Twenty-First Century” discusses how the International Labour Organisation (ILO) conventions, particularly the Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182) and the Forced Labour Convention (No. 29), are vital in addressing trafficking for forced labor and child exploitation. Malawi’s commitment to these conventions has shaped its national policies on child labor (Bigio, 2021). Convention No. 182 aims to eliminate the worst forms of child labor, including trafficking, while Convention No. 29 requires action against forced labor, including trafficking-related activities. Despite these measures, trafficking for labor and sexual exploitation is still a big issue in Malawi, driven by poverty, lack of education, and weak enforcement (ILO, 2020).
Another study on “System of international cooperation for sustainable development in the area of combating human trafficking in the 21st century,” points out that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC), which Malawi ratified in 1991, is also important in protecting children from exploitation, including trafficking (Kownacki, 2021). UNCRC obligates countries to prevent child trafficking, protect victims, and make sure that children have access to justice. Malawi has also worked on the National Plan of Action for Children (2021-2025) to strengthen its policies against child trafficking and labor. However, it still struggles with limited resources and low awareness of children's rights (Montasari,2021).
A study on “Consent, coercion, and fraud in human trafficking relationships” mentions The Hague Convention on Intercountry Adoption (1993), which addresses a specific area of human trafficking: the illegal trafficking of kids for adoption. This convention ensures that adoptions are done in the child's best interest and that strict procedures are in place to avoid trafficking (Gadd, 2023). Malawi's involvement in this convention helps keep its adoption processes transparent, although ongoing monitoring is needed to prevent issues.
Another report “Human Trafficking and the Effectiveness of the European Union’s Anti- Trafficking Policies,” shows that the European Union Anti-Trafficking Directive (2011/36/EU) has influenced cooperation on trafficking and migration, especially between Europe and Africa. Though this directive mainly targets EU member states, its principles have shaped strategies in non-EU countries, including Malawi, which has worked to improve its anti-trafficking efforts (Henrichs, 2023).
The African Union has also made progress in combating human trafficking through various instruments, like the African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights and the Maputo Protocol (Klavert, 2011). These instruments emphasize the need to protect vulnerable groups, particularly women and children. The African Union Convention on Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Persons also calls for national laws and victim support. Even though Malawi has ratified this convention, it still faces challenges with enforcement and resource issues.
International reports from organizations like the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime and the International Organisation for Migration highlight the global nature of human trafficking and its impact on vulnerable populations (Teye, 2024). The UNODC estimates that 25 million people are in forced labor worldwide, many of whom are trafficked across borders. In Africa, trafficking for sexual and labor exploitation remains a significant challenge. These reports stress the need for more focus on helping victims, as many are unaware of their rights or afraid to come forward.
Malawi's efforts to fight human trafficking are based on international laws, including the Palermo Protocol, ILO conventions, and the UNCRC. However, to effectively address this issue, the country needs to tackle challenges like limited resources, weak enforcement, and poor coordination among agencies. Malawi can strengthen its fight against human trafficking and create a safer environment for those at risk.
2.7 Challenges in Combating Human Trafficking
Human trafficking is also a critical condition that's compounded by numerous social and economic issues in Malawi. Despite the existence of foreign and domestic policies as well as legislations that aim to reduce it, the nation is also hindered by poverty, ineffective legal frameworks, inadequate resources, and inadequate coordination among the government and local organizations.
Most research such as "The Effectiveness of International Law in Eradicating Human Trafficking in Indonesia: Analysis of Implementation and Challenges," observe that economics contributes significantly to traffic cases in Malawi. Most people are below the poverty line, thus people's vulnerability to traffickers (Gumilar, 2024). Similar to unemployment, inadequate education access, and poor job opportunities, targeting children, women, and even men are not difficult for the traffickers. They usually entice victims with a better opportunity for education or employment, particularly from rural zones. They mostly find themselves in domestic servitude or irregular work where they are easily exploited. The condition was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, and further individuals lost their jobs and became obese, thus more individuals were exposed to trafficking.
The pandemic hurt the fight against human trafficking, as noted by the United Nations. The strain on social services and economic uncertainty made it easier for traffickers to find victims, while authorities struggled to support those who escaped (Rout, 2024). This shows how economic hardships can really boost trafficking activities, creating lasting problems for victims and their communities.
Another big problem in fighting human trafficking in Malawi is the weaknesses in the legal system and law enforcement. Even though there are laws like the Trafficking in Persons Act of 2015, the lack of resources such as trained personnel and necessary equipment makes it hard to enforce these laws. Report on “Analysis of Fundamental Challenges in the Combat of Transnational Crimes,” found that many officers do not have the training they need to spot trafficking victims or investigate cases correctly. This often leads to cases being misclassified or even ignored. Corruption within law enforcement worsens the issue, with some officials accepting bribes or turning a blind eye to trafficking in exchange for favors (Eyo 2024). This erodes public trust in the legal system and lets trafficking networks operate more freely. The justice system is also slow, which can add to the trauma victims face when they have to go through lengthy legal processes.
Victim support services in Malawi also need a lot of work. Many shelters lack basic needs like food, healthcare, and emotional support. Sometimes, victims end up in police cells alongside criminals, which is wrong and discourages others from seeking help (Bekmagambetov, 2024). The lack of proper shelters and rehabilitation programs makes it hard for victims to reintegrate into society. Cooperation between various governmental and non-governmental agencies is weak, largely due to financial issues. Organizations responsible for combating trafficking struggle to work together because they don’t have enough money for operations, training, and campaigns (Jones, 2023).
Malawi’s location also adds to the problem. Traffickers often use the country as a stop for moving victims to countries like Zambia, Mozambique, and South Africa. The country’s border control systems are not strong enough, lacking modern equipment, which makes it easy for traffickers to move victims without being caught. Trafficking networks operate across borders and are often supported by organized crime groups that have plenty of resources to evade local authorities. Despite the existence of some regional efforts to cooperate through groups like the Southern African Development Community (SADC), inconsistencies in laws among countries weaken those efforts (UNHCR, 2021).
Studies on “Global and US trends and patterns in human trafficking: A synthesis of the evidence,” have shown that a major issue after rescue is the stigma facing victims, which makes it tough for them to reintegrate into society (Dannailova-Trainor, 2022). Women and children often face discrimination after they are freed, making it hard for them to rebuild their lives. Without proper support services, many victims may end up stuck with limited options, which could lead them back to being exploited.
Despite the ongoing challenges, some efforts to combat trafficking in Malawi are effective. Local and international groups work hard to improve law enforcement, support for victims, and collaboration between agencies. To be effective in reality, resources have to be enhanced, police have to be upgraded, and there has to be an increase in international coordination so that the trafficker rings are dismantled. Malawi must establish a more diversified system that is not only punitive against the traffickers but also dedicated to providing assistance to the survivors so they can remold their lives and become members of society.
2.8 The Role of the Malawi Defence Force
The MDF has long been involved in supporting civil security, sometimes with the assistance of the MPS. During times of political tensions, natural disasters, or medical emergencies, the MDF finds itself deployed to maintain order, extend aid, and safeguard the most vulnerable. This tradition has paved the way for the MDF's role in combating human trafficking. There is a document titled "This one caught us unaware" which clarifies that the MDF not only participates in military activity but also national development and domestic security (Manda, 2025). The MDF has the responsibility of securing Malawi's borders, preventing trafficking networks, as well as safeguarding vulnerable people. There is increased acknowledgment of the military ability to address such challenges like human trafficking. One way the MDF contributes to this fight is through border security, as traffickers often exploit Malawi’s open borders with Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania to move victims. To combat this, the MDF keeps an eye on critical areas and works to block trafficking routes.
Another report titled “If You Have a Zero-Tolerance Policy, Why Aren't You Doing Anything,” shows that the MDF is actively involved in finding and preventing trafficking (Wallen, 2024). They help discover vulnerable groups and trafficking hotspots by being visible in border regions and conducting targeted operations. Their success in identifying trafficking routes has improved due to better intelligence-sharing with the police. The MDF also engages in community outreach to raise awareness about trafficking tactics and encourage people to report suspicious activity, which aligns with global best practices.
The report “Human Trafficking: An Issue of Human and National Security,” points out that forces like the MDF are key to rescuing victims because they can operate in tough situations (Pati, 2014). They work alongside law enforcement to free trafficked individuals from dangerous circumstances. For instance, several victims have been rescued from traffickers during joint operations in Lilongwe (National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Persons, 2023-2028). After rescues, the MDF partners with government agencies and NGOs to provide medical care, temporary housing, and support services. Still, a major challenge remains: Malawi lacks sufficient victim support services.
A study on “The importance of multi-agency collaborations,” shows how the MDF collaborates with law enforcement like the Department of Immigration and the MPS to dismantle trafficking networks. They coordinate their actions, share intelligence, and combine resources. The MDF usually supports with logistics like transportation and surveillance while law enforcement focuses on investigations (Pajon, 2022).
Since human trafficking often crosses borders, this teamwork extends to regional and international efforts. Operations have targeted key trafficking areas, particularly at the Mwanza and Mchinji borders, leading to the capture of traffickers and the rescue of various victims, including children in forced labor and women exploited for sex. The MDF’s intelligence and surveillance play a big role in identifying trafficking networks and aiding law enforcement.
Despite these efforts, the MDF faces several obstacles in its fight against human trafficking. Limited resources like funding, equipment, and personnel restrict their ability to conduct ongoing operations. Also, military staff often lack specialized training to effectively handle trafficking situations (National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Persons, 2023-2028). Issues like corruption in some agencies and the absence of a unified strategy for cooperation also hinder progress (U.S. Department of State, 2024). Balancing their roles in humanitarian efforts and national security adds to the challenge, showing that institutional changes are needed to align military duties with responsibilities like victim protection (UNODC, 2022).
2.9 Gaps in Literature
There are still many questions left about human trafficking, especially when it comes to how the military is involved in the fight against it. There is not much research on how armies, like the MDF, help with anti-trafficking efforts; most studies focus on legal issues, socioeconomic factors, and law enforcement aspects. While global and regional studies touch on the role of military forces in border security and rescuing victims, we lack specific data about Malawi. This raises concerns about the challenges the MDF faces in combating human trafficking and how effective their efforts are. Another gap in the research is the lack of information on how the military works together with law enforcement and immigration agencies. Most available literature points out the importance of working together but doesn't delve into how these teams operate, particularly in resource-limited places like Malawi. The social and cultural factors affecting trafficking in Malawi, like stigma surrounding victims and community responses to solutions, are also not getting enough attention. Moreover, studies rarely examine how regional plans, such as the SADC Strategic Plan and the African Union's Ouagadougou Action Plan, are put into action at the local level. There is little research on how well Malawi's national policies align with these regional and international plans and how effective they are at addressing human trafficking.
2.10 Conclusion
The literature study emphasises how complicated human trafficking is as a national, regional, and worldwide problem. It highlights the systemic issues and socioeconomic weaknesses that support human trafficking, as well as the vital role that international collaboration, legal frameworks, and law enforcement play in combating the issue. The assessment also emphasises how crucial military forces such as the MDF are in preventing human trafficking by securing borders, rescuing victims, and working with other organisations. Despite tremendous advancements in our knowledge of and ability to combat human trafficking, gaps in the literature highlight the need for more study. In particular, further research is needed on the sociocultural drivers of trafficking, the MDF's role in managing trafficking in Malawi, and the efficacy of interagency cooperation. By filling in these knowledge gaps, this study hopes to help Malawi and other countries create more potent anti-trafficking policies.
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CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This section describes how the data related to the research problems was gathered. It includes an overview of the research design, the study area, the sample, and the sampling methods, detailed as follows.
3.1 Research Approach
This study used a qualitative method to look into how the MDF manages human trafficking in Lilongwe City. Qualitative research focuses on understanding social issues through non-numerical data like interviews, observations, and document reviews (Cahart, 2023). It is all about digging into meanings and experiences, which is key when tackling complex issues like security and governance. The qualitative approach fits this study because human trafficking is a complicated issue that needs a deeper understanding of the MDF’s role, challenges, and effectiveness. The study gathered data through semi-structured interviews, focus groups, and document analysis for a thorough look at the MDF’s work. Focusing on Lilongwe City allowed for a detailed analysis of security efforts and could lead to insights that influence policies and improve cooperation among agencies.
3.2 Selection of the area of study
Lilongwe City was picked as the study area because it's a major hub for trafficking networks, thanks to its central location and expanding population. It is also home to key departments and institutions that deal with human trafficking issues. The study primarily focuses on places like Kamuzu Barracks, the Immigration and Citizenship Department, the MPS Anti-Trafficking Unit, the Malawi Network Against Trafficking, community leaders, local officials, and trafficking victims. The MDF plays a role in border security and supports anti-trafficking operations in partnership with law enforcement.
The Immigration Department keeps an eye on borders to stop trafficked individuals from entering or leaving illegally. The MPS Anti-Trafficking Unit investigates and prosecutes trafficking cases while helping victims. The Malawi Network Against Trafficking coordinates efforts among various groups and raises awareness. Community leaders and local officials face the impacts of trafficking, while victims provide vital insight into their experiences. Given the city’s importance and its concentration of agencies dealing with trafficking, the researcher sampled five different areas in Lilongwe.
3.3 Population of the Study
The study population includes the individuals who are engaged in combating human trafficking in Lilongwe. They include MDF officers serving in the border security and anti-trafficking operations, police officers from the MPS and Immigration Department, and government officials from the Ministry of Homeland Security and the Ministry of Gender, Community Development, and Social Welfare. It also has NGO and victim support unit members, and notably, survivors of trafficking to hear their views.
3.4 Target Population
The target population is the group that the researcher wishes to make conclusions about and generally has a wider scope (Clark, 2021). For the current study, such a target population is individuals and institutions in Malawi involved in one or more aspects of control of human trafficking. They are members of MDF, law enforcers, government officials, advocacy groups, victim support units, and survivors who all offer insight into intervention effectiveness.
3.5 Sampling Technique
The sampling method is a process of selecting members of a population that are most representative of its features (Chandra, 2013). Purposive sampling was applied in this study, directing the participants with explicit information on the topic. Purposive sampling suits here as it targets incorporating people directly engaged in handling human trafficking in Lilongwe, for instance, MDF employees, police, government, and NGO officials. This is a methodology that will provide outputs from the research that are applicable to people who have experience with anti-trafficking operations.
3.6 Sample Size
3.6.1 Sample Size Determination
To figure out the sample size, the researcher used Yamane’s formula. The formula is:
n = N / (1 + N(e)A2)
Where:
n = sample size.
N = population size.
e = margin of error (assumed at 10% or 0.10).
Assuming a target population of 100 key stakeholders involved in human trafficking response (including officers from the MDF, MPS, Immigration and Citizenship Department, civil society organisations, and relevant ministries), the formula becomes:
n = 100 / (1 + 100(0.10) A2)
n = 100 / (1 + 1)
n = 100 / 2
n = 50
Although the ideal sample size based on this formula is 50, this study adopted a final sample size of 36 participants. The reduction is justified on the basis of qualitative methodology, where the goal is not statistical representativeness but rather thematic saturation and depth of insight.
Key justifications for selecting a sample size of 36 include:
1. Saturation was reached around 30 participants, and interviews beyond that point yielded no substantially new themes.
2. Resource limitations (including time and accessibility) made it more practical to work with a smaller, focused group.
3. Purposive sampling ensured diversity across stakeholder categories, enabling deep, contextualized findings.
3.7 Data Collection Instruments
Data collection involved gathering and analyzing information to support the research, using various techniques (Weltbankgrupper, 2016). Instruments used for data collection included questionnaires, interviews, and literature reviews.
3.7.1 Primary Data Collection Tools
A questionnaire is a set of fixed questions given to participants in the same order, which helps keep responses consistent (Logan-McKibben, 2022). For this study, we chose a questionnaire because it lets people share their thoughts and opinions freely. We'll distribute these questionnaires to the participants.
Alongside the questionnaires, we created interview guides for both the survey and in-depth interviews. Before we started collecting data, two research assistants went through a two-day training to make sure everything stays on track. The training covered the study goals, the data collection methods, and a clear understanding of the questions in the survey and interviews. We also pretested the interview guides in Lilongwe and made adjustments based on what we learned.
For collecting data, we used the pretested questionnaires to gather statistical data from junior officers. Senior officers joined in discussions and interviews, each limited to about 30 minutes. To keep the primary data reliable and valid, we took a few steps:
Validity: To make sure our tools were valid, we consulted experts with a lot of research experience. They reviewed the survey questions to ensure they made sense and were appropriate. Changes were made before we conducted a pilot test of the questionnaire.
Reliability: We aimed to have participants complete the same questionnaire twice, although we faced some challenges because a few respondents didn’t want to answer the same questions again (Billups, 2020). This method was used to check if the data was consistent and reliable.
3.7.2 Secondary Data Collection
We looked at both published and unpublished secondary data sources, including government reports, policies, UNHCR publications, global human trafficking reports, academic journals, and relevant articles. We were careful with secondary data to ensure it met certain criteria:
Reliability: We wanted to make sure the results were not just random but could be repeated consistently (Bocarnea, 2021). We checked the source of the data, how it was collected, when it was collected, any possible biases, and its overall accuracy.
Suitability: Suitability means looking at how well the data meets our research needs (Viac, 2020). We checked the definitions and units used when the data was originally gathered to ensure it was relevant to our study.
3.7.4 Data Management and Analysis
We collected field information and analyzed the data using qualitative methods, which suit our research goals well. The researcher took steps to minimize errors during data entry. We carefully reviewed the collected data to ensure it was accurate, with regular checks to make sure it matched the original information.
For the qualitative data, we used thematic analysis to look at responses gathered from in-depth interviews and survey questionnaires. This method involves finding and interpreting patterns in qualitative data (Hero, 2022) and is commonly used in qualitative research. We read the data several times, coded text segments to draw insights, and identified emerging themes. The analysis included outlining these themes, examining each in detail, and pinpointing key issues. The final report included phrases or words from participants to reflect their views.
3.7.5 Ethical Consideration
MDF, MPS, and the Immigration Department play important roles in keeping our nation secure, and their work is closely related to national security. Because of this, these organizations have to stick to strict rules and often focus on formal cases to keep their reputations strong and maintain public trust. In this research, ethics means making sure the researcher acts appropriately, especially regarding the rights and well-being of the people involved or affected by the study's outcomes.
Throughout the research, ethical standards were followed carefully. The study stuck to the ethics and guidelines from the Ghana Armed Forces Command and Staff College. Before starting, the researcher got official clearance from the College to make sure everything complied with the necessary protocols.
All participants gave informed consent before any interviews took place. They received clear information about the research's purpose, so they understood what it was about and why it mattered. Taking part was completely voluntary, and participants could choose freely, without any pressure.
Confidentiality was a key part of this research. All information gathered from participants was kept confidential and used only for this study. Respondents were assured that their identities and answers would remain anonymous throughout the process. The researcher took careful steps to protect sensitive information during data collection, editing, storage, and presentation.
3.8 Conclusion
This chapter outlined the research design and methodology employed in assessing the role of the MDF in combating human trafficking within Lilongwe City. A qualitative approach was adopted to gain in-depth insights through interviews, focus group discussions, and document analysis. The study targeted diverse participants, including security personnel, policymakers, and trafficking survivors. Ethical considerations, including informed consent and confidentiality, were strictly observed. The methodology was designed to ensure credibility, reliability, and relevance of findings.
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CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND FINDINGS
4.0 Introduction
In this chapter, we take a look at the data gathered from interviews, focus groups, and document reviews about how the MDF tackles human trafficking. The results are arranged based on the four main research goals.
4.1 Demographic Information of Study Participants
Table 1: Gender Distribution of Participants
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Most of the participants were male, making up 57.5% of the group, while females represented 42.5%.
Table 2: Participant Categories/Organisations
Most of the participants were from the MPS at 27.8%, with the MDF coming in next at 22.2%. There were also people from groups like CSOs, Immigration, and the Ministry of Defence.
Table 3: Roles/Positions of Participants
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Most participants were frontline officers (44.4%), followed by senior officers (33.3%) with significant experience in anti-trafficking operations. The remainder were either legal/policy experts or working in victim support.
Table 4: Years of Experience
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The majority of participants (55.5%) had between 6 to 10 years of experience, with a significant number having 1-5 years (22.2%) and 11-15 years (27.8%) of experience.
Table 5: Educational Background of Participants
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Most participants (44.4%) held a bachelor’s degree, followed by those with diplomas (27.8%) and master's degrees (19.4%). A smaller percentage held certificates (8.3%).
4.2 Discussion of Findings
4.2.1 Objective 1: Assess the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
Findings from the study reveal that while the MDF is not the primary agency mandated to address human trafficking, it plays an indispensable supporting role in Malawi’s broader counter-trafficking framework.
4.2.1.1 Border Patrol and Safety Measures
The MPS and the Department of Immigration are primarily in charge of managing the official border posts. But they often struggle due to being short on staff, having limited gear, and dealing with logistic issues. This opens up chances for traffickers to use less monitored routes that law enforcement mostly overlooks. To help out, the MDF gets involved by patrolling harder-to-reach areas, especially those traffickers might use to avoid official checkpoints. One MDF officer mentioned, “ In tough-to-reach spots, especially where we think trafficking happens, we monitor the area. Sometimes, we’re the only security presence there, and that alone helps discourage illegal activities.”
This aligns with the National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Persons (2023-2028), which points out the MDF's role in strengthening border security. The plan acknowledges the tough job immigration and police forces face, especially on Malawi's borders with Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania, and calls attention to how the MDF can help monitor these spots to stop trafficking.
Moreover, a report called “This One Caught Us Unaware: Disaster Politics and Institutions During Cyclone Freddy in Malawi” highlights that the MDF's job goes beyond standard military tasks, now also tackling things like human trafficking (Manda, 2025). This includes surveillance in areas where other government agencies are absent, showing that the MDF's importance in security efforts is gaining recognition.
Those involved in this research also agreed that MDF patrols, whether they work alone or with police and immigration, have played a key role in interrupting trafficking activities before victims are moved across borders. One immigration official said, “ Without the MDF, we wouldn't get to many of these places. Their help lets us stop movement before it gets worse.”
This approach matches findings in another study, “If You Have a Sero-Tolerance Policy, Why Aren’t You Doing Anything? Using the Uniform Code of Military Justice to Combat Human Trafficking Abroad,” which mentions that having military presence can deter trafficking (Wallen, 2024). The research shows that visibility combined with smart operations helps catch trafficking attempts before they grow.
But there is still a challenge. Even though the MDF is good at spotting suspected trafficking cases, it mostly acts as the first line of response. Once potential trafficking is spotted, the police or immigration take over for investigations and victim support. This handoff, while following the established process, has sometimes caused delays in identifying and protecting victims.
This insight adds to the existing literature. The National Action Plan talks about cooperation among agencies but it does not really address the delays that happen when responsibilities switch between agencies. This study suggests that having clearer protocols for working together and offering training to MDF officers on identifying and responding to victims could really boost the speed and effectiveness of responses.
The MDF's initiative to curb human trafficking by tracking the borders fits into the line of the Human Security Concept. Their forward patrols in far-flung areas are all about stopping traffickers before they advance into more congested areas. The MDF's move of stopping traffickers at unapproved crossing points is a reflection of just how crucial they are in safeguarding vulnerable individuals. The concept implies that safeguarding people, particularly vulnerable people, is equally significant as conventional defense, such that security measures encompass human security in national policy. MacDonald notes that human security emphasizes greater concern with people's freedom and rights (MacDonald, 2002). The approach emphasizes the way in which the behavior of the MDF constitutes a more comprehensive concept of security that caters to vulnerable individuals, and not solely boundaries. This ties back to what the National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Persons (20232028) promotes about enhancing national security against trafficking (UNDP, 1994).
In line with Social Network Theory, the MDF’s actions break down trafficking networks by focusing on vulnerable border areas where traffickers find weaknesses. In working together with agencies like the MPS and immigration, the MDF boosts efforts to disrupt these networks by targeting crucial parts of these criminal operations. The MDF’s intelligence-gathering and patrols help break the connections between traffickers and the routes they use, supporting the idea that targeting key points can greatly reduce criminal activities. Granovetter (1973) explains that shaking up a network's structure, especially by pinpointing crucial spots, can significantly impact criminal enterprises.
4.2.1.2 Tactical Support During High-Risk Rescue Missions
When traffickers are armed or linked to organized crime, police and immigration officers often ask the military for help. The MDF has special training that prepares them to handle dangerous situations, which keeps both victims and officers safe during these operations.
A police officer mentioned, “ Some traffickers don’t work alone. They have connections to smuggling groups and sometimes carry guns. That’s when the MDF comes in to help protect us and secure the area.”
Military support in these operations usually gets approval from higher-ups, especially when there's intelligence showing a serious threat to public safety. One of the MDF Senior Officers stated, "We're not detectives, but we do give protective cover where there is a threat to life. It's our job to make it safe for someone else to go and do their job."
The role that MDF has in tactical assistance is not altered from what was previously discovered through research. As it is mentioned in "Human Trafficking: An Issue of Human and National Security," military assistance is vital during risky operations, particularly in neutralizing the traffickers' threats and protecting law enforcement officers.
These are supported by Human Security Concept, Social Network Theory, and Institutional Theory. Human Security Concept sets out to secure the individuals from such dangers as human trafficking, and the MDF operations in undertaking hazardous activities seek to safeguard at-risk groups. Social Network Theory examines the criminal networks, and the MDF cracks the trafficking rings by identifying the central nodes and joining hands with law enforcement agencies. Lastly, Institutional Theory emphasizes that different organizations must collaborate with each other to combat human trafficking. The MDF itself is part of a larger system, collaborating with the police and community organizations. Still, Meyer reports that constraints such as fewer resources and inadequate coordination can deter anti-trafficking activity, emphasizing that an active, collective endeavor is required in order to combat the problem effectively.
4.2.1.3 Inter-Agency Capacity Building and Training Participation
The military has mainly focused on protecting the nation, but things are changing. Increased concern about such things as human trafficking is growing. This is being accomplished through workshops and training that involves various sectors, such as the police, civil society, and immigration. A junior officer with MDF said, "We've begun going to sessions with other agencies. They teach us to recognize victims and what to do if we feel there is trafficking involved. It's new to a lot of us, but really important."
The incorporation of awareness of human trafficking into training for MDF follows what has been placed on the table in existing research. Pati (2014) in his book "Human Trafficking: An Issue of Human and National Security," discussed how military units have been reacting to non-traditional security challenges, such as human trafficking. They're also working with civilian agencies and government organizations for training. And another study by Manda (2025) entitled "This One Caught US Unaware: Disaster Politics and Institutions During Cyclone Freddy in Malawi," revealed that the MDF is broadening its mandate in terms of dealing with humanitarian crises as well as its conventional military functions. This shift of ideology supports MacDonald's (2002) contention that human security entails the protection of individuals against threats such as trafficking, broadening the military role beyond defense to caring for vulnerable persons.
People from civil society organizations praised the MDF's participation in training, calling it a progressive move to improve the national response to human trafficking. One CSO program officer noted, “ The MDF is often involved in fieldwork, so training them is crucial. If they know what to watch for, they can report cases even when they’re on other missions.” This shows that by joining anti-trafficking training, the MDF can play a key role in spotting and acting on trafficking situations, even when it’s not their main job.
A major takeaway from this study is that inter-agency training is vital in boosting the MDF’s success in fighting human trafficking. As military folks learn about trafficking signs, they can better identify potential victims during their regular duties, helping speed up how quickly authorities can step in. This is particularly critical since the MDF works in remote areas where trafficking often occurs. So, these training efforts not only enhance the MDF’s capabilities but also improve teamwork among all the agencies working against trafficking.
Also, Social Network Theory (Granovetter, 1973) helps explain how these training efforts make a difference. The MDF’s involvement in training strengthens links between military, law enforcement, and civil society, making it harder for trafficking networks to operate. Granovetter (1973) pointed out that breaking the connections between traffickers and their routes can weaken these illegal networks. As the MDF continues to build skills and work more closely with other agencies, it aids in breaking down trafficking operations, making it tougher for traffickers to operate in vulnerable areas.
4.2.2 Objective 2: Identify and Analyse Policy Measures Aimed at Combating Human Trafficking in Malawi
I spoke with people from the MDF, Immigration Department, MPS, Ministry of Defence, NGOs, and human trafficking survivors. From these chats, I found four main themes about the policies aimed at fighting human trafficking in Malawi. These themes show some progress that’s been made, but also point out some ongoing issues.
4.2.2.1 Institutional Constraints and Legal Mandate Limitations
The MDF is important in the fight against human trafficking, especially because it's involved in border patrols and other operations. But its work is held back by rules and laws that make it tough for them to act quickly and on their own when it comes to stopping trafficking. The Constitution of Malawi states that the military's main job is national defense. So, any action related to civilian law enforcement, including human trafficking, needs to come from higher-up officers. These rules cause delays in anti-trafficking efforts, particularly in urgent situations.
One of the military officers clarified, "Our protocol is strict. We only act without proper authority in cases of national security emergencies. In case we observe something unusual, we report and await orders." This indicates one of the biggest issues with how the military operates towards trafficking because such lengthy procedures tend to prevent them from doing anything even when they're aware that something is wrong. The lags are a huge issue in human trafficking cases, when the traffickers manage to get away while waiting. The police have the same problem. In the words of one police officer, "Sometimes we need to call for backup quickly, but the green light is too slow. By the time it comes, the traffickers have disappeared." These comments show the bureaucratic lags that prevent the police and military from collaborating well.
In the study, "Counteracting Illegal Border Crossing and Human Trafficking: Comparative Analysis," Pryimachenko notes that legal norms in most states, especially in the Global South, tend to slow down anti-trafficking efforts. In his opinion, bureaucracy and the requirement of high-level clearances significantly weaken the efficacy of anti-trafficking efforts, particularly when traffickers switch quickly when responding to the actions of the law enforcement. These problems are additionally aggravated in regions where military rules are strict, and waiting for the official word can impede the response to human trafficking.
Montasari, in his analysis “Combatting Human Trafficking: An Analysis of International and Domestic Laws,” notes that though Malawi has made progress through plans like the National Plan of Action for Children (2021-2025), there are still gaps in how these laws are carried out. He highlights that the many laws in place struggle because of inefficiencies in how different agencies, including government and military, work together. The need for approvals before taking action, like what we see with the MDF's procedures, slows down effective anti-trafficking measures and gives traffickers more chances to operate without getting caught.
One soldier explained, "Our protocol is strict, we see something suspicious, we report and wait for orders." This is a major issue with the way that the military responds to such trafficking because these long procedures have a way of keeping them from moving at all even when they feel something is wrong. The latter delays in human trafficking cases are significant, which enable the traffickers to escape during the waiting period. The police also encounter the same problems. One of the policemen explained, "Sometimes we require backup urgently, but approval comes too late. By the time it comes, the traffickers have gone." These comments pinpoint the bureaucratic delays which discourage cooperation between the military and police.
In research, "Counteracting Illegal Border Crossing and Human Trafficking: Comparative Analysis," Pryimachenko identifies that legal rule in most countries, especially the Global South, have the potential of hampering anti-trafficking efforts. For him, bureaucracy and need for top-level approval significantly damage the efficiency of anti-trafficking campaigns, especially when traffickers can react easily to law enforcement action. These issues are worse in jurisdictions where military regulations are severe, and sluggishness in securing authorization can slow down movement against human trafficking.
4.2.2.2 Inadequate Policy Measures on Victim Protection and Reintegration
One of the most significant issues that arose is a dearth of adequate victim support in Malawi. Though there are pieces of legislation such as the 2015 Trafficking in Persons Act that are intended to assist victims, most individuals have the impression that such laws are not practically applied, a particularly rural occurrence.
A social worker from a community organization in Lilongwe explained, “ Most victims end up back in unsafe situations or are locked up with offenders. That's not what the law is supposed to do, but there just aren’t enough resources to help them.” This sentiment is backed by Bekmagambetov’s study, “Analysis of the Policies Combatting Human Trafficking at the International and National Level,” which notes that victim shelters in Malawi don’t provide enough amenities like food and healthcare. The research points out that in some cases, victims are placed in police cells alongside criminals, which not only violates their rights but also makes other victims hesitant to seek help.
There are very critical problems of non-government-funded shelters, lack of mental health care, and lack of follow-up on the victims once they are rescued, so that they remain at greater risk for further trafficking. While community groups work to address such shortcomings, these are not translated in terms of national policy and lobbying for necessary funds. A survivor told us, “ After I was rescued, I stayed at a church for three weeks. Nobody from the government checked in on me. It felt like I was forgotten.”
This echoes a disconnect between the books and reality. Despite the presence of legal frameworks, weak enforcement as a result of numerous challenges renders the victims not receiving assistance necessary. Bekmagambetov contends that insufficient proper shelter and rehabilitation centers impedes efforts towards assisting victims to reintegrate into normal life.
Research by Dannailova-Trainor in "Global and US Patterns and Trends in Human Trafficking: A Synthesis of Evidence," brings to light that victim rescued endure much stigma, and it becomes difficult for them to be reintegrated into society. Survivors believed they were alone and unsupported, particularly in societies where victimhood is stigmatized. Dannailova-Trainor says that without longterm support such as therapy, reintegration programs, and job training, victims find it hard to rebuild their lives and may find themselves in exploitative situations once again.
Despite the existence of laws such as the TIPA 2015 and other structures that are intended to shield victims, following both the research and interviews, there is no doubt that lack of resources, poor infrastructure, and the government's indifference are significant obstacles in having such laws become effective. Economic instability and dependency on poorly funded organizations form the icing on the cake.
Human trafficking in Malawi primarily affects women and children, and the policies need to consider this vulnerability but do not. Survivors reported being frequently unsafe when at government shelters that lack proper security and counseling services. Bekmagambetov encapsulated this problem by stating, Support services are not only absent but differ considerably from province to province, making it difficult for victims to restore their lives.
With concepts drawn from Institutional Theory, Human Security Concept, and Social Network Theory, it is possible to explain the role played by the MDF in counteracting human trafficking in Lilongwe City. Human Security Concept selects the MDF as a guardian against threats such as trafficking and emphasizes the protection of human rights and human dignity. Social Network Theory illustrates the complexity of trafficking networks and how the intelligence work of the MDF can dismantle them. Institutional Theory considers if the MDF is collaborating with other agencies such as the police and NGOs and how inter-agency collaboration needs to be improved in order to effectively fight trafficking. All of these theories combined demonstrate that the struggle against human trafficking not only requires enforcement, but also a robust institutional framework and awareness of the social factors at play.
4.2.2.3 Donor-Driven Policy Influence and Sustainability Concerns
Others noted that the anti-trafficking policies of Malawi are highly reliant on overseas aid, both for their formation and implementation. Although funding from overseas donors has been crucial in providing training, awareness-raising, and support for border security, questions regarding what shall happen when the external assistance is withdrawn are emerging. One of the police officers summarized it this way: "We receive funding from the government of America and from IOM to train our officers on how to handle trafficking. But once that money runs out, we cannot carry on. Our policies require their own funding mechanism." The need for external funding guarantees that Malawi is going to deal with global issues more than it is going to develop responses suited to its own context. This makes the fight against human trafficking in Malawi volatile, especially when donor interests change.
Supporting this view, Eyo's work on the challenges in fighting transnational crimes suggests that capacity-building efforts often do not last because they don't include long-term training programs for local institutions (Eyo, 2024). Eyo points out that “without ongoing local funding, any gains from donor help usually disappear when the funding does,” showing how vulnerable these initiatives are to losing outside support. A UNHCR report mentions that Malawi's dependence on donor-funded surveillance tools and training puts its security at risk once that funding stops (UNHCR, 2021). It warns that when external funds are cut, border patrols cannot operate as well, giving trafficking networks more room to operate. Gumilar also highlights that while donor-driven efforts can help in the short term, they often ignore the deep-rooted issues like poverty and lack of education, which need sustained local investment to tackle (Gumilar, 2024). He states, Donor-driven actions might work temporarily, but they don’t tackle the real issues behind trafficking.
All of this points to the need for Malawi to develop its own funding solutions and take ownership of anti-trafficking efforts. Without these, the fight against human trafficking could be too vulnerable to changing donor priorities, which might hurt long-term effectiveness.
The theories back up these points, emphasizing the risks of depending on outside help for antitrafficking initiatives in Malawi. Human Security Concept points the importance of local security measures that focus on protecting individuals (MacDonald, 2002). Social Network Theory shows how trafficking networks can adjust to changes in donor focus, making short-term help less useful (Granovetter, 1985). Lastly, Institutional Theory stresses the need for strong institutions, which cannot thrive when they are too reliant on donor funds (Meyer, 2021).
4.2.3 Objective 3: Evaluate the Collaboration Between the Malawi Defence Force and Other Law Enforcement Agencies in Managing Human Trafficking Cases
The goal here was to look at how well the MDF works with other law enforcement groups, like the Malawi Police, the Immigration Department, and some CSOs, in dealing with human trafficking cases. We gathered information from interviews, observations in the field, and document reviews, which helped us spot some key themes that show both the good and the challenging parts of these teamwork efforts.
4.2.3.1 Formal and Informal Collaboration Mechanisms in Joint Operations
Both MDF and MPS officers noted that there are formal ways they work together, especially during high-risk operations like border patrols and rescue missions. They often set up joint task forces during busy times, like school holidays or holidays, when trafficking cases usually spike. Orders for these operations come from the Ministry of Homeland Security and directions from the President's office. One MDF officer explained: “ When we suspect trafficking at the borders, we get tasked to work with Immigration and Police officers, and sometimes the Anti-Human Trafficking Unit. Everyone has their own job, and we all follow one command.”
Despite these formal setups, there are still issues with coordination and command. Some Police officers mentioned problems with overlapping jurisdictions, and there have been times when it’s not clear who is in charge during joint operations, which can lead to confusion, especially in urgent situations. One Police officer shared about a 2023 incident in Area 25, Lilongwe, where delays in coordinating a rescue mission almost led to failure: “ There was a mix-up about who could authorize entry. By the time we got the go-ahead, the traffickers had already gotten away.” This shows that even with formal systems, there are still challenges.
Research supports these findings. Pajon, in the study “The Importance of Multi-Agency Collaborations during Human Trafficking Investigations,” talks about how important it is for agencies like MDF and MPS to work together to tackle trafficking networks. Pajon mentions that joint operations require coordination, sharing intelligence, and combining resources, which fits what we heard from the officers. He also says that problems such as overlaps in jurisdictions and coordination issues can undermine these efforts, which one officer corroborated when he mentioned confusion in authorizing operations.
These findings are also explained by the theories we reviewed. Human Security Concept, in its pursuit to make people safe from threats such as trafficking, emphasizes ensuring collaboration in order to make vulnerable populations safe. In this case, the involvement of the MDF in joint operations, particularly during dangerous hours, is important. Social Network Theory explains how vital interagency coordination is because trafficking entails sophisticated networks. This theory stipulates those agencies must coordinate more if they are to succeed in countering such networks, as is clearly witnessed in the working relationship between Police Service and MDF. In spite of this, the theory identifies difficulties, such as jurisdictional overlaps that can weaken effective coordination. Finally, Institutional Theory describes how deficient structures, such as confused command, can weaken coordination, as happened in the Area 25 case.
Conversely, officers detailed that informal cooperation occurs far more frequently. Participants at both the district and border levels outlined how they regularly draw upon personal contacts or informal avenues on a regular basis when swift action is called for. A Police officer clarified: "Sometimes it's better to just call someone from MDF I know instead of waiting on red tape." But that would be acting without complete authorization or coordination." These ad hoc approaches though they provide for quick responses, they pose problems in terms of transparency and accountability. The absence of Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) results in confusion of roles, as one Immigration officer has noted: "There have been instances where both MDF and Police officers dispute over who takes a suspect or who does transport for victims." Such ad hoc coordination despite being the fastest method lacks the form necessary for synchronized processes in arrest, handling of evidence, and victim care.
4.2.3.2 Lack of Interagency Coordination
One of the major problems that have been cited to blame the government is the absence of coordination among the MDF, MPS, and Immigration officers in combating human trafficking. These agencies are operating in silos, and there is no shared program for training on trafficking. It is this fragmentation that leaves many at the ground level confused about who does what and what the statutory responsibilities are. An MDF officer further stated, "We normally do not train with the police or immigration. So, in the field, nobody knows who is supposed to be in command or how to properly help victims in terms of human rights."
Deficient joint training results in errors, particularly for cases of cross-border trafficking, that ultimately cause harm to the victims. Some civil society organizations (CSOs) informed that victims are not always given proper care due to this shortcoming. "Victims are at times interrogated on the spot upon rescue without emotional support," one representative informed. This can cause more trauma.
Research backs up these worries. Antonopolous, in “Crime and Money: Understanding Human Trafficking and Finances,” mentions how the pandemic made the issues in law enforcement worse worldwide, including in Malawi. The absence of structured training makes it hard for agencies to work together, especially when helping victims or dealing with cross-border cases. Gumilar, in “The Effectiveness of International Law in Eradicating Human Trafficking in Indonesia,” also pointed out that not having a unified training approach within law enforcement makes it tough for them to respond well, putting victims at more risk.
The problems get worse with poor sharing of information and resources. Even though police and immigration services sometimes share details, the MDF often misses out on important updates. An MDF officer shared, “ We usually come in after things have escalated. If we had the info earlier, we could catch traffickers at checkpoints or help out sooner.” There’s also a sense of mistrust, mostly due to worries about how data might be used, which fuels this disconnect. One officer mentioned a case in Dedza where delays in sharing information allowed traffickers to slip through at an unmonitored border. “ The info came too late, and by the time we got a checkpoint up, the convoy was already in Mozambique,” said an Immigration officer.
Theory backs these points up too. Human Security Concept talks about needing protection for vulnerable people like trafficking victims and stresses the need for joined-up training and teamwork. Social Network Theory talks about the importance of working together across agencies to break up trafficking networks. Institutional Theory emphasizes that agencies must collaborate to fight trafficking, but that is tough without shared protocols and coordinated actions. All in all, the current lack of cooperation, with limited joint training, unclear roles, and isolated information systems, continues to hurt Malawi’s ability to tackle human trafficking effectively.
4.2.3.3 Opportunities for Strengthened Collaboration and Regional Integration
Despite ongoing challenges, respondents across all sectors in this study acknowledged the urgent need and clear potential for improved inter-agency collaboration in combating human trafficking. There was overwhelming support for the establishment of a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC), envisioned as a joint operations hub involving the MDF, MPS, Immigration, and CSOs. The proposed centre would enhance real-time intelligence sharing, harmonise field operations, and foster institutional cooperation among agencies that currently operate in isolation. One Immigration official observed, “ Traffickers do not respect borders. If we are to stop them, the army, police and neighbouring states must work as one.”
This call for enhanced cooperation aligns with findings from Anderson publication, “Improving the Effectiveness of International Law of Human Trafficking,” which emphasises that trafficking networks often exploit weak coordination between neighbouring states (Anderson, 2011). They argue that effective cross-border efforts through joint operations and intelligence sharing are essential for curbing such transnational crimes. Their work supports the findings of this study, which highlight a strong local appetite for institutional frameworks that promote unified action, particularly in the context of cross-border movement between Malawi, Mozambique, Zambia, and Tanzania.
Further reinforcement comes from Moloi’s study, “Integrated Responses to Human Trafficking in Southern Africa: Lessons from Joint Task Forces”, which shows the effectiveness of multi-agency collaboration in Southern Africa. Moloi notes that where defence forces, law enforcement agencies, and non-state actors operate under coordinated task forces, outcomes tend to be more proactive, intelligence-led, and victim-centred. This reflects the sentiments of an MDF officer interviewed in this study, who remarked, that “ regional drills and joint task force exchanges would build confidence and reduce mistrust between security agencies.”
This research contributes new, field-based insights to the growing literature by grounding policy recommendations in the lived experiences of those on the front lines. Unlike earlier studies which focus predominantly on high-level frameworks, this study captures operational realities and reflects a strong preference for a homegrown solution specifically, the establishment of a NATCC. Respondents did not simply acknowledge the limitations of current strategies; they actively proposed mechanisms to overcome them, such as structured inter-agency communication channels and regional joint trainings. These findings affirm that while regional instruments like the SADC Protocol on Combating Trafficking in Persons provide a useful legal basis, practical, locally owned initiatives are critical to transforming policy into effective action.
Theoretical insights from Human Security Concept, Social Network, and Institutional theories support the study’s findings on the need for enhanced collaboration. Human Security Concept justifies the MDF’s role in protecting individuals from trafficking as part of broader human rights protection. Social Network Theory highlights the importance of disrupting trafficking networks through intelligence-sharing and joint operations. Institutional Theory explains the current coordination challenges among agencies and supports the proposed National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC) as a structural solution. Together, these theories reinforce respondents’ calls for integrated, cross-border action to counter trafficking networks and promote more effective, people-centred anti-trafficking strategies.
4.2.4 Objective 4: Develop Actionable Strategies for Strengthening the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Addressing Human Trafficking
The goal was to suggest some real changes and policies that could help the MDF do a better job in fighting human trafficking. We gathered information from interviews, meetings with stakeholders, and a review of organizations, which led to four main themes. These themes can guide how the MDF can step up its efforts against this issue.
4.2.4.1 Institutional Policy Gaps and Need for Mandate Clarity
It turns out that the MDF does not have a clear legal or policy framework for dealing with human trafficking. This is against the background that the Republican Constitution and the updated 2023 Defence Force Act allow the military to step in during emergencies, there are not any rules that specifically ask them to help with human trafficking. Because of this, their involvement often feels informal and inconsistent.
One MDF officer mentioned, “ There’s nothing that says ‘This is what you do for human trafficking.’ We respond when we’re called, but it’s not really organized.” Another officer added, “ Usually, we’re just there for security. We could do more if there were guidelines.” A security expert from the Ministry of Defence said, “ It’s tough to put the army in civilian issues when there's no clear role. That’s why we turn to the police and immigration more.”
These issues are not unique to Malawi as similar challenges are found internationally. Wheatley, in his work “Transnational Organised Crime: A Survey of Laws, Policies and International Conventions,” points out that having clear policies and training is essential for military personnel to spot and deal with trafficking (Wheatley, 2021). Tennant also notes in “Fulfilling the Promise of Palermo?” that NATO’s efforts in Kosovo faced difficulties because there wasn’t a clear military role in addressing trafficking (Tennant, 2021).
The Human Security Concept and Social Network Theory supports these findings. Human Security Concept talks about protecting vulnerable people from threats like trafficking and underscores the necessity for the MDF to have a clear role (MacDonald, 2002). Social Network Theory emphasizes the need to break down trafficking networks and suggests that the MDF should work closely with other law enforcement folks (Granovetter, 1973). Institutional Theory says that working together and making structural changes across agencies is key in fighting human trafficking, indicating that without a formal role, the MDF can’t work effectively (Meyer, 2021).
To fix this, we need a policy or a change in the law that clearly states what the MDF's role is in tackling trafficking. This should lay out their responsibilities, how they work with others, and how they will be held accountable, so the military can get involved in a lawful and effective way.
4.2.4.2 Need for Integrated Training, Human Rights Sensitization, and Enhanced Inter-Agency Coordination
There’s a big issue when it comes to tackling human trafficking in Malawi: the lack of joint training that brings together the MDF, MPS, Immigration, and civil society organizations. Folks involved in this work are worried that without proper training together, things get messy, and victims’ rights might get overlooked.
An Immigration Officer said, “ We've never had joint training with the MDF. So even when we are out in the field together, we’re not sure who does what. ” This confusion during operations can lead to mistakes. A representative from a civil society organization pointed out that MDF officers need specific training, noting, “ Military officers are trained for combat, not for helping victims. Trafficking victims, especially women and kids, need understanding and special care.”
An MDF officer shared, “ We sometimes struggle with how to treat victims, whether as rescued people or part of a crime scene. Training could really help.” This shows the need for training programs that focus on human rights and how to care for victims. These programs should be regular and include practice scenarios to help everyone work better together when tackling trafficking.
Furthermore, Irwin's research in “police officer Understanding of Human Trafficking and Awareness of Anti-Trafficking Measures,” found that law enforcement does not get the training they need for handling trafficking cases, which leads to underfunded shelters and limited resources for victims. This makes shows that we need better training that includes human rights awareness so everyone, including the police, MDF, and NGOs, knows their role in helping trafficking victims.
On top of the need for training, agencies struggle to coordinate during joint operations. Issues like slow sharing of information and unclear plans often come up. A Police Officer mentioned, “When we do joint patrols, everyone has their own procedures. This makes things slow, especially when urgent decisions are needed.” An Immigration officer added about a case in Salima where both police and military showed up but could not figure out who should take charge, allowing the traffickers to get away.
Chazema's study in “Balancing Civil-Military Relations in Democratic Development,” stresses how joint training for the MDF focusing on victim-centered approaches is really important for interacting with trafficking victims. Working with the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to train military personnel on how to identify and care for victims is key as it shows the concern MDF officers have about how to treat victims.
To tackle coordination issues, Nundwe discusses the MDF, MPS, and Immigration teaming up to break down a trafficking ring but points out that unclear roles made it hard to work together effectively. This again calls the need for training that makes sure everyone knows their responsibilities during operations so they can act quickly against trafficking.
Human Security Concept, Social Network Theory, and Institutional Theory conceptual frameworks all serve to justify the requirements for greater coordination training and greater collaboration. Human Security Concept is specific about the role of the MDF in guarding vulnerable communities, and Social Network Theory is concerned with information sharing in order to dismantle trafficking rings. Institutional Theory refers to the necessity for more formal roles and reform in order to better coordinate.
To address such challenges, the presence of a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC) is recommended. The centre would facilitate intelligence sharing, coordination of quick response, and joint planning. Assuming we have a central system, then the success of anti-trafficking operations would be significantly enhanced. In addition to this, the MDF should also appoint a liaison officer to ensure their inputs go well in accordance with the general objective of the operation.
Generally, more training, human rights sensitization, and more inter-agency coordination are required in order to effectively combat human trafficking in Malawi. In this way, all stakeholders will have the information and capacity to safeguard victims and respond promptly and effectively to trafficking offenses.
4.2.4.3 Unlocking the Military’s Intelligence Edge in Anti-Trafficking Efforts
Another area identified as underutilized is the MDF’s capacity for intelligence gathering and border surveillance. Participants noted that the MDF is often excluded from early-stage intelligence processes, limiting their ability to proactively intercept trafficking syndicates.
“ We are called in when something big happens. But if we were part of the initial planning, we could monitor border movements better,” said an MDF Officer. “ They have the tools and trained analysts but no one gives them the intel in time,” added a Police Officer. “ We had a case near the Mchinji border. Had MDF been looped in earlier, they would have caught the traffickers with their advanced tracking equipment,” said an Immigration Officer. This concern is resonated in Davies’ (2024) article “Assessing and Managing the Risk of Organised Crime, Human Trafficking, and Modern Slavery”, published in the African Security argues that military actors are frequently treated as reactive responders rather than strategic intelligence partners, which creates operational blind spots particularly in border regions (Davies, 2024).
To unlock the MDF’s full potential, the study recommends their formal integration into national antitrafficking intelligence systems. This includes their involvement in pre-raid planning, access to realtime suspect databases, and deployment of surveillance capabilities during high-risk operations.
These findings align with Human Security Concept, which recognises trafficking as a threat not only to national sovereignty but also to individual safety, dignity, and societal stability. The theory supports an expanded role for military institutions in protecting human rights and preventing harm before it escalates thus legitimising the MDF’s role beyond traditional defence duties. Participants further highlighted the regional nature of trafficking syndicates, involving Zambia, Mozambique, and Tanzania. However, MDF officers are currently not authorized to coordinate militarily across borders.
“ Traffickers use back routes between Malawi and Mozambique. But we can’t pursue or track across borders, ” said an MDF Officer. “ The army should liaise more with counterparts in Zambia and Tanzania, especially for long-distance trafficking routes,” said an Immigration Officer. “ If there were joint military patrols with neighbouring countries, it would scare traffickers. Right now, they know the gaps,” remarked one CSO Member.
This regional challenge is reinforced by Gezinskia’s research titled “Sex Trafficking and Technology: A Systematic Review of Recruitment and Exploitation”. The study shows how traffickers exploit the lack of regional enforcement coordination to operate with minimal detection. It recommends formalising joint military patrols, establishing intelligence-sharing protocols, and creating standardised regional databases (Gezinskia, 2022).
This perspective is underpinned by Social Network Theory, which explains how trafficking operations rely on flexible, decentralised networks that cross national boundaries and adapt swiftly to enforcement patterns. Disrupting such networks requires coordinated intelligence, cross-border surveillance, and shared operational strategies precisely where the MDF’s technological and regional strengths can add significant value.
Schrock (2021) points out that traffickers are using things like encrypted chats, GPS tricks, and digital maps more than ever. This shows that we really need tech-savvy military teams to step up their game in cross-border digital watching and support cyber intelligence (Schrock, 2021).
Institutional Theory gives us some helpful ideas too. It says that rigid boundaries, separate tasks, and no shared protocols often get in the way of working together. This view shows we need some serious changes to help the MDF play a real role in the national and regional fight against trafficking.
Given these issues, it would be smart for Malawi to set up formal military cooperation through the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on Trafficking in Persons. This would entail cooperation in the form of alliances for surveillance, real-time data sharing, and pursuing and extraditing suspects across borders. These measures would place the MDF at the forefront of eliminating trafficking, leveraging expertise in surveillance, border management, and cooperation with other states to dismantle trafficking networks.
4.3 Conclusion
Chapter four took into account how various groups can be ensured to make contributions towards preventing human trafficking based on the manner in which the intelligence of MDF can be utilized more effectively. Research and interviews revealed that there are a few key gaps related to early intelligence coordination, regional military coordination, and tracking through high-tech technology. The report also urges shifting the MDF from an exclusively threat responder to a vanguard contributor in intelligence. The chapter also emphasizes increased cross-border collaboration, real-time sharing of information, and technology application in operations.
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CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This chapter wraps up the main points from the study about how the MDF is working to fight human trafficking in Lilongwe City. It shares what we found out while looking into the research goals, showing important insights about the MDF's activities, the challenges it faces, and how it teams up with others. We also include some practical tips on how to make the MDF’s work stronger and suggest ideas for policy changes and future studies in this important area.
5.1 Summary of Findings
5.1.1 Objective 1 - Assess the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
Here are some key takeaways:
1. The MPS and Department of Immigration dominate border control to a great extent but do not have such issues as minimal staffing, little equipment, and logistics. This makes it easier for the use of the informal channels by traffickers.
2. The MDF plays an important role in border security through patrol in areas that are out-of-the- way and are yet to be accessed by other agencies. Their activities preclude trafficking from taking place to begin with, especially at illicit border entry points.
3. All the activities of the MDF evidently overlap with the National Action Plan Against Trafficking in Persons (2023-2028) to show how crucial they are in securing the border and blocking trafficking paths.
4. It was also established in this study that although the MDF leads in the first case of suspected trafficking, they do not investigate nor support victims, which they transfer to the Police or Immigration. This transfer of responsibility delays victim identification and protection.
5. The research indicates that more open processes and joint training would accelerate and enhance responses. Better coordination of agencies would make the MDF's counter-human trafficking efforts even more effective.
6. The MDF leads in high-risk operations, particularly if the traffickers could be armed or organised crime linked. Their tactical expertise serves to safeguard victims and law enforcement officers as well during these operations.
7. The military intervenes in the case of danger to the public, assisting the law enforcement agencies to perform their tasks.
8. The research identified that combined training sessions have enhanced the capability of the MDF to identify and act on cases of trafficking. Along with the civil society organizations, the military personnel are trained in these seminars in order to identify the signs of trafficking and report cases even outside their main jobs.
9. Through capacity building, the MDF supports cooperation with the Police, Immigration, and non-governmental organizations to strengthen the overall anti-trafficking program.
5.1.2 Objective 2 - Identify and Analyse Policy Measures Aimed at Combating Human Trafficking in Malawi
The following are some key points regarding the policies against human trafficking in Malawi:
1. The MDF is important for border patrols, but red tape slows them down in anti-trafficking work.
2. This bureaucracy causes delays, especially in urgent cases, letting traffickers slip away before anyone can step in.
3. Despite the good intentions of these procedures that aim to ensure accountability, they make it hard for the MDF and local law enforcement to work together effectively.
4. Malawi has some victim-focused policies, like the Trafficking in Persons Act from 2015 and the National Referral Mechanism, but they struggle with real-world application, especially in rural places.
5. Victims often end up in police cells or are sent back to dangerous situations because there is not enough safe housing, mental health support, or reintegration programs.
6. Survivors have said they feel abandoned after being rescued, with little follow-up or help from the government, which raises the risk of them being trafficked again.
7. Civil society organizations (CSOs) try to help fill the protection gaps, but they don’t get enough recognition or ongoing state funding.
8. Many anti-trafficking efforts are funded by international donors, covering officer training, awareness campaigns, and equipment.
9. Outside support has helped build some capacity, it is uncertain how long it will last, as many programs stop once donor funding runs out.
10. This reliance on donors makes Malawi’s fight against trafficking reactive and dependent on changing international trends, rather than on solid national plans.
5.1.3 Objective 3 - Evaluate the Collaboration Between the Malawi Defence Force and Other Law Enforcement Agencies in Managing Human Trafficking Cases
The following key findings emerged:
1. The study found that formal joint operations between the MDF, MPS, and Immigration officers do occur, especially during high-risk periods like holidays. These operations are usually coordinated through central government orders.
2. However, informal networks, personal contacts between officers are more commonly used to mobilise responses quickly. While faster, these methods often bypass official procedures and weaken accountability and coordination.
3. Field evidence revealed limited training and communication between agencies. In many cases, role confusion and command overlaps disrupted operations and delayed rescues.
4. Intelligence sharing was inconsistent, with the MDF often excluded from early planning stages. This weakened the overall effectiveness of anti-trafficking missions and allowed traffickers to escape in some instances.
5. Collaboration with CSO is minimal and informal. In some cases, lack of joint protocols led to mishandling of survivors and secondary victimisation.
6. The absence of trauma-informed procedures and unified standards undermines Malawi’s capacity to offer holistic and humane responses to trafficking cases.
7. All interviewed stakeholders expressed strong support for the creation of a National AntiTrafficking Command Centre (NATCC). This proposed hub would coordinate real-time intelligence, joint operations, and survivor support.
8. Stakeholders suggested that training between different agencies, shared communication tools, and working together regionally could help improve how things operate.
5.1.4 Objective 4 - Strategies for Strengthening the Role of the Malawi Defence Force in Combating Human Trafficking
Here are some key points that came up:
1. The MDF does not have a clear plan or official guidelines for tackling human trafficking. Right now, their involvement is mostly reactive, stepping in only when asked by other groups. This lack of direction makes their actions inconsistent. Looking at other places, we see that having defined roles and clear policies is important for the military to play a part in these kinds of issues.
2. MDF members have not trained together with the MPS, Immigration, or NGOs. This has led to confusion over everyone's roles and sometimes caused mishandling of trafficking victims, mainly because they do not have the right training focused on trauma and rights. Coordination between agencies is weak, causing delays and problems during joint efforts. There’s a clear need for regular joint training and set protocols.
3. Although the MDF has decent surveillance equipment and capable analysts, they tend to miss out on early planning and intelligence collection. This reactive policy makes them lag behind in tracking borders and intercepting trafficking networks prior to their activities. Greater integration with national intel systems and planning would enable them to utilize their capabilities more effectively.
4. Malawian trafficking is connected with regional networks that stretch across borders, but the MDF lacks a mandate or structured plans for collaboration with other militaries in the region. This creates considerable gaps in information exchange and border enforcement. Stakeholders proposed joint patrols, intelligence sharing, and regional synchronized operations as a means of intercepting trafficking routes.
5.2 Conclusions
This research explored the MDF's role in combating human trafficking in Lilongwe City. It aimed to assess their involvement, success, and challenges. The study examined how a military force, typically focused on external defense, is now involved in domestic security concerning human rights in Malawi.
The research discovered that the MDF is getting more involved in stopping trafficking. They patrol borders, join raids, manage checkpoints, and step in at problem areas like the Dzaleka Refugee Camp. But this work is more of a reaction, and it does not have policy backing. The MDF is not exactly following the national anti-trafficking strategy, and different organisations are not collaborating as smoothly as they could. But they have been helpful in covering for groups that are short on resources.
The study showed that the MDF has had some short-term wins in messing up trafficking groups and stopping smuggling. Still, they do not have special training in how human trafficking works, how to protect rights, and how to find victims. This has caused problems between strict enforcement and protecting those who survive.
The results get at the main point by showing the MDF's varied and often unplanned part in Lilongwe trafficking. It shows what they are good at and what they cannot do. This study adds new info by looking at a state group that has not been focused on much in trafficking studies in Malawi and nearby. It grows our understanding of who is involved in controlling trafficking. Also, it helps the theory by using and growing Securitization Theory. It makes plain how human trafficking in Malawi has been seen as a national security issue. This says it is okay to take extreme actions, like getting the military involved. Most securitization studies stress talk and speeches by important people. This study makes clear that in weak, low-resource countries like Malawi, securitization also comes from useful group replacement. The military steps in because of government failures and when normal people cannot handle things. This is a small but important idea. It shows how securitization works as more than just talk, but as needed action.
The research gives useful ideas for policies by spotting the need for a clearer direction for the MDF's help. They need to make shared rules for security and social groups to work together. They also need to give training that connects security enforcement with human rights duties. To avoid the risks of too much security, the study says to balance military-led enforcement with services that protect those who survive. It says to push teamwork ways that respect group jobs. It also asks for long-term investments in normal people's ability, especially in law enforcement and social help systems. This will make sure that the military's job is still helping instead of controlling.
In short, this study shows how the military is doing more to combat trafficking in Malawi. It also broadens Securitization Theory to include new policies. Plus, it finds ways to improve group work, protect victims better, and make the government take more ownership. It urges lawmakers and researchers to thoughtfully consider how contexts security issues in a country such as Malawi, require a delicate balance between the use of force and compassion, strategic planning and legal planning and legal frameworks, as well as urgency and respect for human dignity.
5.3 Recommendations
Here are some suggestions based on what we found in the study. They tackle the issues we identified and specify who should be responsible for each one:
5.3.1 Establish a Formal Policy Framework for Malawi Defence Force’s Role in Combating Human Trafficking
The Ministry of Defence should collaborate with the MPS and the Department of Immigration to formulate a clear policy on what the Malawi Defence Force will do in order to counter human trafficking. This policy must define the processes, the roles, and the boundaries of the Defence Force in anti-trafficking. The Ministry of Defence and responsible law enforcement institutions must be mandated to develop and implement this policy.
5.3.2 Improve Inter-Agency Collaboration Through Joint Training and Protocols
We must establish joint training programs to ensure that all those involved in combatting human trafficking, such as the MDF, MPS, Immigration, and CSOs, share the same knowledge and expertise. It is also necessary to develop clear operational guidelines for managing human trafficking cases, from victim identification to their care and referrals. The Ministry of Homeland Security, in collaboration with the MDF, Police, and CSOs, should run these joint training exercises and also develop clear operational guidelines.
5.3.3 Enhance Intelligence Sharing and Malawi Defence Force’s Early Engagement
We must devise a well-defined structure of information exchange among the MDF, the MPS, Immigration, and other agencies. Involving the MDF in trafficking cases at an early level will promote coordination and responsiveness among all the stakeholders. The MDF also needs to be incorporated in the national planning and intelligence process. The Ministry of Defence, MPS, and National Intelligence Bureau must collaborate to establish safe channels for information sharing and the engagement of the MDF in national security operations.
5.3.4 Create a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC)
We must establish a National Anti-Trafficking Command Centre (NATCC) that will unite all the institutions fighting trafficking under one umbrella. The centre will facilitate the rapid exchange of information, coordinate concerted efforts, and assist victims. The Government of Malawi, especially the Ministry of Homeland Security and the Ministry of Defence, must take the lead to initiate and finance the NATCC. It's crucial to involve all those who have a role to play, such as law enforcement, the military, and community groups.
5.3.5 Strengthen Regional Cooperation and Cross-Border Coordination
Malawi should involve the neighboring states in signing some concrete anti-trafficking agreements. By doing so, they can have shared patrols along the borders, information, and coordination of operations. This should make it more difficult for trafficking networks to conduct their activities within the region. The Ministry of Defence should collaborate with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to approach the regional partners and begin implementing these agreements for more collaboration in counter-trafficking.
5.3.6 Address Gaps in Victim Protection and Reintegration Services
The protection of victims must be enhanced by the government. This would involve an increase in safe shelter centers, enhancing mental health interventions, and amplifying survivor support programs to enable the survivors to recover from the ordeal. Follow-up visits and checks regularly should be performed as well to prevent individuals from being trafficked once again. Community groups as well as the Ministry of Gender, Children, Disability, and Social Welfare and the Ministry of Home Affairs need to work together to come up with means to enhance victim support.
5.3.7 Secure Sustainable Funding for Anti-Trafficking Programmes
We must have a sustainable funding model for anti-trafficking programmes rather than solely depending on donations. In this way, law enforcement-centred programmes, victim assistance, and public awareness can continue without disruption. The Ministry of Finance can work together with the Ministry of Homeland Security and the Ministry of Gender so that there is a specific budgetary allocation of finances for these programmes within the national budget. Besides this, the government can consider working with private organisations to seek alternative sources of financing these programmes.
5.4 Areas for Further Studies
1. Military Involvement and Victim Care in Human Trafficking
Future studies may investigate whether the deployment of the military, i.e., the MDF, is advantageous to the care and protection of survivors. It would be wonderful to know if it actually makes it better by calling on the assistance of the military or if it interferes with victim protection.
2. Regional Cooperation in Fighting Cross-Border Human Trafficking
Comparative analysis of Malawi relative to border countries would examine the extent to which they cooperate in the battle against trafficking networks. This would consider dimensions of information sharing, joint border patrols, and legal harmonization in the SADC region.
3. Sustainability of Anti-Trafficking Programs in Malawi
We should also study the extent to which donor-funded anti-trafficking initiatives in Malawi are effective in the long run. The study can investigate the opportunities and risks, as well as concepts for leveraging local resources to sustain such efforts.
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Multimedia
Phiri, F. (Director). (2024). Trapped in Oman: Series 1 - Episode 1 [Motion picture].
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