Households on every continent wasted more than a billion meals a day in 2022, while 783 million people were affected by hunger and a third of humanity faced food insecurity. Food waste continues to harm the global economy and fuel climate change and pollution as well as the degradation of nature. These are the main findings of a report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released today, ahead of the International Zero Waste Day. Food waste is a global tragedy. Indeed, millions of people are going hungry today because food is wasted around the world. Our research therefore touches on a current problem and concrete answers will provide solutions that have not been thought of and implemented. This thesis examines the issue of food waste from antiquity to the present. The analysis is based on legal and historical standpoint. More specifically, it seeks to identify correlation between the rise of poverty and an outmoded and unregulated agri-food system. The objective is to examine and define the nature of food waste. As well, to address its various issues and consequences. To underscore the dysfunctions, particularly in large-scale distribution. Also, to catalog the extensive legislative and regulatory measures regarding the waste management and prevention. The differences between these various projects and states from across the world will also be compared in this study. Our results highlight many options that can improved regulation. These options include: field work with various political, social, legal, and agri-food industry players. As well as analyzing various diagrams and scientific and legal data. ln order to lessen hunger occurring from the supply chain constitutes of producers, distributors, and consumers. As a result, we are proposing a more ethical paradigm for the global food chain. Hunger remains a global crisis, with staggering statistics highlighting the paradoxical coexistence of food waste and food insecurity. Despite advancements in food production, distribution, and preservation, a significant portion of the world's population still suffers from hunger and malnutrition.
Contents
INTRODUCTION
PART 1: COSTLY FOOD WASTE CAUSED BY AN OBSOLETE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1: FOOD WASTE ISSUES AND THEIR HISTORICAL ORIGINS
Section 1 The origins and history of poverty through the emergence of mass consumption
I. The origins and history ofpoverty
A. Diachrony
B. Mass distribution for allpopulations emerging
C. The development ofMalls: the pinnacle ofmass consumerism
II. An exponential development ofmass distribution but with shocking values
Section 2 - Context and definitions of food waste around the world
I. Contextualization
J. Actions around the world
K. Conjecture
L. Within the European Union, disparate activities
M. France, a front-runner in the battle against foodwaste
CHAPTER 2: FOOD WASTE: AN ABOMINATION TO HUMANITY
Section 1: Food waste as a problem for the economy, society, ecology, and public health
I. An environmental problem
II. An economic problem
III. A social Problem
IV. A health Problem
Section 2: Issues with the food chain
I. Problems with our food and its production
A. Cereals and tubers
B. Fruits and vegetables
C. Oilseeds
D. Products ofanimal origin
E. Inadequate handling and dispersal within the food chain
F Uncontrolled food waste in the food trade and catering in schools and hospitals
G. Food waste in households and consumers
II. A system locked in the face ofdestitute victims
PART 2: PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT TO STRENGTHEN LEGAL MEASURES AGAINST FOOD WASTE
CHAPTER 1: THE ADVENT OF THE CONTEMPORARY GREEN ECONOMY
Section 1 - The use of the law as a weapon by judges to restrain states
I. Environmental defense: the role and operation ofnational courts
A. A safeguarding legal and regulatory structure
B. Accessible and efficient legal instruments for citizens
II. Legal arguments
A. The faults and deficiencies ofthe State in the fight against climate change
B. About moral damage
C. About ecological damage
III. Environmental defense: the role and operation ofinternationaljurisdictions ..
A. The Court ofJustice ofthe European Union (CJEU)
B. The European Court ofHuman Rights (ECHR)
C. The International Court ofJustice (ICJ)
D. The use ofinternational law to protect citizens
E. Global awareness ofcitizens
Section 2 The role that charitable groups have played in breaking state stagnation.
I. Throughout Antiquity
A. In ancient Greece, reliefwas institutionalized
B. In the direction ofinstitutionalizing aid in Rome
II. During the Middle Ages
III. During the Renaissance
IV. In the 18th century, with the Lumières movement and the French Revolution
V. Towards the contemporary period
VI Consecration ofState interventionism and liberation offood aid in the 20th century
CHAPTER 2: TOWARDS A ZERO-WASTE, MORE RESPONSIBLE AND MATURE SOCIETY
Section 1: Innovative and inspiring public policies
I. Aiming for a city with zero food waste
II. Courbevoie city in France: a model city in the fight against foodwaste
Section 2: Aspiring ideas to prevent food waste
I. A behavioral and cultural evolution in food consumption
II Eating and Sustaining the Food Chain: Essential Requirements for Human Survival
A. Impact ofeach individual's behavior
B. For the reaffirmation ofstrong politicalpower to rebalance the food chain..
CONCLUSION
BIBLIOGRAPHY
APPENDIXES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TOPICS
INTRODUCTION
The Modernity of the Research
Households on every continent wasted more than a billion meals a day in 2022, while 783 million people were affected by hunger and a third of humanity faced food insecurity. Food waste continues to harm the global economy and fuel climate change and pollution as well as the degradation of nature. These are the main findings of a report by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) released today, ahead of the International Zero Waste Day.1 Food waste is a global tragedy. Indeed, millions of people are going hungry today because food is wasted around the world.
Our research therefore touches on a current problem and concrete answers will provide solutions that have not been thought of and implemented. This thesis examines the issue of food waste from antiquity to the present. The analysis is based on legal and historical standpoint. More specifically, it seeks to identify correlation between the rise of poverty and an outmoded and unregulated agri-food system.
The objective is to examine and define the nature of food waste. As well, to address its various issues and consequences. To underscore the dysfunctions, particularly in large-scale distribution. Also, to catalog the extensive legislative and regulatory measures regarding the waste management and prevention. The differences between these various projects and states from across the world will also be compared in this study.
Our results highlight many options that can improved regulation. These options include: field work with various political, social, legal, and agri-food industry players. As well as analyzing various diagrams and scientific and legal data. ln order to lessen hunger occurring from the supply chain constitutes of producers, distributors, and consumers. As a result, we are proposing a more ethical paradigm for the global food chain. Hunger remains a global crisis, with staggering statistics highlighting the paradoxical coexistence of food waste and food insecurity. Despite advancements in food production, distribution, and preservation, a significant portion of the world's population still suffers from hunger and malnutrition.
The Subject of the Research
The history of legal regulation of food waste is relatively recent but evolving, in response to growing concerns about sustainability, food safety and environmental impacts. Several periods will be key stages in the history of food waste.
The first initiatives appear in the 1980s - 1990s. Thus, the first initiatives against food waste are often linked to environmental movements and charities seeking to redistribute surplus food to people in need. In 1996 in the United States, the "Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act" was adopted to encourage good faith food donations to charities by limiting donors' liability. In the 2000s, the European Union began to take more systematic measures to reduce food waste. Guidelines on waste management and recommendations for the prevention of food waste were published. In 2012, the European Commission established a platform to bring together stakeholders to discuss best practices and policies to reduce food waste. France will be the driving force in this fight against waste from 2016 by adopting pioneering legislation that requires supermarkets not to throw away unsold food but to donate it to charities. This law also prohibits the voluntary destruction of still edible food products.
In 2019, France extended this obligation to producers and manufacturers, also requiring them to donate unsold edible food. Italy will also adopt a similar law in 2016 to simplify the food donation process and offer tax incentives to companies that donate their surplus food but without the constraint of a fine, unlike in France. Other global initiatives also took place from 2015 to 2020 in many other countries such as Spain, the United Kingdom and Japan, which introduced legislation and programs to combat food waste, often inspired by the French and Italian models. Within international organizations such as the United Nations, Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) were adopted in 2015. Thus, the United Nations General Assembly adopted Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including SDG 12.3, which aims to halve global food waste per capita by 2030, both at the retail and consumer levels, as well as food losses throughout production and supply chains.
All these initiatives are halted due to the COVID-19 global health crisis of 2020. This pandemic highlights the vulnerabilities of food supply chains and increases efforts to reduce food waste due to the increasing demand for more efficient use of resources.
Therefore, recent developments emphasize innovation and technology to reduce food waste, with digital solutions to improve inventory management, logistics, and platforms to facilitate food donations. The history of legal regulation of food waste shows a growing awareness and global mobilization to combat food waste, integrating legal policies, local initiatives, and international efforts to achieve a more sustainable and equitable future.
The Objective and the Issues of the Research
The current research is driven by the objective of providing evidence-based solutions to address specific issues related to food waste. To achieve this objective, the study aims to identify various economic causes that contribute to food waste. These causes include variable like price fluctuations, quality standards, market constraints, and subsidies. According to the United Nations Environment Program (2021), economic factors like these are critical drivers of food waste at different levels of the food supply chain. The world can develop strategies to minimize waste throughout the food supply chain by understanding the causalities.
Moreover, the research also acknowledges the role of behavioral causes in food waste. These behavioral causes encompass consumption habits, preferences, fashions, domestic waste, and losses in the catering trade. A study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) highlights that consumer behavior, particularly in high-income countries, contributes significantly to food waste at the retail and consumption stages (FAO, 2019). By examining these behavioral factors, we can gain insights into the root causes of food waste. We can also design targeted interventions to promote more sustainable consumption patterns. And in fine, reduce waste. It is important to note that food waste is not solely influenced by economic and behavioral factors. The issue of food waste is complex and multifaceted. It’s an issue encompassing a range of interconnected issues. This includes social inequalities, conflicts, and natural disasters, which contribute to food waste on various levels. Additionally, production and consumption patterns play a significant role in shaping the extent of food waste. The same goes for individual and collective choices.
Moreover, food waste reflects a broader societal perspective. As a consequence, there is a lack of understanding regarding the importance of food in our lives, health, culture, and environment. It highlights the need for a more comprehensive approach. An approach that considers the interconnectedness of food systems and the impact of food waste on various aspects of our society. By examining and addressing these objective and interconnected issues, this research aims to contribute to the development of effective strategies and interventions to reduce food waste. It aims to promote sustainable consumption patterns. And finally, create a more sustainable and equitable food system.
The Scientific Elaboration of the Research
Carolyn Steel (2020) eloquently captures the pervasive influence of food on society: "Food shapes our lives...We may not be aware of its influence, but it's everywhere, even in the parts of our brains that are constantly questioning the meaning of life." The ubiquity of food effects can often obscure their recognition, making an analysis through the prism of food particularly revealing. This perspective unveils a significant connectivity, an energy that interlinks our bodies with the world, invigorating everything it touches.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), an astonishing 30% of food produced worldwide is wasted. This translates to approximately 1.3 billion tons of food annually, equating to over half of the global grain supply. The problem is pervasive, affecting both developed and developing nations, with 670 million and 630 million tons of food wasted each year respectively. FAO projections suggest a daunting challenge ahead: by 2050, the global population is expected to surge by an additional 2.3 billion, reaching over 9 billion people. To meet this escalating demand, global food production must increase by 40-70% by 2050, if current trends persist. However, such increases in production will not be sufficient if the current rates of food waste continue.
Food waste has dire consequences, both environmentally and socially. Environmentally, wasted food squanders precious natural resources like land, water, and energy, and contributes significantly to climate change through greenhouse gas emissions such as methane. It also pollutes soil, water, and air, and diminishes biodiversity by reducing the variety of cultivated plant and animal species. Socially, food waste exacerbates hunger and poverty. Food that could potentially feed the hungry is instead discarded, a stark contradiction highlighted by the fact that between 2012 and 2014, an estimated 805 million people were chronically undernourished. Economically, food waste represents a loss at every stage of the food supply chain, from producers to consumers, and undermines food security by increasing susceptibility to disruptions and crises.
Historically, the challenge of food waste has been recognized and addressed in various ways. Ancient civilizations like the Greeks and Romans implemented measures such as redistributing surplus food and developing food preservation techniques. In the Middle Ages, despite less efficient production and storage conditions, similar efforts continued. Modern advances in agriculture and industry have improved food storage and reduced losses, yet food waste remains a critical issue. Today, food waste varies by region and food type. In developed countries, waste predominantly occurs at the distribution and consumption stages. This is a situation which occurs due to factors like aesthetics, expiration dates, and overproduction. Reducing food waste is not only a more sustainable choice, it is a necessity in the face of limited natural resources.
This research aims to deepen the understanding of food waste complexities. In order to achieve this objective, we will implement an utilizing interdisciplinary approach of research and methodologies. This late, include legal analysis, historical inquiry, and empirical studies. Through a synthesis of existing literature and fieldwork, we strive to contribute new insights into the discourse on food security and sustainability. We eagerly address the urgent need to reduce food waste. And enhance global food systems.
The Theoretical Basis of the Research
Our scientific research is based first of all on various university analyses. Thus, many law professors have expressed their views on the notion of food waste. Food waste has been the subject of much debate within academic circles and among various professors.
Thus, Professor Tomaso Ferrando (Professor at the University of Antwerp) has heavily criticized the behavior of the European Union. Thus, according to him, despite an apparent desire to eradicate the scourge of food waste in Europe, European leaders have not demonstrated very great legal ambition. His criticisms against the European Commissioner in charge of food Vytenis Andriukaitis are therefore well-founded. Criticisms that I myself addressed to the European Commissioner because we must go further and have much more ambitious objectives.
Moreover, Professor Tomaso Ferrando rightly considers that EU bodies should agree on the introduction of clear and mandatory targets for reducing food loss and waste in the Waste Framework Directive and reconsider general EU food law. And he affirms that these same bodies should also focus on the problem of expiry dates which are still far too vague and complex and find a harmonized solution. Because indeed, only a harmonized solution will provide viable and effective results.
Likewise, Professor Helen Williams (Associate Professor in Environmental and Energy Systems at Karlstad University in Sweden) and Professor Fredrik Wikstrom (Professor at Karlstad University in Sweden) confirm that packaging is necessary to reduce food waste. This measure would allow the European Union to have a concrete and powerful impact on this scourge.
Indeed, Professor Helen Williams recalls that « Waste is different depending on the region of the world. In poorer countries, significantly more food is thrown away during the production, distribution and storage phases, for example due to insufficient cooling possibilities and lack of packaging. In richer countries, on the other hand, food is thrown away by consumers or restaurants. In other words, there really is a lot of room for improvement and packaging can play an important role in this ». In terms of combating food waste, Europe should therefore pursue a much more concrete and effective policy and focus solely on the various projects that we have highlighted for the interests of European inhabitants.
For Professor Andrea Segre (Professor University of Bologna in Italy), food education is the first necessary solution to involve people. According to him, innovation must concern education, as well as technology. According to Professor Segre, students should learn that food is an investment, both for the planet and for our health. Professor Segre also highlights the importance of learning to interpret product labeling. Expiry dates and the difference between « best before » and « use by », for example.
All these academic debates are developed and discussed within this thesis. And the scientific and academic works are referenced in the bibliography.
The Normative Basis of the Research
The fight against food waste has evolved considerably both at the legislative level and at the level of international law. Currently, four European countries have already adopted laws against food waste: France, Romania, Italy and Portugal. For of these countries include in their texts tax advantages for stores fighting against waste through donations and encourage the promotion of products that are approaching their expiration dates. The French law, the most comprehensive in Europe in the fight against food waste. In France, since the law of 3rd February 2016, the law against food waste prohibits food distributors from making unsold items that can still be consumed unfit for consumption and encourages professionals to donate surplus to food aid associations. To do this, they must regulate their donations by establishing an agreement signed by both parties. These donations entitle you to tax exemption to encourage professionals to act.
In 2020, the AGEC law extended these non-destruction obligations to agri-food manufacturers and producers. This law takes a new step by prohibiting the destruction of unsold non-food items. It comes into force on 1st January 2022 for products covered by an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) sector. Other sectors will have until 31st December 2023 to adapt to these new measures which push professionals towards other avenues of valorization and reuse such as donations.
Alongside a system of tax exemption for donations of unsold items, Romania has also established a system of fines ranging from 200 to 2000 euros for supermarkets which do not respect the law. It pushes them to promote their products at the end of their life and to reuse them for animal consumption, to make compost or even biogas.
Other examples of laws initiated by governments.
Quite similar to French law, the Italian Gadda law wishes to make flexible the regulations concerning the donation of food on its territory. The law clarifies certain definitions such as that of the minimum durability date, specifying that a product can be given beyond this date if its storage conditions have been respected. A series of solutions are proposed, such as pushing municipalities to introduce a reduction in the waste tax for organizations that make donations.
Portugal, in its law approved on 21st June 2021 in the Assembly of the Republic, instructs the government to conduct a survey among different actors in the food chain. The outcome of this investigation will lead to the construction of a report by the National Commission to Combat Food Waste and the organization of a public debate on the basis of this work. In addition, for companies with more than 250 employees or/and with a gross profit greater than 50 million euros per year, the donation of surpluses will be compulsory.
Spain has also passed a law which has been implemented since 2nd January 2023 establishing a hierarchy of priorities when managing food waste. Similar to those already existing in other countries, it establishes a hierarchy of priorities, involving the different food sectors. Initially the priority is the donation to associations, then the revaluation of unsold goods by transforming them into juice, jam or cream. The use of unsold goods for animal feed or the production of biogas or other types of fuel comes in a third and final phase. Violations of this law will lead to fines of up to €150,000.
In Belgium, efforts are localized. Some towns establish rules to combat food waste: in Herstal, certain supermarkets are prohibited from throwing away unsold food. In this town of 40,000 inhabitants in the suburbs of Liège, these stores must therefore donate their surplus, at the risk of losing their environmental permit, compulsory in Wallonia to operate a business. Above all, all these laws have the common purpose of raising awareness among the various stakeholders about the concept of food waste and encouraging good practices.
Beyond Europe, the UN is aware of this problem. Thus, in its resolution 74/209, the UN declared 29th September 2019 as the international day of awareness of food loss and waste. It was also an opportunity to recall resolution 70/01 of 25th September 2015, “Transforming our world: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development” and the desire to reduce food waste by 50% by 2030. The European Parliament set the same objective on 16th May 2017. On 5th July 2021, the European Commission presented a code of conduct for commercial practices responsible and sustainable sales and marketing in the food sector. As part of the “farm to table” strategy established in May 2020, this text includes among its 7 objectives the prevention and reduction of food waste.
Following declarations from the UN and the European Parliament, countries such as Germany, Norway, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Denmark have committed to the fight against food waste by putting in place plans national. Germany has declared that it wants to reduce its waste by half by 2030, in its national plan to combat food waste published in February 2019. The Netherlands set the same goal in 2018. Same thing for Belgium, where Wallonia, Flanders and Brussels have each established a regional plan to achieve this objective. An approach also taken by France in 2013 with the National Pact to combat food waste signed by the government and stakeholders in the food industry. Its ambition is to reduce waste by 50% by 2025. Denmark, for its part, wants to recycle 50% of household waste in 2022, as described in its plan “Denmark without waste” and food waste is part of the solutions envisaged to achieve this objective.
Governments are also seeking to raise awareness among professionals about food waste. The Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality of the Netherlands has launched No Waste Network, a platform that identifies inspiring initiatives from companies in different sectors in order to guide professionals who are thinking about launching into waste management. We note that raising awareness among households is at the heart of government actions in certain countries such as the United Kingdom. The “Love Food Hate Waste” campaign initiated in 2007 as part of the Waste and Resources Action Program (WRAP) alerts households to the causes and consequences of food waste. They are not the only ones who want to permanently change everyday behavior. In Germany, the Federal Ministry of Food and the Federal Ministry of Agriculture have initiated the movement “Zu gut für die Tonne” (Too good for the trash) which gives advice to consumers to reduce waste, particularly on differentiation between DLC and DDM.
All these governments can count on the European Social Fund for Aid to the Most Deprived (FEAD) system created by the European Commission wishing to address the problem of food insecurity within the framework of Regulation (EU) No. 223/2014. The FEAD is a continuation of the European Program for Aid to the Most Deprived (PEAD) promoting the redistribution to partner associations of agricultural surpluses resulting from the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Since 24th June 2021, the FEAD has joined the European Social Fund plus (ESF + 2021-2027) in order to facilitate its management. In particular, it makes it possible to finance purchases of food, clothing, soap or other essential goods and to promote social integration by helping people in precarious situations to find employment.
The Methodological Basis of the Research
The Theoretical methodology used for the study of this thesis is historical and comparative. It is comparative because I studied the legal and jurisprudential concepts concerning food waste in a transversal manner. It is historical methodology that I have used mostly along with the comparative, dialectical, socio-statistical, and other scientific methods, such as inductive, deductive, analytic because I have studied the issues and legal controversies of food waste from Antiquity to the present day. I also integrated comparative, dialectical, socio-statistical and other scientific methods, such as inductive, deductive and analytical methods throughout my research. All in all, this alarming observation raises a number of questions that are at the heart of this work. What is the typology of citizen organizations that have mobilized to combat hunger and mitigate food waste? What are the primary challenges faced by these citizen organizations in their efforts to address hunger and reduce food waste? What are the potential prospects and implications of these citizen-led initiatives for fostering a more sustainable future grounded in principles of solidarity?
In order to answer these questions, we will adopt a multi-disciplinary approach. This enable us in presenting the different forms of citizen organization that have taken action to combat hunger and reduce food waste. We will show their diversity, effectiveness, limitations and prospects. We will mention local, national and international initiatives, associations, movements and networks involved in this cause.
By examining the true demands of the customer, we must investigate the strategies that should be used at every step in the food chain. At every level, progress is achievable. To create solutions that both "feed more" and "feed better" for a growing population, all stakeholders must band together. As we will analyze in this thesis, there is a long phase of observation between citizens and their own State throughout History. This, as long as the thorny subject of food aid to the poorest and waste management is concerned. At certain moments interventionist, at others wait-and-see or even disinterested, States have been confronted with a rise in the legitimate demands of citizens. The latter, who have regrouped and organized in different ways, will obtain major advances. But there is still a long way to go. Consequently, the goal of this thesis is to establish a spatiotemporal inventory of the current status of food waste both nationally and internationally. In order to identify and describe the linkages between the role of the State and people. To determine what steps may be taken now to help reduce food waste in the future at all levels.
Employing a mixed-methods approach, we will utilize qualitative and quantitative techniques to analyze data, evaluate policy effectiveness, and assess the impact of interventions. Through case studies, surveys, and comparative analysis, we seek to generate actionable recommendations for policymakers, practitioners, and advocates.
The Empirical Basis of the Research
Our research is grounded in a robust empirical foundation. We are utilizing a comprehensive array of data sources to ensure a well-rounded understanding of the issues at hand. We engage in detailed interviews with a range of stakeholders across the food supply chain. This includes for example producers and consumers. Such a move, helps to gather nuanced insights into the dynamics of food waste and access. Archival documents provide historical context, enabling us to trace the evolution of food policies and their impacts over time. Statistical data from governmental and non-governmental organizations offer quantitative measurements of food waste, distribution inefficiencies, and the prevalence of food insecurity.
Furthermore, case studies of specific interventions or community responses serve as microcosms of broader systemic behaviors. This help us in illustrating the practical applications and outcomes of theoretical models. By triangulating these diverse sources of evidence, we aim not only to validate our findings but also to enhance the credibility and reliability of our analysis. This analysis ambition is to withstands academic scrutiny and provides actionable insights.
The Scientific Innovation of the Research and the Defense Theses
The first major innovation that I would like to highlight in the study of this thesis is the overhaul of the agro-food system as a response to legal issues on the environmental, medical, economic and societal levels.
The second major innovation is to demonstrate the link between food waste and hunger. Indeed, according to FAO data, 931 million tonnes, or 17% of food produced in 2019, ended up in the trash of households, retailers, restaurants and other food stakeholders. Meanwhile, 811 million people are hungry and 132 million face food and nutrition insecurity, notably because of the Covid-19 pandemic. In monetary terms, annual food losses are estimated at $400 billion. The third major innovation is how my thesis identifies priority themes and proposes actions to strengthen the activities of the scientific community, such as providing more support and assistance to entrepreneurs involved in the fight against food waste.
The fourth major innovation demonstrates that the fight against food waste is a determining factor in the fight against global warming. Above all, it is essential to remember that the « Draw Down » project (2020) and the IPCC report (April 2022) affirmed that reducing food waste is one of the three main solutions to combat global warming.
Finally, the fifth and final major innovation developed within this thesis is a legislative issue which has concrete consequences on the general interest. Thus, since all scientific reports confirm that the fight against food waste is one of the three solutions to combat global warming, this cause is a solution of general interest. Indeed, only the law and the legislative framework can protect the most vulnerable in order to integrate them into a «Social Contract» as the French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, so aptly stated.
The Theoretical and Practical Importance of the Research
Our research underscores the urgency of addressing food waste as a global imperative, with far-reaching implications for human health, environmental sustainability, and social justice. By elucidating the interconnectedness of food systems, we seek to inform policy debates, inspire collective action, and impulse transformative change.
The Tests of the Research Results
Let's take the example of an innovation that we are studying as part of this research: the overhaul of the agri-food system. When the law against food waste was passed in France on 3rd February 2016, it was an entire legal system that changed bad habits. Thus, the first reason is that the food chain was in an unbalanced situation. In fact, this food chain brings together production, processing, distribution and consumption. Since large-scale distribution is in a monopoly situation and therefore in a position of economic power vis-à-vis small producers and consumers, it never occurred to anyone to prohibit this powerful lobby from throwing consumable food in the trash.
The French law of 3rd February 2016 marked a significant turning point in efforts to combat food waste, setting a precedent not only in the European Union but globally by imposing stringent measures on supermarkets. The law prohibits supermarkets from tampering with unsold, consumable food and imposes a fine of 10,000 euros for violations. This legislative action required supermarkets to significantly alter their practices. France has taken a pioneering role in this regard, overcoming various hurdles such as lobbying pressures, the divergent interests of different states, and occasional governmental disinterest. The law represents a major innovation not only in waste management but also as a contribution to the fight against global warming. Decomposing food waste in landfills emits substantial quantities of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, hence reducing food waste aligns with broader environmental conservation efforts and the global climate change mitigation agenda.
The success of this law can be attributed to various awareness-raising and lobbying campaigns. In the sense that it has highlighted the dual benefits of reducing food waste— feeding the hungry and promoting a circular economy. Key outcomes of the law include:
- Reduction in Greenhouse Gases: By diverting food from landfills, the law helps to decrease methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.
- Resource Optimization: It encourages better inventory management among food retailers, leading to more efficient use of resources.
- Social Solidarity: The law fosters a sense of community as supermarkets partner with charities, benefiting those in need.
- Awareness and Education: It raises public awareness about the value of food and the importance of reducing waste, influencing consumer behaviour.
The initiator’s role in bringing about this legislative change underscores. The power of individual and collective advocacy to drive significant environmental and social reforms. The law has inspired similar legislation in other countries. A fact showcasing the importance of responsible consumption and sustainable practices. It highlights France's commitment to protecting its food producers, supporting the less fortunate, and setting a global example. Moreover, supermarkets have realized that food donation enhances their public image. It also reduces waste disposal costs. The global acclaim of this law illustrates the effectiveness of civic engagement. And the profound impact determined advocacy can have on societal norms and policies. By integrating insights from law, history, and social sciences, our research contributes to an interdisciplinary understanding of food waste and security. We argue that addressing food waste requires a holistic approach. By tackling structural inequalities, filling regulatory gaps, and altering behavioural patterns in order to ensure a more equitable, sustainable future.
We will evaluate the efficacy of our recommendations through stakeholder consultations, policy analysis, and impact assessments. By soliciting feedback from experts, policymakers, and affected communities, we aim to refine our findings and ensure their relevance and applicability in diverse contexts.
The Structure of the Dissertation
This dissertation is structured as follows:
- PART I : COSTLY FOOD WASTE CAUSED BY AN OBSOLETE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM
- CHAPTER I: FOOD WASTE ISSUES AND THEIR HISTORICAL ORIGINS
- CHAPTER II: FOOD WASTE: AN ABOMINATION TO HUMANITY
- PART II: PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT TO STRENGTHEN LEGAL MEASURES
AGAINST FOOD WASTE
- CHAPTER I. THE ADVENT OF THE CONTEMPORARY GREEN ECONOMY
- CHAPTER II: TOWARDS A ZERO-WASTE, MORE RESPONSIBLE AND MATURE SOCIETY
PART 1: COSTLY FOOD WASTE CAUSED BY AN OBSOLETE SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1: FOOD WASTE ISSUES AND THEIR HISTORICAL ORIGINS
Section 1: The origins and history of poverty through the emergence of mass consumption
I. The origins and history of poverty
A. Diachrony
Even while poverty has always existed and played a significant role in human history, the reasons and sources of it have frequently been diverse. The Middle Ages are when poverty was first recognized. Thus, during the so-called « great famine » (1031-1033), Northern Europe, especially France and Germany, saw excessive summer rains and subpar crops, which contributed to starvation. Almost no state assistance is provided at this time, so people are left to fend for themselves in accordance with their resources and ability.
Despite this, churches and communities make an effort to assist the poorest people.
The increase in wheat prices between 1314 and 1318 made matters more problematic. The populace of North-West Europe in particular have suffered greatly as a result of this price inflation. With the Black Death destroying rural regions and affecting the whole European continent, the food crisis peaked in 1347. Millions of people will die as a result of this epidemic, wiping out humanity. Thus, it claimed the lives of almost 25 million people in Europe in a five- year period (1347-1352), or about 60% of the total population. With the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in China, the decline of the Khmer Empire, and the eventual fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans in 1453, this epidemic would cause global instability. The first official measures were taken in 1351 by French King Jean le Bon in response to a minor but serious food shortage. The French King, who oversaw state interventionism in the country, ensured that grains could freely travel from disaster-prone areas to less afflicted ones. In 1693, food shortages persisted despite all of this.
Out of the approximately 22 million people living in France at the time, this famine claimed the lives of around 1.5 million individuals. But interventionism will be most successful because of the reigns of these four Kings—Henri IV, Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI. The first politicization of the environment is being sparked by these interventionisms, and King will be leading the charge on this issue. Interestingly, the first French Revolution in 1789 and the third French Revolution in 1848 will be associated with this politicization of the environment. Between 1845 to 1879, there is a global and European famine.
As a result, the « potato sickness » disaster claimed the lives of over a million Irish citizens (out of an estimated 8 million), while the severe drought in Asia caused about 10 million Indians to go hungry. Humanity will undoubtedly endure a string of devastating famines in the 20th century as a result of military wars, as the one that occurred in 1931 in the regions of Kazakhstan, the Volga, the Kuban, and particularly in Ukraine. In 1933, the hunger in Ukraine would claim the lives of about 5 million people. Europe was left in ashes by the Second World War when Nazi Germany surrendered on 8th May 1845. Agriculture has collapsed and industrial production has been drastically decreased. Harvests in 1945 were a third less than in 1939 in France and Germany, but in Eastern Europe the drop was half. The rail and road networks were reduced to two thirds. Poverty is pervasive across the world.
Thus, we need to reconstruct and feed the people. The famine shifted to China starting in 1958. Consequently, with the adoption of the notion of the « Great Leap », it refers to an economic strategy initiated by Mao Zedong and carried out between 1958 and 1960. This new political direction's execution will be impractical and a complete disaster since it would completely collapse the agricultural sector and result in the deaths of around 30 million people. Famine has raged on all continents and in all places since 1970. Naturally, there are frequent famines and food crises in many African countries, just as there are in many Asian countries. We see it in Rwanda, Ethiopia, North Korea, Bangladesh, Sudan, and Biafra (Nigeria). Famines are frequently caused by climate dangers, military conflicts, and government neglect. The middle classes would be impacted in 2023 if this catastrophe first targeted the most disadvantaged people. And their spending is being impacted by this situation. This is both a worldwide and European phenomenon. Effective interventionist programs, however, played a part in the decrease of the big famines. On the other side, strong and organized industrialists who have created an effective but divisive distribution network have progressively replaced small dealers.
B. Mass distribution for all populations emerging
The organization and customer relations are being negatively impacted by the widespread sale of food goods at reduced rates. This reacts to shifts in consumption as well as limitations like supplier connections and competition. In 1915, the idea of self-service sales originated in the US. Founded by Clarence Saunders in Memphis City (Tennessee) in 1916, Piggly Wiggly was the first self-service store in history. This concept was patented in 1917.2 3 In 1930, the first supermarket opened its doors in New York. Supermarkets first appeared in Europe in the years following World War II, with locations opening in 1948 in London, 1951 in Switzerland, 1957 in Brussels, and 1958 in the suburbs of Paris, France.
Hypermarkets were established in 1963. In the history of supermarkets and mass distribution, three distinct stages stand out: The first step was groundbreaking.
The second was seeing the expanding of the bases of widespread development when consumption slowed. The third step is the period of adaptation to the conflicting needs of a customer base looking for low costs and commercial services. Europe's commercial constructions were largely conventional in 1950. The majority of enterprises are employee-free, and half of them are in the food industry. The conventional wisdom in sales is to sell little and expensively. There are department shops, but they don't always succeed. Small enterprises continued to dominate in 1960. Joint purchasing clubs are being formed in an attempt to bargain with wholesalers for lower pricing, but their chances of success are very slim.
The American approach is predicated on a growth in purchasing power, which suggests allocating a larger portion of the budget to equipment and less to food. The new standard of « mass » consumption is based on this growth in purchasing power. This modernization drive expands items and involves industry in mass manufacturing. These goods are offered in the context of a « Fordian economy », which is predicated on the idea that mass manufacturing and mass consumption must coexist in order to drive a commercial revolution that lowers marketing expenses and increases sales volume. In this sense, contemporary Anglo-Saxon sales techniques are proliferating throughout Europe.
Self-service and supermarkets are given a lot of space. Parking is becoming more and more important as a way to encourage consumers to purchase and consume more. America's commercial model is being aggressively established in Europe. Innovations in distribution began to emerge toward the end of the 1940s, but their spread was hampered by consumer behavior. In 1948, a self-service supermarket opened its doors in Paris. Its performance was limited even though labor expenses and shop layout were reduced, allowing for price reductions and sales increases. In order to compete with wholesalers, even if its margin remained modest, the supermarket chain known as « Leclerc » began sourcing its goods from manufacturers in 1949. The supermarket took a while to get established during the end of the 1950s because both employees and consumers had to get used to pre-packaging, in addition to the long checkout lines and cold, impersonal service.
The idea of a hypermarket first surfaced in 1959. As a result, three people came together to launch the « Carrefour » brand. On 15th June 1963, a 2,500 square meter retail project with parking was opened in Reuil-Malmaison, France, after it was decided that we should follow the American example. The remarkable achievement is enhanced by unparalleled media attention.
A hypermarket is characterized as a sales space larger than 2,500 square meters that includes self-service, parking, and checkouts at the exit. One of the authors claims that the United States has an 80% effect on the firm « Carrefour » and the company « Leclerc » has a 20% influence. « Carrefour » wants to offer things at less money than established retailers.
Thus, the idea is straightforward: creating a well-thought-out store layout and rotating stocks. The department manager position is established. This will manage the business partnership with the aim of profitability and variety. Because the goal is bulk sales, we are seeing a true depersonalization of merchant connections. It wasn't until 1967 that rivals established four hypermarkets. The expansion has only begun. Depending on the hypermarket, several arrangements are used.
C. The development of Malls: the pinnacle of mass consumerism
The mass distribution brands of the 1960s and 1980s used aggressive advertising, experimented with prices, and opened ever larger and more attractive stores in ever more upscale shopping malls, encouraging customers to always purchase more. The « Dubai Mall » in Dubai, United Arab Emirates, the « West Edmonton Mall » in Edmonton, Canada, the « Magna Plaza » in Amsterdam, Netherlands, the « Grand Canal Shoppes » in Las Vegas, United States, the « Siam Paragon » in Bangkok, Thailand, the « Iran Mall » in Tehran, IRAN, the « South China Mall » in Dongguan, China, the « Megamall Armenia » in Yerevan, Armenia, or the « Phuket Center » in Phuket, Thailand are just a few examples of the many modern examples.
We can observe from these illustrations that these shopping centers called « Malls » are real places of life where shops, restaurants, swimming pools, cinemas, sports
halls, games rooms and even ski slopes intertwine.4
II. An exponential development of mass distribution but with shocking values
Large-scale distribution experienced exponential development in the 20th century and its economic and commercial influence is unavoidable. However, its brands quickly adopted shocking values and outside of any legal basis. Thus, to sell more and earn more money, mass distribution has been forced to produce ever more. Mass distribution has therefore entered a vicious cycle. And one behavior, among many others, that will revolt public opinion is throwing food in the trash and throwing bleach in it so that no one can get it back. Large retailers have often justified these practices on the basis of law. The official reason was to prevent the use of expired products stored in dumpsters by homeless people.
Indeed, supermarkets were afraid of being sued in the event of food poisoning. Although this practice is widespread in Europe, major supermarket brands rarely publicly acknowledge having adopted it. This argument is obviously admissible because it is in the interest of the consumer that such practices exist in order to preserve their health. This concerns food that is « no longer considered consumable » such as fresh produce, vegetables or meat for example. But these practices also took place concerning the many other products « whose optimal expiry date has passed, but which remain edible without danger to health ».
In reality, large retailers have always wanted to maximize the sale of their stocks, even when they are on sale. By maximizing profits thanks to the wealthy segment of the population, the poor population is marginalized. Worse cynicism, when a poor person collected these unsold food items thrown in the trash, the supermarket used to file a complaint.5 So here is the triple punishment: being poor, being hungry and being the subject of a complaint for theft even in a state of necessity.6 Fortunately, prosecutors often drop charges for these types of acts.7
Section 2 - Context and definitions of food waste around the world
I. Contextualization
While there are benefits to this system, it's as critical to address its drawbacks. Therefore, mass distribution has significantly disrupted the lifestyles of traditional actors (farmers, fishers, and breeders) and altered consumption habits to the disadvantage of communities throughout the food chain, which combines production, processing, distribution, and consumption. In fact, almost 1.3 billion metric tons of edible food are wasted annually on a global scale.8 This amounts to a 25 percent waste of the world's food supply. 1.300.000.000 kg of food, or 1.3 billion metric tons, are produced annually, which is equivalent to around one-third of all food produced for human use. 3.6 billion people worldwide live on less than $6.85 a month, yet 800 million of them are undernourished in spite of this anomaly.
All facets of the global food chain—production, processing, distribution, and consumption—are impacted by food waste. In 2020, the Directorate General for Statistical Information at Community level of the European Commission, or « Eurostat », estimated that around 80 million individuals, or more than one in six residents, live below the relative poverty threshold.9 Precariousness in Europe will rise « quite substantially » in 2022, according to Secours Populaire.10 A European regulation (2008/98/EC) establishes a hierarchy for the management of waste: prevention—the act of not producing waste—comes first in the directive. If it is truly impossible to avoid producing garbage, reuse, recycling, energy recovery, and disposal should come first. This regulation has been implemented at the Walloon level (the Walloon Decree of 10th May 2012 transposing Directive 2008/98/EC...) and at the Brussels level, wherein the relevant territories are required to follow this treatment order.
The positive legislation of the European Union no longer provides a consistent definition of food waste. Finding a consistent definition is one of the goals of the statistical methodology that the European Commission established, according to the delegated act of 3rd May 2019. We are still far from reaching this, even if the Council has approved findings on food loss and waste since 28th June 2016. France has led the way in the fight against food waste for a long time. France has emerged as a leader in the battle against food waste, mostly due to the engagement of associations, people, and entrepreneurs via the establishment of multiple start-ups and the enactment of various legislation (most notably in 2013, 2016, and 2018). Thanks to Frédéric Daerden, the mayor of Herstal, Belgium is also a pioneer. The third European nation was Romania, courtesy of the MP Florin-Alexandru ALEXE.
However, what precisely is the definition of food waste history? Charles Jaycock explains the history of food waste on his website:
« Food waste has always been an issue, but back hundreds of years ago, people got inventive. If they were eating animals, they’d be sure to use every part of their furry friend, either as a meal or as clothing from hides, soap from lard, candles from fats and even tools from bones. Any other food that was going to be wasted as a result of overcooking or lack of preserving solutions would be fed to the animals in an effort to convert that into more food.
In the late 18th century, food became cheaper and more convenient to acquire due to industrialization and mass manufacturing of food, along with this people’s attitude towards food changed. With the development of canning food, factories had given the people a way of efficiently keeping stocks of food in their cupboards without the need for a fridge, which was invented in 1899 but would not be popularized until the mid-to-late 1900s with on 2% of households having a fridge in 1948 but 58% of households owning one by 1970. The manufacturing process also passed the obligation of using their waste from the household to the factories with the savvy households owning animals to consume excess food.
This was all about to change with the first and second world wars looming. Food prices were more than double during the war, a lot of the food was sent to feed the soldiers and supplies were being intercepted by German submarines making fresh food hard to find. The government intervened by introducing laws to ration food which forced people back to farming their own vegetables if they had any spare land to do so. With butter, sugar, chocolate, meat and wheat all in very short supply, people had to get inventive when cooking with ingredients like potatoes often getting added to their puddings when baking. There were also posters urging people to eat less bread with men being rationed 1lb of bread in their daily ration and women only 9oz. By the second world war, the government were fluent in propaganda posters, feeding the population the correct information, not just about the abundant foods that were good for them such as carrots but also what to do with their leftovers. People were also well equipped to deal with wartime after the first world war with women and children helping on farms and farm camps to bring in the harvest across the country.
In the late 1950s, improvements in manufacturing allowed plastics to be produced at a fraction of the cost. This was the start of the sea of plastic which we know in our supermarkets today, whilst some argue this is damaging to the environment, it did substantially reduce the amount of food wasted in supermarkets but now it may be the time to reverse this change as France have just done.
Fast forward to the end of the 20th century and food waste is starting to gain attention from society and the media with the idea of using everything we can out the window and quickly being replaced with the need for the freshest products. This means a lot of waste with « Dumpster diving » and « Freeganism » have taken over after people realized supermarkets were throwing away massive amounts of edible food because nobody bought it and it was past its designated sell-by date. Twenty years later after light has been shed on the issue, the major supermarkets have taken note and are doing great things with their excess waste which primarily include using it for animal food and donating it to charity.
During wartime efforts information was published on the streets in the form of posters, now it is usually brought to you through media, be that on the television, radio, print or the internet. Since the year 2000, the government has launched WRAP (Waste and resources action program) who are leading the way to inform and motivate people to recycle and make the most out of what they have. They launched the “Recycle Now” campaign in 2004 which has seen the recycling rate go from 11% to 44% as well as their “Love Food Hate Waste” campaign in 2007 which saw food waste being reduced by 21% in five years along with numerous other campaigns promoting sustainable living.
Anaerobic digestion is the best option for recycling food waste and is by no means new technology with basic versions dating back over a hundred years ago but the concept of a collection of household food waste to be better used within society has not been mass government back since the second world war even though households make up 11% of the 31% of food wasted. The most noted use of excess food goes to supermarkets and other distributors who have extra stock which is going out of date who donate this to charities to the people who need it most »11.
Therefore, it refers to any food that is meant for human consumption that is lost, thrown out, or degraded for commercial, cultural, or aesthetic reasons at any point in the food chain. France and Belgium have been the leaders in this sector within the European Union as a result of the enactment of several legislation, such as the prohibition on rendering food unsuitable for eating, which affects the food industry, wholesalers, distributors, and catering companies. Therefore, France might advocate for the future definition by drawing on its position as a pioneer in the global battle against food waste. In fact, around 80 million people in the EU live in poverty, therefore a prompt solution would be appreciated.
The following definition is provided by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations : in the food supply chain, food losses occur when there is less food available for consumption throughout the production, post-harvest, processing, and distribution stages. The main reasons for these losses include inefficiencies in the food supply chain, particularly with regard to infrastructure and logistics; technological shortcomings; insufficient skills and knowledge; insufficient managerial abilities among the food chain's members; and restricted access to markets. Natural disasters can also lead to food losses.12
The term « food waste » refers to edible food that has been discarded, typically by retailers and consumers. This is a major problem in industrialized countries where food waste is common and it is often more economical to throw food away rather than consume it or repurpose it. In most cases, this food waste is preventable.
- Unavoidable waste includes eggshells, bones, pineapple and banana peels, tea bags, and food scraps that become unsuitable for human consumption during preparation.,...13 - Food and drink waste that is not edible under typical circumstances is referred to as inevitable waste.
- Potentially preventable waste includes foods and drinks that some people eat and others do not (bread crusts), or that may be consumed if prepared differently (potato peels, radish tops).
- Bread, fruit, and meat pieces that were once edible but were thrown away are examples of food waste that could have been avoided...14
Any food that was removed from the human food chain but was originally intended for human consumption is considered food waste. This includes food that was later put to use for things other than feeding people, including cattle or domestic animals, fertilizer, or bioenergy. Food waste is a complex process that occurs throughout the whole production process. In impoverished countries, over half of "loss and waste" occurs upstream during production due to incorrect farming practices, post-harvest processing, or during storage and shipping; in wealthy countries, however, it is more likely to be unintentionally produced by consumers at the end of the chain. The primary reason for this waste is the domination of the food industry, which has a stranglehold on farmers, producers, and consumers. According to UN estimates, 17% of the food that was available to consumers globally in 2019 was lost or wasted. Twenty percent of the food produced in the EU is wasted right now.
Food waste in France is expected to cost the food industry 16 billion euros yearly and amounts to 10 million tons, or 20% of total food output, or 150 kg of food per person annually. Food waste is a waste of natural resources, such as water and farmland, and it adds to greenhouse gas emissions that could be avoided. Food waste accounts for 3% of France's total greenhouse gas emissions, according to estimates from the ADEME Agency for Ecological Transition. Furthermore, costs associated with treating food waste can be reduced, if not entirely removed. In contrast, the most recent annual report from Catholic Relief Services states that eight million people in France get food assistance—a figure that has tripled in the preceding ten years.15
In order to combat food insecurity and guarantee that everyone has access to a sufficient and varied selection of high-quality food goods, it is crucial to donate food to the hungry. The alarming rate of food waste calls into doubt global resource preservation and food supply. How will we feed people in the upcoming decades ? Do we have enough resources to feed everyone on the planet ? It is evident that there is an imbalance in the global food chain system.
A significant section of people live in developing nations where there is widespread hunger and thirst. Conversely, the consequences of "overeating" have been hastened in industrialized nations due to sedentary lifestyles and an abundance of food, leading to a noticeable rise in chronic illnesses including diabetes, cancer, and cardiovascular disease. Food waste is a major problem in the modern world. However, this hasn't always been the situation. Food waste is a cross-functional problem for which all stakeholders bear responsibility, despite the fact that it has not been a primary concern since antiquity. Growing levels of poverty, global economic crises one after another, and a disruption in the agri-food system resulting in startlingly high levels of food waste necessitate the implementation of a number of organizational, legislative, and technical measures in addition to the broad application of educational initiatives. For their part, the primary goal of any efforts made to increase consumer awareness must be to alter customer behavior.
Today, food waste is a real scourge. But this hasn't always been the case. Since ancient times, food waste has not been a top priority. However, it is currently a cross-functional issue for which all parties involved bear some responsibility. Making customers aware of their own waste, which they frequently downplay, is a necessary step in this process. Better legal
structures are also necessary, though.
II. Actions around the world
Food waste is not a new problem, despite recent attention to it. Since ancient times, humans have been trying to find ways to preserve food so they may ensure their survival and feed themselves during times of famine. International organizations began taking concrete steps to combat food loss and waste in the second half of the 20th century. A worldwide scientific partnership is then established to enable the comparability of data and technique. The following is a chronological list of the main initiatives and acts. [1617]
The expected amount of food lost per person on each continent is depicted in this picture (source: FAO). Losses range from 280 to 300 kg per year in North America and Europe. In South Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia, they account for 120-170 kg each year. The entire yearly production of edible food for human consumption is estimated to be 900 kg in Europe and North America, but only 460 kg in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Estimates of consumer food waste per person in North America and Europe range from 95 to 115 kg, whereas in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia, the figures are 6 to 11 kg. The majority of food waste on the African continent (25%) happens after harvest. Certain more fragile crops, such fruits and vegetables, roots, and tubers, can experience losses of up to 50%. The main source of them in the field is pests, but all elements of processing, transportation, and storage right up until the distributors' display are also out of their control.16 17 18
A. Conjecture
The FAO estimates that the amount of food lost in Africa could feed 300 million people.19 In underdeveloped regions of South and Southeast Asia and Latin America, losses occur most frequently during the harvest, post-harvest, and storage phases. As throughout all of Africa, losses are significant in certain places: A total of 20% of oilseeds, meat, dairy products, and 30% of fish are affected, along with 30% of grains, 40%-50% of fruits, vegetables, and tubers.20 The anticipated annual total losses in South and South-East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are 120/ 170 kg. Every year, each individual in Southeast Asia, South Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa produces more than 460 kg of edible food. Customers report between 6 and 11 kg of food waste annually.21 To calculate food waste, one can use a number of bibliographic materials. However, because of the variations in the sources and methods utilized, caution must be taken when interpreting the data.
Indeed, every country has distinctive qualities. Moreover, the socioeconomic context varies among countries and has a distinct relationship to cuisine and culinary traditions. However, one can determine the extent of the problem based on the combined data provided by the several authorities:
- 200 to 300 kg of losses are anticipated to occur annually and per resident in industrialized nations (North America, Europe), of which 95 to 115 kg occur at the consumer level. In industrialized nations, losses from downstream activities (consumers and sales/commerce) account for more than 40% of total losses.
- 120 kg annually, as well as per resident in developing nations (South and South-East Asia, sub-Saharan Africa), with 6 to 11 kg coming from consumers. Upstream in the supply chain is where more than 40% of losses occur (harvest, infrastructure, transport, procedures). Contrary to common belief, food losses in affluent or industrialized countries are at least as high as those in developing countries.
Compared to sub-Saharan Africa, whose net food production is 230 million tons, consumer food waste in affluent nations is almost comparable to that region's output (222 million tons).22 In North America, losses particularly amount to 280-300 kg annually. Approximately 900 kg of food are generated annually per person that is appropriate for human consumption.23 According to a 2011 study by researcher and scientist Kumar Venkat, 55.4 million tons of food are lost or wasted every year in the US and are broken down as follows: 60.9% are produced during consumption, 5.3% during distribution, and 33.8% during retail sales.
According to the Natural Resources Defense Council, 40% of US food production is wasted during the whole process, from farm to fork. On the other hand, the government estimates that 3 million tons, or 136 kg, of waste are produced yearly in Australia, per person. During the 1974 World Food Conference, FAO unveiled "Prevention of Food Loss," a comprehensive program targeted at poor countries. Food waste was made public early in the new century by a series of scholarly studies that were distributed by consumer advocacy groups. These studies included: Food waste happens during production and transit, as well as in homes, restaurants, and stores (supermarkets and other merchants), according a 2008 study conducted by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), the FAO, and the Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI).24 Between 2011 and 2013, reports that helped raise awareness of food waste throughout the world were published.
The FAO published papers in 2011 under the title "Global Loss and Waste." In response to the "Save Food !" campaign, the Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology (SIK) arranged two programs in 2013: "Food Waste Footprint - Impacts on Natural Resources" and "Magnitude, Causes and Prevention. "The Foresight Department of the UK government's « The Future of Food and Farming: Challenges and Choices for Global Sustainability » is one such analysis.25 26 In the fight against food waste, let's take the example of Armenia. Country located in the Lesser Caucasus region, Western Asia and member of more than thirty-five international organizations, such as the UN, the Council of Europe.27 Gross domestic product (GDP) is a key indicator of a nation's economic success. This refers to the total amount of products and services sold across the nation. The gross domestic product (GDP) per person worldwide in 2022 was around 11,973 euros.28 Armenia's GDP, on the other hand, was 6.661 euros per person, or 18.52 billion euros for the whole nation. As a result, Armenia's economy is now modest and it is ranked 121st in the world. In 2022, the rate of inflation in Armenia was almost 8.64%. For the same year, the average for the EU was 8.83%.
In this stunning, vast nation with a millennium-old civilization, the issue of food waste legislation can come up with significant consequences. The legislation (RA Waste Law of 24th November 2004) governs the legal and business interactions pertaining to the gathering, transferring, maintaining, recovering, reducing volume, and averting adverse effects on the environment and human health. The waste use objects, the primary tenets and policy orientations of the state, the principles of state standards, the inventory and introduction of statistical data, the execution of their mandates and procedures, the principles of waste treatment, and the requirements for trash presentation are all defined by the legislation. For governmental control, waste reduction initiatives, payments for the use of natural resources, damages to human health and the environment resulting from people's moral and practical uses of waste, needs for official oversight, and legal infractions. The « Legis of the Republic of Armenia on Waste » is scheduled for adoption in November 2014.
The goals of garbage collection and the obligations of authorized entities are outlined in this law. Also, the «Law of the Republic of Armenia on Waste Management and Sanitary Cleaning» was introduced by the Republic of Armenia. The legislative initiative is currently pending finalization; this is only a draft version. The many meanings of trash, the regulations governing garbage collection, and the ways in which management fees are paid are all outlined in this statute. This law, regrettably, is still not in effect. Basically, all these regulations do is mirror good waste management concepts. Therefore, it would be wise for the Armenian legislator to likewise follow the French law that was approved on 11th February 2016, and which had a noticeable effect.
B. Within the European Union, disparate activities
The amount of food wasted in the 27 European countries was evaluated in research done in October 2010 for the European Commission. These figures give an overview of the amount of food waste produced throughout the European Union, despite the fact that they are derived from varied approaches depending on the nation. An estimated 89 million tons of trash are produced annually, or 179 kg per resident. The distribution of waste is as follows2930:
- Households: 43% (76 kg/year/resident)
- Agro-food industries : 39% annually (70 kg per resident)
- 14% of meals served outside from home (25 kilograms per resident annually)
- Distribution: 4% (8 kg/year/resident)
Due to their exclusion of food waste from agricultural production and processing, these statistics only partially represent the situation in Europe. It is still challenging to measure waste at every link in the food chain. Around half of all edible food is wasted annually in the European Union by homes, grocery stores, eateries, and other food chain participants.31 Below are further public data on Member States. Because the range of research varies per nation, they cannot be compared to one another.
- In the United Kingdom32: A British group that promotes sustainable development, WRAP, found that 7 million tons of food—or 110 kg of waste per person—are thrown away annually, or 20% of the food and beverages that families buy.
- In Germany33: According to the University of Stuttgart, 6.7 million tons of food waste are produced annually by households, or 82 kg of trash per person.
- In Belgium: Each person wastes 15 to 20 kilograms of food annually, of which 7 kg is still in packaging.
- In Italy: According to a 2010 Eurostat survey, 6.6 million tons of food are wasted annually, or 108 kg of trash are produced per person.
- In the Netherlands34: Without beverages, each individual wastes 47 kg of food annually, amounting to an estimated loss of 0.8 million kg.
- In Sweden35: Food waste output was expected to be 1.2 million tons annually in 2012, or 127 kg per person (production, distribution, and consumers).
Germany, France, and the United Kingdom account for the highest share of trash providers (39% of total waste) among the 27 members of the European Union. Nonetheless, there are notable differences across nations because of their unique attributes (industrial, institutional, and demographic), as well as because of the range and techniques of the calculations employed.36 But the legal situation is evolving favorably. First and foremost, there was awareness, as demonstrated by this European petition with over 1.6 million signatures and backing from non-governmental groups including Action Against Hunger, the Red Cross, and the United Nations World Food Program.37 As of right now, this is the petition on sustainable development that has received the most signatures in Europe.38 Consequently, the European Union is organizing itself, and the European Parliament declared 2014 to be the « European Year of Combating Food Waste ».39
This summary chart shows that awareness is uniform throughout Europe.
Table 1: Summary chart shown that the awareness is uniform throughout Europe
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Despite a European awakening, particularly on the part of citizens, actions are still far too heterogeneous. I agree with the analysis of Tomaso Ferrando, Professor at the University of Antwerp.41 Thus, despite an apparent desire to eradicate the scourge of food waste in Europe, European leaders have not demonstrated very great legal ambition.42 And I agree with his analysis when he asserts that the European Union must show the way by clearly recognizing mandatory objectives in the revision of the « framework directive » on waste. His criticisms against the European Commissioner in charge of food Vytenis Andriukaitis are therefore well- founded. Criticisms that I myself addressed to the European Commissioner43
Thus, Professor Tomaso Ferrando rightly considers that EU bodies should agree on the introduction of clear and mandatory targets for reducing food loss and waste in the Waste Framework Directive and reconsider general EU food law.44 And he affirms that these same bodies should also focus on the problem of expiry dates which are still far too vague and complex and find a harmonized solution. Because indeed, only a harmonized solution will provide viable and effective results.
Likewise, Helen Williams (Associate Professor in Environmental and Energy Systems at Karlstad University in Sweden) and Fredrik Wikstrom (Professor at Karlstad University in Sweden) confirm that packaging is necessary to reduce food waste.45 This measure would allow the European Union to have a concrete and powerful impact on this scourge.
Indeed, Professor Helelen Williams recalls that « Waste is different depending on the region of the world. In poorer countries, significantly more food is thrown away during the production, distribution and storage phases, for example due to insufficient cooling possibilities and lack of packaging. In richer countries, on the other hand, food is thrown away by consumers or restaurants. In other words, there really is a lot of room for improvement and packaging can play an important role in this ».46
But I agree with her analysis when she adds that « packaging represents around 5 percent of the climate impact, while food represents 95 percent. It is, however, important that packaging is recycled in order to reduce its impact on the climate ». Finally, I agree with his recommendations and solutions concerning more uses of renewable materials such as the use of « liquid cardboard with an aluminum layer », the use of packaging which includes plastic made from renewable raw materials or further use of renewable fiber bottles to contain liquids. In terms of combating food waste, Europe should therefore pursue a much more concrete and effective policy and focus solely on the various projects that we have highlighted for the interests of European inhabitants.
C. France, a front-runner in the battle against food waste
France has taken the lead in the battle against waste thanks to the activities of its citizens as well as the approval of several laws over time, most notably the well-known law against food waste on 3rd February 2016.47 This law affected several nations and had an international effect.48
1. The Nationwide Anti-Food Waste Pact of 2013
Eleven steps, based on a common commitment, are included in the Anti-Food Waste Pact, which was signed by the French government and members of the food chain, including agricultural producers, wholesale markets, agri-food companies, mass retailers, restaurant and catering enterprises, foodservice operators, and local and regional authorities. The national goal outlined in the Pact is to cut food waste to 50% by 2025 (from 2013 levels), which translates to a 5% annual average reduction from 2013 to 2025. The Pact, which includes six task forces (TFs) and was signed by 55 food sector operators and five government departments, was extended until 2020 in April 2017.
TF 1: volume and waste indications
TF 2: use-by dates
TF 3: handling unsold food items and food donations
TF 4: creativity, effectiveness, and collaborations
TF 5: awareness-raising, education, and training
TF 6: Europe and beyond
2. « TECV », or the Energy Transition for Green Growth Act of 2015
Food waste management and the advancement of the circular economy are the topics of Section IV of this Act (Articles 69 to 163). The Act gave public sector restaurants and catering companies until September 1, 2016, to put food waste reduction measures into place.
3. The « Anti-Food Waste » Act of 2016
This Act sets many goals, including preventing waste as a top priority, transforming or donating food meant for human consumption, and turning food into energy and animal feed. Food destruction is seen as a last option. The Act also adds waste management measures that must be included in enterprises' social and environmental reports, with the goal of educating and raising awareness about food waste. Food businesses that have a sales area greater than 400 square meters are required by the Act to provide a plan for donating unsold and unused food items to charitable organizations. Food distributors are not allowed by the Act to produce unsold food items that are unfit for human consumption (for example, because they have been chlorinated). Failure to comply with the aforementioned duties will result in a punishment of 10,000 euros.
4. The Order of October 21, 2019, the « EGalim Act » of 2018, which aims to provide everyone with access to sustainable and healthful food, and to balance corporate ties in the agricultural and food sectors
Public and private restaurants and catering companies need to take action against food waste after conducting an initial investigation. Retailers are required to guarantee the quality of the food they give. Certain enterprises in the restaurant and catering industries, as well as the agri-food sector, are now required to provide information about their internal control methods and their commitment to addressing food waste, in compliance with the Act of 2016. The catering manager at schools is required to provide a report on food waste. It became mandatory for foodservice establishments to provide clients with a doggie bag on 1st July 2021.49
5. The « AGEC » Act of 2020 addresses waste in the context of a circular economy
The French « AGEC » Act strengthened the already-existing regulations against food waste while also introducing a number of new ones. The Act sets the following goal for reducing food waste : - by 50% by 2025 in the restaurant and catering, as well as the food distribution sectors, compared to 2015; - in the fields of consumption, manufacturing, processing, and foodservice operations by 50% by 2030 as compared to 2015. Product codes must include the use-by date, best before date, and batch number of the relevant product in order to reduce the amount of food waste created. Another goal of the Act is to enhance inventory management. Wholesalers with an annual turnover above 50 million euros are now required to donate their unsold food items rather than discard them. The Act also makes it more difficult to monitor and regulate donations and to comply with regulations pertaining to food donations. Additionally, stricter penalties are now enforced50.
6. Establishment of a national trademark
A national « anti-food waste » label has been introduced in France under Article 33 of the AGEC Act in order to honor dedicated food enterprises and support projects in the foodservice, distribution, restaurant and catering, and agri-food industries. Businesses must help France reach its goals of reducing waste by 50% by 2025 in the restaurant and catering services sector and by 2030 in the consumption, manufacturing, processing, and foodservice sectors in order to be granted this certification. A three-star rating system is used to assess businesses : one star is awarded for "commitment" to waste management, two stars are awarded for "very commendable" behavior, and three stars are awarded for "exemplary" behavior. Large and medium-sized food merchants (local shops, supermarkets, and hypermarkets), wholesalers, and food specialists (butchers, deli-catessens, bakers, cheesemakers, greengrocers, etc.) are the main recipients of the designation.
Shops and establishments can apply individually or in groups to the recognized certifying organization. The Ministry for Ecological Transition-approved certification agencies bestow the designation. A standard in the distribution industry was established in 2021 with the introduction of the AFNOR Spec. A standard that is relevant to the agri-food business was created in the first half of 2023 for the restaurant, catering, and foodservice sectors.
7. National Assembly Bill 701, which is pending and has the backing of J. Dive, an Aisne County French Republican party member51
Food contributions have increased after the Act of 2016 went into effect. There are currently over 10 million meals given to charity annually, which represents a 22% rise in food donations for philanthropic purposes. However, there are differences in product quality, and the absence of consistent and efficient regulations has lessened the law's influence.
10% of turnover in the distribution industry is accounted for by local food enterprises, including franchisees, which are not included in the present statistics. Should the bill become law:
- Companies having a sales area of 200 m[2] or more will be subject to the Act of 2016's responsibilities;
- It will be applicable to food wholesalers with an annual revenue of more than 25 million euros, meaning that almost 5,000 more companies and wholesalers will be subject to the legal obligation;
- Agri-food sector operators with a turnover of more than 25 million euros.
The following is also included in the bill : - harsher penalties for businesses that contaminate food;- a requirement that companies create an annual report detailing the amount of food wasted;- enhanced monitoring of the quality and compliance of food contributions (by the DGCCRF);- Companies with a sales area larger than 2,500 m2 are required to transport food contributions upon request from the charity to whom they have committed to give.52 Europe is impacted by the French citizen movement as a whole. Therefore, the European Commission plans to introduce legally binding food waste targets in 2023. Even if there aren't yet any worldwide repercussions, awareness and certain activities, including these:
- Food items that may or may not be given
- Food items that can be given to charitable organizations
- Food products must meet certain requirements in order to be donated, such as having a batch number, being labeled with its use-by date (if the product is microbiologically extremely perishable), and having information on any allergies that are legally required to be disclosed.
A product's « Use by... » date is indicated on the package. This data is given for delicate goods that might be harmful to people's health if consumed after their use-by date. You can eat these goods up until the expiration date printed on the container. A product's « Best before » date is shown on the package with the words « Best before.. »53. There is no health risk if the product is consumed within three months of its best before date. Food relief charity may accept unsold goods as long as the following conditions are met :
- The items’ use-by date is still valid, and the charity has ample time to distribute them : use-by date : at least 48 hours, preferably 72 ;
- All applicable safety and hygiene laws and guidelines are scrupulously followed at all times, especially those pertaining to the cold chain (temperature of storage facility, refrigerated units);
- The donated goods must be in good shape and their packaging cannot cause damage or spoilage.
Use-by date expires = legal prohibition on contributions. Products may be given and must be used within the relevant time frame if they are best before date expired.
- Food items that might not be suitable for charitable donation due to potential health hazards
The types of food items that cannot be given due to the potential health risks associated with preserving them are listed in the French Decree dated 7th January 2021. The agri-food sector, restaurant and catering enterprises, wholesalers, and distributors of food are all covered by the decree.54 55
7.1. It is prohibited to donate the following food products
- All chilled products that are not pre-packed when offered for sale : meat, cooked meat, cheese, delicatessen products, etc.;
- Meals prepared in store and sold hot or at room temperature (such as roast chicken);
- Chilled cakes and pastries containing uncooked pastry cream, Chantilly cream, etc.;
- Shellfish, seafood and oysters;
- Chilled fish products not pre-packed;
- Chilled hamburgers, pre-packed or not;
- Chilled minced meat and meat preparations produced in store using minced meat, pre-packed or not;
- Chilled products that have been damaged or spoiled or that have an unusual appearance;
- Alcohol;
- Food products of animal origin (or that contain products of animal origin), unless :
- The operator has defined the relevant food products in their food hygiene plan;
- The food products are packaged;
- The donated food products have been stamped with an inspection stamp or identification mark;
- Restaurant and catering businesses may donate food products of animal origin, pre-prepared food preparations and surplus products, providing that they are pre-packed.
Charities must reject chilled and frozen products that cannot be stored or transported in accordance with the cold chain on collection.
7.2. Donations by food businesses
Since the Act of 2016 came into force, supermarkets and hypermarkets with a sales area of more than 400m[2] are required by law to donate their unsold products to charity. More specifically, they must sign an agreement with a food aid charity setting out the terms according to which they will donate their unsold products. This regulatory obligation therefore concerns the signing of an agreement rather than the products themselves. A tax incentive mechanism56 applies to all businesses that are liable for income tax or corporation tax and that donate money, goods or services to charity57.
- Tax reduction = 60% of the value of the donation (determined in accordance with the tax authorities’ guidelines commenting on Article 238 bis) :
- up to 20,000 Euros;
- or 0.5% of turnover.
A written agreement with one or more charities is a requirement for the corporate contributor to be qualified for the tax deduction. Subsequently, the charity or charities must issue a receipt to the donor specifying the value of the items received. Upon the charity's visit, both the retailer and the charity are required to sign a check-out sheet certifying that the food supplies have been handed to the charity.
- Once the charity signs the check-out sheet, it becomes entirely responsible for any health and hygiene issues;
- In the case of a product recall, an itemized list of the donated goods. Businesses can also lower their waste treatment tax by donating food goods.
7.3. Estimating the value of food donations
A CERFA 11580*03 receipt must be filled out, signed by the organization receiving the gift, and sent to the giver. Nonetheless, the charity is not in charge of figuring out how much the gift is worth. All that has to be mentioned is the kind of goods and how much (weight or volume) was contributed. The estimated value of the contribution (in euros or €) must be entered on a form that the donor must fill out.58 Donations of food must be evaluated at their cost price, which takes into account the expenses incurred by the company in making or buying the necessary goods. Similarly, expenses made by the company for services related to its gifts (such as hiring a carrier to carry food supplies to the charity) must be factored into the cost price.
To claim the tax benefit, the donor must have the charity complete and sign the CERFA form.59 Over the years, there has been a steady growth in the number of food stores that have agreements with one or more charity. In the Comerso Ipsos study60, one-third of the grocery retailers surveyed stated that they had formed partnerships in the three years following the Act's implementation. In 2019, Comerso performed a survey titled Retail / Distribution: Objective Zero Waste. The survey revealed that 96% of food businesses covered by the Act donate food. Additionally, a notable rise in both the quantity and type of foodstuffs provided has been noted by three of the major food relief agencies.61 Since the Act's implementation, the amount of food goods provided to charitable organizations has consistently grown. This may be attributed, in part, to the ongoing rise in the number of agreements made, which has led to an increase in the number of grocery stores that have consented to contribute food to charitable causes.
Compared to the French Federation of Food Banks, which built its business model on the collecting of unsold food goods more than 30 years ago, this growth is especially obvious for organizations whose primary goal is not to gather food contributions (+70% in 2015, +40% in 2016, and +9% in 2017).
CHAPTER 2: FOOD WASTE: AN ABOMINATION TO HUMANITY
Section 1: Food waste as a problem for the economy, society, ecology, and public health
Reducing food waste is one of the three primary ways to counteract global warming, according to the 2020 DrawDown study and the IPCC report released on 4th April 2022. Additionally, helping millions of people worldwide who live in unstable situations involves rescuing consumer products from the garbage. Understanding and analyzing the many concerns surrounding food waste from an environmental, economic, and public health perspective—as well as from a civilizational standpoint—is therefore crucial, and this is done in this section.
I. An environmental problem
The following important data and facts about food loss and waste show that there is a problem with food waste that affects the environment:
- Approximately one-third of the food produced for human consumption worldwide is lost or wasted.
- Only food waste accounts for 8% to 10% of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.
- If food waste were a nation, it would rank third globally in terms of emissions.
In other words, as this image from the European Food Information Council (EUFIC) illustrates, food waste generates more greenhouse gasses globally than any one country, with the exception of China and the US. The FAO claims that the 21st century's greatest environmental, social, and economic issue is the battle against waste. There are still a lot of levers of action that need to be pulled today, even if the battle against food waste is at the top of the global political agenda. This is a topic that crosses many boundaries and has an impact on the economy, the environment, food safety, ethics, health, etc. The difficulties differ significantly depending on where you are in the globe. In poor nations, resources have to be allocated upstream to safeguard production from adverse weather, drought, and humidity, as well as to enhance production and storage methods and transportation. In affluent nations, on the other hand, the issue is downstream as food is frequently lost at the end of the supply chain without anybody noticing it.
Waste and losses have a variety of effects. Raw materials and resources must be used in the manufacturing process. Whether a product is packed or not, losing or wasting one results in the loss or waste of resources utilized upstream, such as energy, water, raw materials, agricultural land, and greenhouse gas emissions connected to trash and waste management.62 63 The economic and social environments of people have seen significant changes in recent decades due to urbanization and globalization. Countries are becoming more and more dependent on one another due to factors including cross-border travel, consumer goods trade, the expansion of services, the emergence of new technology, and communication channels. Certain areas require special consideration when it comes to resource availability and food security. Because of this, experts now concur that the battle against food waste should be the top priority for the 21st century's economic, environmental, social, and health issues. As more and more campaigns emphasize the need to preserve natural resources and reduce greenhouse gas emissions, public awareness of waste's negative impact on the environment is expanding.
The 2008 SIWI (Stockholm International Water Institute) research, which was conducted as part of the UN Secretariat's Commission on Sustainable Development, utilized the phrases « leaving a water tap on » and « food waste ».64 65 People are becoming more conscious of waste's detrimental effects on the environment as more and more campaigns highlight the need to protect natural resources and lower greenhouse gas emissions. The terms "leaving a water tap on" and "food waste" were used in a 2008 SIWI (Stockholm International Water Institute) study that was released as part of the UN Secretariat's Commission on Sustainable Development.
The interpretation of this data needs to be done cautiously because agricultural techniques vary depending on the location. A major environmental issue facing the world today is the carbon footprint of food waste, which is the total amount of greenhouse gases released over the whole life of the lost product (production processes, transformation, storage, transit, distribution, and consumption). The food industry alone accounts for 15% to 30% of greenhouse gas emissions in affluent nations. These numbers remain very unknown due to the variety and complexity of the available analytical techniques.66 The FAO (2011) estimates that every year, wasted food releases 3.3 billion CO2 equivalents. After China and the United States, food waste is the third-largest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. It is estimated that 34% of wasted food comes from grains, 21% comes from meat, and 21% comes from vegetables when it comes to the carbon footprint. The largest contributor to the carbon footprint (37%) is the consumption phase. The fact that energy spent at every stage of the production process is included in the carbon footprint explains its enormous influence. The role of food waste to greenhouse gas generation has been examined in the United Kingdom.
A total of 0.62 tons of CO2 were produced in 2012 from the 160 kg of unnecessary food that was thrown away, accounting for 1.7% of greenhouse gas emissions.67 A group of Marseille researchers conducted original modeling based on the INCA 2 national survey (2006-2007) to examine the connection between food's nutritional quality and carbon effect.68 The results, however, imply that those whose diets most closely resemble dietary guidelines—specifically, those that are in line with suggested intakes of nutrients—may not always have the lowest carbon footprints. Even when calorie consumption was identical, high nutritional quality was linked to a marginally but considerably larger carbon footprint than low nutritional quality. This research demonstrates that raising the standard of nutrition does not by itself ensure a decrease in the impact on the environment. There is further work to be done on these theories. Citizens will realize that the fight against food waste goes beyond legal changes and what we have researched. It is not just about addressing issues like hunger and bleaching unsold consumables; it also has the potential to be a powerful tool in the fight against global warming. This observation, in fact, stems from two accounts.
The 2020 publication of « DrawDown »69 Established in 2014, Project Drawdown is a non-profit organization committed to assisting the global community in reaching the Drawdown Moment—the future point at which greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere will cease rising and start to steadily fall. The « 501(c) (3) » nonprofit is supported by donations from both individuals and institutions. The IPCC report, which was released on 4th April 2022, is the second one. A global panel of climate change specialists makes up the IPCC.70
Reducing food waste is one of the three primary ways to counteract global warming, as these two findings verify. which is noteworthy and supports our plan to lessen this epidemic.
II. An economic problem
The contrast within different states regarding living conditions is striking. Indeed, while gigantic shopping centers are built on one side for a category of people who consume and waste with their eyes closed, others who do not have enough to eat are forced to survive. There is a noticeable disparity in living conditions between states. In fact, some who do not have enough to eat are forced to subsist while massive shopping complexes are constructed on one side for a class of people who spend and trash without thinking. Burundi, whose GDP per capita is $264, is the world's poorest nation as of 2020, according to the International Monetary Fund (IMF).71 With the exception of Haiti, Tajikistan, Bangladesh, Yemen, and Afghanistan, almost all of the world's poorest nations are located in Africa. It is increasingly acknowledged that reducing food waste has financial advantages. They affect every step in the supply chain, including customers, agri-food businesses, restaurateurs, distributors, and farmers. For poor nations, minimizing losses during harvest, storage, and transportation continues to be their key priority. It increases the profitability of agricultural endeavors, maximizes stock levels, lowers indirect expenses, and encourages more equitable compensation for growers, processors, and distributors. The global direct costs of agricultural product waste (except from fish and shellfish) are projected to be 750 billion euros a year, or the equivalent of Switzerland's annual GDP, based on an analysis conducted by the FAO in 2013. One-third of all food produced today is lost or wasted, amounting to over 1.3 billion tons, and this costs the global economy almost $940 billion a year.72 Global greenhouse gas emissions can be attributed to up to 10% of food production that is not consumed.
Food waste has an impact on the economic balance in several regions of the world. Changing prices and increased demand on the global market limit the supply of food in developing countries. Reducing these losses would improve the amount of food available, even if one-third of the food intended for human consumption is lost during agricultural production. This might lead to developing countries being more independent and being less dependent on aid from abroad and imports, which would have a significant impact on the political stability and food security of such nations. These subjects are covered in detail in the 2011 completed INRA-CIRAD dual-line expert work set.73 Reducing waste may relieve pressure on the demand for food in industrialized nations. Developed nations import 40% of the food that is consumed today, mostly plant items used in animal husbandry. This restriction affects global pricing and availability on the global market.74 Through improved waste management at all phases of product manufacture, specialized enterprises have demonstrated how the battle against waste can help agri-food companies become more competitive and considerably decrease costs.75 Within the European Union of 27, the proportion of household expenditure devoted to food was examined. In general, the percentage of food spending is declining; from 13.10% in 1995 to 11.51% in 2010, it averaged 12.07% between 1995 and 2010.
These figures are in line with the country-specific findings, which show that the rate is 9.97% in Germany, 13.76% in Spain, 12.93% in France, 14.16% in Italy, 10.59% in the Netherlands, 21.03% in Poland, and 8.56% in the UK. Therefore, compared to Mediterranean nations (France, Spain, Italy), where food constitutes a bigger percentage (between 12.93% and 14.16%), spending is lower in Germanic and Anglo-Saxon countries when it comes to overall household consumption expenditure (between 8.56% and 10.59%).76 Combating waste could help improve household purchasing power. Food does, in fact, account for a sizeable amount of French households' yearly budgets: 21% (2700 Euros) for low-income households and 14% (5000 Euros) for richer households.77 For a household of four, the yearly cost of food waste is estimated by the Ministry of Agriculture, Agri-Food, and Forestry to be 400 euros.78 In Great Britain, the cost of food waste has also been calculated. It equates to 480 pounds (550 euros) annually for households, 680 pounds (780 euros) for families, or 50 pounds (57 euros) each month on average for costs. The annual cost of preventable food waste in Britain is 12 billion pounds (11 billion euros).79
Waste costs 340 euros per home in the Netherlands, over 150 euros per person annually in Belgium, and 87 euros per person in the Netherlands.80 81 The projected cost of food waste in the United States, encompassing both distribution and consumption, is 198 billion dollars, with 124 billion (63%) of the total being attributable to the consumption stage alone. The annual cost per family is between $1,365 and $2,275, or around $1,001 and $1,700 euros.82
III. A social Problem
It is safe to assume that there is enough food for everyone on the earth.
In fact, all of the planet's people' energy demands could be met by the amount of food produced today. However, as the FAO and the UN World Food Program have often reminded us, we are confronted with a true paradox: a billion people worldwide suffer from malnutrition, while about a third of the world's population is obese or overweight. The amount of food waste generated by consumers in affluent or northern nations alone (222 million tons) is equal to the net food output of sub-Saharan Africa (230 million tons).83 One problem is the rise of North/South disparities which presents a moral conundrum as well as a risk to international security.84 Considerable strides have been achieved in the South or emerging nations to guarantee improved energy sources and lessen these disparities. People whose « calorie intakes are lower below the minimal dietary energy requirements specified with a view to maintaining a minimum tolerable weight/height ratio for moderate physical activity » are considered to be undernourished. Depending on demography, minimum dietary energy requirements differ from nation to nation and from year to year. They are stated as daily kilocalories for each individual.85
The average daily calorie consumption of people in nations with populations over 100 million, including Bangladesh, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Nigeria, and Pakistan, has climbed by 31% during the 1970s. Approximately thirty nations worldwide still have average daily energy intakes of less than 2200 kcal, a threshold that is associated with undernutrition.86 One of the things that contributes to eating disorders and anxiety in northern nations is the distance that people notice between them and their food. Anxiety is increased by the lengthy processing stages, the consumer's ignorance of food production circumstances, and previous food crises. Inappropriate eating habits are also a result of the stigmatization of fat, the overzealous promotion of the cult of thinness and the beautiful body, and the overmedicalization of food.87 One important consideration in people's dietary decisions is price. In 2019, 17% of the world's total food supply that was accessible to consumers was wasted, according to the UN.
Currently, twenty percent of the food produced in the EU is wasted. Food losses in France amount to 10 million tons of food wasted annually, or 20% of total production, or 150 kg of food per person. 4.8 million individuals in France are regarded as impoverished as a result of this, according to INSEE. Put otherwise, 7.6% of people do not meet the poverty line, which is 50% of the median standard of living, or 940 euros a month for an individual including social assistance. First and foremost, CREDOC has proven that food insecurity is increasing.88 Because of money problems, 39% of those over 15 now claim they would eat as much as they want in 2022, down from 50% in 2016. Although there has never been more wealth in our society as a whole, about half of all people live in poverty. We are still far from reaching the « Sustainable Development Goal », which aims to eradicate poverty worldwide, even if severe poverty has significantly decreased over the previous thirty years. Particularly considering that the World Bank projects that by 2022, up to 95 million people would have experienced severe poverty as a result of the COVID-19 health crisis, growing global inequality, and the shock of rising food costs, which is made worse by the conflict in either Armenia or Ukraine.89 90 Refugees and war victims, the elderly, the working poor, the homeless, the crippled, single mothers with children, and a rising number of young students are among the groups most impacted by food aid.91
Because of violent conflicts or climate change, millions of people are fleeing their homes. « A family does not escape poverty when it reaches the international poverty level of 2.15 Dollars/day », according to the World Bank itself.92 For this reason, in order to account for the progress of developing and impoverished nations, two more poverty criteria have been set as of 2018: 3.65 and 6.85 dollars per day. The worldwide poverty rates for these criteria are, respectively, 25% and 47%. Stated differently, about 50% of the global population subsists on less than $6.85 each day. Furthermore, around 2 billion men, women, and children—one in four—live on less than $3.65 each day. The current crisis environment, which highlights socioeconomic injustices and is linked to awareness drives to prevent food waste, has aided in the rise of moral and ethical questions around food.
In response to these injustices and the poverty phenomenon, new behaviors have emerged93 94 95:
- Freeganism: This rather anti-establishment worldview, which has its roots in the US, rejects the idea of a « consumption society ». It promotes alternate patterns of consumption, such « recycling », which urges people to use less by recovering and reusing garbage in dumpsters and bins found in bakeries, supermarkets, and other establishments.
- Urban gleaning: it is the term for this age-old custom of gathering fruits, vegetables, and grains that have been left on the ground in a field following harvest in order to eat them. In urban areas, it involves salvaging unsaleable, broken, faded, improperly proportioned, or removed from sell items for personal use from markets or shop garbage.
- Street festivals: Meals prepared with "gleaned" food are served in a joyful and amiable manner along the street by certain associations.
- The Restos du Cœur 96: Established in France in 1985 by the actor Coluche, this group operates under the 1901 legislation and offers volunteer aid to underprivileged individuals, mostly by means of free meals and involvement in their social and economic integration. Free meal delivery is currently a common practice in France and around Europe, with several food assistance organizations involved.
IV. A health Problem
The food shift that has been seen in developed nations for a century has led to an increasing disparity between the availability of food, its accessibility, and an increasingly sedentary lifestyle that lowers energy requirements. Epidemiological shifts linked to these changing lifestyles include the Southern nations' populations moving away from rural areas and toward cities. Agriculture is becoming more mechanized and contemporary. As a result, many Southern nations now suffer from the same nutritional imbalances as industrialized nations: an excessive calorie consumption combined with a sedentary lifestyle. In general, their diet is lower in carbs and dietary fiber, higher in fats, and comparatively steady in protein consumption.
The South is therefore confronted with a twin paradox: the issue of combating hunger persists, and the diseases associated with overnutrition in wealthy nations are affecting their populations more and more.97 In addition to the quantitative issue of food supply in various parts of the world, there is the issue of access to high-quality, variety food. It is more difficult for certain people on the planet to achieve the requirements for a balanced diet in both industrialized and developing nations. Thus, reducing undernourishment cannot be achieved just by increasing food production. The food transition has promoted access to food and a range of diets in industrialized nations.
During the past 50 years, France's food supply has experienced substantial changes, including the employment of raw food processing technology, the growth of "ready-to-eat" foods, the evolution of supply circuits, and most importantly, the spread of mass distribution.98 The French regime's makeup was significantly altered by these modifications. The diet has far less fiber and carbs and much more fat. Cereals, starchy foods, and pulses make up a smaller portion of the food ration than other items, which include fruits, vegetables, animal products, lipids, and sugar. Drink-wise, people are consuming less alcohol overall and more fruit juices, sodas, and mineral water.99 Bread consumption fell from 80 kg to 50 kg per person year between 1970 and 2008, while potato consumption fell from 95 kg to 68 kg. Fresh fruit and vegetable intake increases concurrently, rising from 70 kg to 86 kg.
In terms of meat consumption, pig and poultry have surpassed beef, with eggs and fish coming in second and third, respectively.100 Countries in Europe have also noticed these tendencies. Using an FAO database, Balanza et al. (2007) investigated how eating patterns have changed over the previous 40 years in 20 European nations (Mediterranean basin, Eastern Europe, Northern Europe). Overall food and energy availability has increased, according to the research, and dietary fats derived from animals have been consumed at higher rates while dietary carbohydrate intake has decreased. Between northern and southern Europe, eating habits generally don't differ.101 Changes in food categories and macronutrient levels are also being noted at the same time. New eating habits are emerging, which raises the risk of chronic illnesses and overeating. A few things that might encourage cumulative energy intake are snacking, low-fiber meals, and utilizing novel food textures like liquids.102 Eating nowadays involves more than just meeting one's physical and nutritional needs; it incorporates social, cultural, moral, ethical, economic, local, familial, and other factors.103 The relationship between chronic illnesses and socioeconomic level has been supported by several research.
Household income has an inverse relationship with the prevalence of chronic illnesses, which include diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, infectious diseases, and some malignancies.104 Additionally, we have noted a marked rise in overweight and obesity in Southern nations, especially in metropolitan areas. Overnutrition has surpassed undernutrition worldwide. Therefore, the shift phenomenon has a significant impact on population health: morbidity is rising quickly in the Southern nations, and undernutrition and malnutrition issues are still widespread. This condition is referred to by the WHO as a « double burden of illness ».
The advent of so-called plethora poses serious problems for public health. In order to affect behavior in a sustainable manner, given their present rapid development, it is essential to more accurately identify risk groups and have appropriate mechanisms in place to act on settings.105
Section 2: Issues with the food chain
I. Problems with our food and its production
Producers in most nations now realize that they have to deal with the issue of food waste. A growing number of participants are dedicated to cutting manufacturing costs and minimizing losses. Even with the above advancements, losses in primary production are still substantial. There are noticeable differences between the North and South American countries. The sources of food waste and loss at various manufacturing stages in the Northern and Southern Countries are compared in this table. Based on the food types and global locations in question, the primary sources of waste generated during manufacturing and distribution are listed below.106
A. Cereals and tubers
Wheat is the principal grain cultivated in high-income nations among the cereals farmed worldwide. The greatest losses (40-50% of the overall waste) are seen during the consuming stage. In low-income areas of Southeast and South Asia, rice is the principal crop. The three primary periods of loss observation are during production, post-harvest, and storage. Although at a lesser degree, losses are also documented throughout the distribution and consumption stages.107 Following harvest, large amounts of grain that were carried to the silo by dump trucks may leak along the highways or as a result of losses from leaky dumpsters. The most significant crop in middle-class and wealthy nations is potatoes, also known as sweet potatoes in China (Europe, Industrialized Asia, North America and Oceania). The largest losses are documented during manufacturing as a result of post-harvest calibration procedures used to meet distributor requirements. Food waste at the consuming stage is still quite substantial.
The majority of cassava is grown in Southeast and South Asia. High rates of food loss are noted in these areas during the production phase, during harvest, and throughout storage. During harvest, roots and tubers—perishable and extremely delicate foods—can also sustain harm, especially in southern locations with hot, humid temperatures.
B. Fruits and vegetables
Because of post-harvest grading, losses and waste within the fruit and vegetable group mostly happen during the production stage in industrialized countries. At the end of the chain, significant losses are also seen (15 to 30% of all customer purchases being rejected). Losses are higher in developing nations during the production phase and during harvest, especially because of harsh weather conditions (heat, humidity) that cause crop deterioration. Losses in these nations are also a result of unsold surpluses.108
Ungraded food items left behind, unsold commodities withdrawn from the market to prevent price collapse, and excessive field collecting expenses relative to market prices are some of the issues that might impede the fruit and vegetable collection stage.
C. Oilseeds
Many parts of the globe are used for the production of oilseeds and protein goods, such as sunflower seed, rapeseed, soy, peanuts, coconut, etc. Food losses mostly happen during the post-harvest and storage phases of agricultural production. Waste is also produced during the many phases of turning oilseeds into vegetable oils, which must satisfy the demands of distributors and customers. However, this waste is still very little when compared to the volumes produced by fresh goods.109
D. Products of animal origin
In affluent countries, 40-65% of all food waste is documented to occur during the consuming stage of milk. Diseases that dairy cows catch can cause output decreases of around 3-4%, meaning that losses in agricultural production are also substantial.
Waste mostly arises from post-collection, storage, and distribution activities in developing areas.110 In industrialized nations (the United States and Europe), food waste and losses are mostly seen in the distribution and consumer stages of the food chain, with regard to meat and meat products. Roughly half of all food losses and waste that are documented are caused by consumers. These losses are mostly explained by the following reasons :
- The point at which the meat reaches maturity, the challenge of maximizing the value of the various cuts, the ignorance of customers on the proper way to prepare leftovers, and the utilization of prepared foods.
- Because breeding procedures and slaughtering procedures are controlled, waste levels are comparatively low during the stages of production, post-harvest activities, and storage.111
The distribution of losses is about equal for every developing nation in the chain. Due to a high rate of animal death during breeding connected to illnesses, losses are particularly substantial during the agricultural output stage in South and Southeast Asia.112 When it comes to fish, food losses are seen in underdeveloped countries at the first stages of production, with 9% to 15% of fish being tossed back into the sea after being caught. Household purchases of fish and seafood sometimes result in waste. Significant losses also occur throughout the distribution phase as a result of fresh fish and seafood deteriorating. Some fish are thrown back into the ocean after being caught for a variety of reasons, such as an abundance of fish, species for which there is no market, fish with poor economic value, fish subject to quotas, or even illegality.
Although certain products may have market value, their worth may not align with the fishery's commercial outlets. The FAO estimates that 7.3 million tons of fish are wasted annually. The various statistical methods and global fishing habits make it challenging to quantify these statistics. However, it appears that in recent years, discharges have drastically decreased.113 One intriguing method of lowering food loss and waste is the recovery of co-products and by-products. At the level of the agri-food sector, « RESED » (Network of Professional and Interprofessional Organizations for the Safety and Quality of Animal Foodstuffs) creates instruments to simplify the transformation of co-products and by-products, making it possible to find outlets, and distributes work done within the sectors on its exchange platform.114 When surpluses arise, some businesses prefer to destroy them instead of using solutions that support their reuse or industrial transformation. This is typically because they don't understand the processes or because it makes financial sense. It may be necessary to do extra cutting, trimming, or other preparatory steps during the processing of foods, especially meat and fish, in order to get a satisfactory end product.115 17,6 million tons of plant products (9.5 million tons of dry matter) are processed annually primarily for animal feed through the following four sectors :
- Manufacture of sugar (molasses and draff)
- Cake-based industrial fats
- Protein-based starch
- Bran-based milling.
The value-adding of animal byproducts is more challenging in the 0.55 million tons of meat and milk produced annually because of their quick deterioration and regulatory
limitations (about two thirds of meat flour are burnt as a result of the bovine spongiform encephalopathy disaster).116
E. Inadequate handling and dispersal within the food chain
Since the Second World War ended, there have been significant changes in the distribution industry. The food circuit has grown to rely heavily on supermarkets and hypermarkets, whose expansion has made it possible to sell the most food and non-food items at self-service points under one roof. Their sales space (between 400 and 2500 m2) is bigger than that of a traditional supermarket. Typically, food accounts for two thirds of a supermarket's total revenue.117 118 Recently, new ideas have emerged that have assisted in altering behaviors, such food e-commerce and discount stores.
Foodstuffs in bulk are offered at often reduced costs in clearance stores and hangars situated in food zones (near expiry date, modified packaging, surplus production that cannot be sold in stores.119 The amount of food available has increased dramatically as a result of these new consumption habits, which has also increased waste. In the food chain, distribution is still a major source of waste: excessive handling of products, breaks in the cold chain, poor inventory control, seasonality, etc. Food products from the early produce areas (fruits and vegetables, etc.), other food products from butchers, fishmongers, charcuterie, cheese producers, etc., and unsold commodities such frozen foods and canned goods make up the majority of the food waste during the distribution stage. This amounts to 562.000 tons overall: 6.6% (9.1 kg/year/resident).120 The distribution of trash volume in France. Because there are notable regional variations in the brands, these results are nevertheless informative.121 122 Supermarkets and hypermarkets (more than 400 m2) in France record average losses and waste at the brand level of 197 tons per facility annually, whereas the catering and artisan food trade records 2.6 tons per establishment.123 Because fresh fruit has such short expiration dates, the majority of waste at supermarkets in Belgium happens in these departments. The most often thrown-away items are fruits, vegetables, and bakery goods, followed by meat, cold cuts, and dairy products.124
The primary reasons for food waste in distribution, whether they are related to the brands or the customer, are listed in this table.
Table 2: Main causes of food waste in distribution due to the brands themselves and/or the consumer
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
According to research conducted by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) in 2005-2006 on food losses and waste broken down by distribution, fruits account for the majority of food waste in the US (11.4%), followed by fresh vegetables (9.7%), meat, poultry, and fish (4.5%), and other commodities.125 Food waste and the role supermarkets play in it were portrayed through an exploratory study conducted by Crioc / Center for Research and Information of Belgian Consumer Organizations. This investigation demonstrates how various brands handle food loss in different ways. Every supermarket operates in a different way, giving waste management varying degrees of freedom. Big companies handle inventory more readily because they can depend on their logistical know-how. For instance, they may return unsold goods to the distribution center and divide them among various food banks.126 On the other hand, smaller supermarkets are choosing more inventive ways to maximize unsold inventory. The way different brands make decisions varies greatly; some have centralized platforms, while others handle inventories with a certain degree of independence. Due to their ability to negotiate on a national or even worldwide level, some companies find it easier to leverage their influence on suppliers and manufacturers to stop food waste.
The fields of distribution logistics and conservation techniques have advanced significantly in recent years. These areas include inventory control, order preparation, packing, and packaging (portion, sealing etc.). Simultaneously, noteworthy advancements are transpiring about recycling and food bank donations. Rejected or unsold batches in distribution are typically destroyed because it would be too costly to send them back to the manufacturer. They contribute significantly to overall food waste, despite their bulk being difficult to measure. Member states of the European Union are mandated under the Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC to create national waste prevention plans. The Grenelle 2 law (law number. 2010-788 of 12th July 2010) went into effect in France on 1st January 2012, and mandates that businesses or distributors modify biowaste (sorting at source, biological recovery, selective collection) in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote a return to the land.127
Better, France is now prohibited from throwing away food, rendering unsold things unfit for eating; stores larger than 400 m2 are required to enter into agreements with organizations for the donation of unsold goods; and the producer responsibility regime is modified with regard to non-standardized products, according to the adoption of Law No. 2016-138 of 11th February 2016, which relates to the battle against food waste.128 Additionally, it has an education and awareness component that is included into the curriculum, the educational system, and corporate social responsibility. Supermarkets that violate the law face fines of up to 10,000 euros. On 17th January 2023, a measure to reduce the barrier to 200 m[2] was presented.129
F. Uncontrolled food waste in the food trade and catering in schools and hospitals
The Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs, and Regional Planning undertook a survey between April and October 2011 in order to help identify the reasons of food waste in the direct-to-consumer and collective catering sectors and to recommend strategies of decreasing them at source. This was done in response to the dearth of data on the causes of waste in the out-of-home catering industry in France. Quantitative data was gathered via one-week weighing sessions at a variety of firms and semi-structured interviews with industry experts. Simultaneously, Delphi expert surveys were conducted with college representatives of the relevant professions in order to conduct qualitative interviews. A considerable degree of ambiguity surrounds the study's conclusions since the sample size was not very representative. The huge variation in practices seen in the field and the breadth of the professions represented make it challenging to get accurate quantitative data. The benefit of this study is that it provides a deeper comprehension of the sector's issues. In general, RHD combines collective catering (which accounts for 85% of meals provided in France) and commercial catering (15%), which includes food for elderly homes, schools, colleges, and other health and social institutions. Finally, business catering is included. One in seven meals in France are consumed outside. In contrast, Americans eat one in two meals out and Britons eat one in three.130 Collective catering, despite quantities vary more considerably, generally creates less loss and waste per guest at each meal than commercial catering (167g/person/meal vs. 211g/person/meal). The causes of waste in communal catering are numerous and change based on the kind of business. The following table lists the primary causes of waste in HR that have been discovered131
Table 3: Main causes of food waste in these areas
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Corporate catering has the lowest average loss and waste per guest at each meal (125 g/person/meal) of all the collective catering industries. On the other hand, the biggest amounts of waste and loss are produced by health and medico-social facilities (264 g/person/meal on average). Whether they are long-term hospital patients, inhabitants of retirement homes, or patients on a short stay, short-term hospital patients cause greater loss and waste every meal. The wide range of dietary profiles that are offered at healthcare facilities helps to partially account for the large amount of trash that is produced. In 2013, the British National Health Service (NHS) calculated the expenses associated with food waste in hospitals, taking into account thrown away goods and needless labor. Based on the analysis, the annual cost amounts to 144 million pounds. The range of this waste is quite wide, ranging from 17 to 67%, contingent upon the services used. The hospitals that struggle the hardest to provide their patients with the nutrients they need are also the ones with the largest waste levels. The unique characteristic of waste in a hospital setting is that it is associated with both the contents of patients' plates and the meal management system (trays or service carts). The wide range of dietary profiles that are offered at healthcare facilities helps to partially account for the large amount of trash that is produced. Several reasons are given :
- unpleasant food
- sad presentation
- unordered dishes.
"Food waste is a sign of customer acceptance and can be regarded a possible factor of the quality of food supplied," states Professor Hartwell.132 Even yet, the British National Survey reports that 30 to 40 g of food is wasted in schools and caterers, while 60 to 70 g of food is lost per person/per meal in hospitals. Particularly, the contents of the hospital trays show that patients avoided 17.6% of the main course, 27.7% of starchy meals, and 40.7% of vegetables, respectively. Professor Hartwell's research in the UK compared the preparation process and food quality of meals provided in jails and hospitals in order to put these findings into context. According to the research, hospitals have far less reliable food delivery and service than jails, which increases waste and the danger of malnutrition.133
A specific example of the prison environment was examined in France, where it was found that inmates preferred the practice of « cantinage », which is the purchase of ready-to- eat food items offered on site, which resulted in one meal out of every two being thrown away.
Meals are provided to prisoners right in their cells. Their rejection is typical and frequently represents the act of eating as a choice or lack thereof.134 Middle and high school canteens generate more food loss and waste (179-200g/person/meal) in school catering than do elementary schools (110-130g/person/meal).
Children frequently use waste from the school canteen as a means of endorsing or disapproving all that occurs there. Students in challenging high schools have even gone so far as to mock food, which they view as useless. At this point, the mindset and actions of the parents are crucial. Due to a large percentage of waste being thrown away in the kitchen, such as fresh produce, conventional catering (230g/person/meal) and gourmet catering (226/person/meal) experience the largest volumes of losses and waste created per guest and per meal in the commercial catering industry. Lastly, fast food, which employs semi-industrial items upstream, generates the lowest quantities. Fast-food restaurants and merchants in the United States discard 27 million tons of food yearly, amounting to an estimated 68 billion dollars. The foods that are wasted in the largest quantities include meat, bread, fruits, and vegetables.
In response to this pervasive issue, a growing number of sizable collective catering organizations are organizing campaigns against food waste in an effort to enhance planning and production procedures, enhance kitchen operations, and reduce consumer waste as a result of improved knowledge.135
G. Food waste in households and consumers
Customers frequently underestimate food waste. The TNS Sofres survey's findings indicate that consumers are delusional about their own trash: nobody is truly concerned about garbage that they don't realize they're producing. While everyone believes others are squandering more, they all feel as though they are wasting a bit less. This study indicates that the customers polled think their attitude is already appropriate :
> 94% check the use-by dates and ensure that the cold chain is respected.
> 89% freeze leftovers
> 87% cook them.
> 86% use airtight containers
> 75 % raise awareness of the phenomenon in their family.136
This Table lists the primary causes of waste caused by consumers.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Table 5. Main causes of food waste by consumers
II. A system locked in the face of destitute victims
As we have observed in this thesis, our food and agricultural system is broken. It is destabilized and it is imperative to completely put it back together. But to provide the right remedy, it is necessary to make the right diagnosis. We must first criticize the poor analysis done on food waste so as not to lose our objective. Thus, food waste is only a reflection of a cynical system which authorizes and legitimizes it. The great majority of analyses, including « ADEME », confirm that food losses and waste are allocated as follows:
- 32% of food waste occurs during the production phase (cropping, breeding, harvesting)
- 21% of food waste occurs during processing (agri-food industries)
- 14% of food losses are caused during distribution (in shops, industries, supermarkets, etc.)
- 33% of wasted food is thrown away when consumed (half in restaurants and half in homes)
As with many other European nations, the bulk of trash in France occurs in houses, according to ADEME. And with good reason—every year, each of us wastes about 30 kg of food at home, 7 kg of which is still in its packaging.
That being said, my analysis contradicts this statement.
In fact, an intriguing report was created in 2008 by the French group « UFC-Que Choisir » (Federal Consumer Union - What to pick).137 This analysis shows that two purchasing centers provide 52.1% of the entire sales area of hypermarkets, while the top four food distribution organizations control 66% of the market. Price hikes that are detrimental to consumers have been encouraged by this scenario. It's not just « UFC-Que Choisir » that draws attention to the presence of regional monopolies. The consulting and geomarketing firm « ASTEROP » conducted a public review of the issue in 2008 and came to the conclusion that local market shares do not accurately represent national positions. France has been split up into 630 local marketplaces by the corporation « ASTEROP ». Based on an investigation, it seems that a brand is leading, significantly outperforming number two, in 60% of these local marketplaces. Two players control the majority of the market in 25% of situations. In just 15% of zones is the competitive environment more balanced. Thus, « Carrefour » holds a dominant position in 119 local markets, with a minimum market share of 25% and occasionally higher than 50%.138 A leader in 101 markets is « Leclerc ». More than 40% of French consumption occurs in the regions where « Carrefour », with all of its brands (which hold a 27% national market share), is dominant, as opposed to 10.8% for « Leclerc ».
Less than 5% are the others. Employers, unions, and groups make up the Social Representatives that comprise the Economic, Social, and Environmental Council (CESE), a constitutional body in France. Within the context of the legislative process, the CESE has a consultative, voluntary, or mandatory function. This assembly facilitates communication amongst the many economic players and the representation of professional associations at the national level. Its main office is in Paris, France, in the Palais d'lena. The CESE publishes a lot of reports. Including significant research titled « The distribution circuits of food goods » that was authored by Albert Ritzenthaler in May of 2016. This is the report's analysis of the mass distribution monopoly: « Giving back meaning, value and confidence in food is the demand expressed more and more strongly by consumers, but also by most of the players in the distribution circuits of food products. This demand marks the questioning of a model of mass and standardized consumption which gradually established itself at the end of the 20th century and is characterized by the hypermarket fueled by agro-industry. In a globalized environment where competition is fierce, large brands provide more than 70% of the supply and continue their concentration through their recent grouping into four purchasing centers. Their suppliers are 98% VSEs and SMEs in the agri-food industry, which employ 500,000 people and constitute the leading French industry Large national and international groups dominate the sector: 2.3% of companies capture 80% of turnover. Some of them use animal or plant raw materials as commodities used for various assemblies. Upstream, the number of farms (450,000 in mainland France) has fallen by 8% since 2010. Three hundred producer organizations are trying to promote and sustain production but their number and their scope for action weaken their capacity. The inter-professions which organize the sectors also do not, for the majority of them, have sufficient unity or the participation of all the links in the sector. While successive reforms of the CAP have replaced the mechanisms for regulating quantities produced and prices, through contractualization between actors, the weak structuring of producers and sectors leaves the strongest actors dominating the economy of the sector which is increasingly faced with globalized competition. Intermediaries, wholesalers or logistics professionals also play a strategic role. Some of the activities considered are increasingly carried out directly by large retailers. The 2008 Economic Modernization Law modified supplier-distributor relationships in a context of price wars, reducing margins to a historically low level without the consumer really seeing the benefits. Commercial negotiations, although framed by a substantial legal arsenal, are marked by very strong tension where anything can sometimes seem allowed. This heightened competition has harmful consequences for all players. Agricultural producers and employees, adjustment variables, can pay a high price. Certain crises, such as the lasagna scandal containing horse meat, have also aroused distrust among consumers who demand to be better informed, are concerned about their health, their environment and the taste of the products, and are therefore attentive to signs of quality. While the share of home supply in the household budget has decreased from 30 to 15% in 40 years, local circuits provide a response to the demand for trust and relationships between the consumer and the producer or processor. Their development corresponds to the common desire to restore the value of the product »139.
The installation and supervision of a monopolistic system that promotes mass distribution has many effects on the food chain. Mass distribution, on the one hand, places severe restrictions on farmers and producers about the amount of goods they must produce.140 More food items are always needed to feed as many people as possible. This causes the sea to dry up and loses species. That is why there are specific legal frameworks inside the European Union. Mass distribution, on the other hand, places strict requirements on farmers and producers regarding the caliber of their output. Greater product lifespan is a constant. «Modified Atmosphere Packaging », or conservation in a protective atmosphere, is a particularly efficient approach to extend the life of food goods (MAP). Using a gas or gas combination designed especially for the product to be preserved, the air in the package is replaced in this method. Goods packaged using MAP technology have a shelf life that is two to five times longer than that of conventionally packaged foods, according to studies. Packaging gases slow the microbiological, enzymatic, and physical degradation that would otherwise happen in the air, hence extending the shelf life of products. They aid in maintaining food's flavor, color, and nutritional content. The gases that make up the gaseous atmosphere are either pure gases or gas mixtures, most commonly constituted of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, or argon, with oxygen present in a very small number of extreme circumstances. The kind of product, storage circumstances, and shelf-life objectives set by the manufacturer all influence this decision. Carbon dioxide works by inhibiting the growth of mold and the spread of germs. It is really fungistatic and bacteriostatic. It is sometimes a good idea to mix it with nitrogen to keep the packing from shrinking. For packing in a changed environment, nitrogen is frequently utilized. By taking the place of oxygen in the packing, it stops the oxidation processes that lead to rancidity.
Furthermore, this gas acts as an air cushion to protect delicate items and restricts the growth of aerobic germs. Comparable advantages are provided by argon, however its slower breathing rate as compared to nitrogen prolongs the shelf life of fresh vegetables. Although it's a less obvious option, oxygen can have major benefits in some situations. It's perfect for keeping red meat's eye-catching hue. However, oxygen and carbon dioxide must be combined to prevent microbial deterioration. Fresh fruit and vegetables can also be packaged with oxygen to stop harmful germs. The majority of fresh foods that lose shelf life when exposed to air can profit from the MAP technique's advantages:
- Meat and poultry,141
- Prepared meals (pizzas, quiches, hot meals, sandwiches),
- Dairy products (grated and sliced cheese, powdered milk),
- Bakery products (bread, pastries, biscuits),
- Dry foods (nuts, almonds, coffee, chips, instant mashed potatoes),
- Fresh vegetables and fruits (salad, grated carrot, fruit salads),
- Seafood (fish, fish fillet, seafood).
However, to increase the items' shelf life, a vast majority of them include pesticides.142 Consequently, pesticides are mostly utilized in agricultural settings and include over a thousand active ingredients whose primary function is to combat hazardous organisms (plants, animals, and fungus).143 Pesticides can be used in the home or workplace and provide direct exposure to workers; they can also cause indirect exposure through food and the air. This also applies to processed foods that lead to diabetes, obesity, cancer, or heart disease.144 Finally, but just as importantly, producers and farmers are subject to severe pricing restrictions on food goods due to mass distribution. Large-scale distribution purchases goods from manufacturers at a discount as a crucial middleman. To later resale them for a larger profit in its outlets. Farmers and producers are dying under this system.145 Let's use France as an illustration. There were seven million people living off the land at the beginning of the 20th century. Today, there are just 600,000 remaining. That equates to 10,000 farmers quitting their operations annually. Unfortunately, one suicide occurs every day as well. This is not a reality that can be tolerated in our magnificent country.146 Should we alter this system or do we just let this calamity continue?
In this circumstance, action must be taken immediately. The agri-food system shatters all of its stakeholders violently because it is trapped in a vice. It is the victim of lobbies, many conflicts of interest, and systemic corruption that results in the demise of our farmers, spreads illnesses, and reduces consumer purchasing power.147 Farmers, producers, animals, and customers are ultimately the victims of this system. Food waste is just a mirror of this system, which is wicked, twisted, and perverted. Food waste is a result of overconsumption and our society's excess, as we have seen. Inflation, pricing wars, and declining prices can also result in food waste. Food waste can also result from supply shortages in the distribution industry, as we have observed. Lastly, the disregard and value we place on our food are also connected to food waste. The further we travel through time, the more we see a disconnect and a lack of comprehension between the producer and the consumer. It causes a great deal of confusion. There is a two-speed diet caused by food waste, with those who eat badly or insufficiently and those who eat too much. And although though this « waste » may be eaten, converted, or composted, it is this food waste that ends up in our garbage cans and eventually in our incinerators. This blight is a contributing factor to soil fatigue, particularly in developing nations like Africa.
Furthermore, this process speeds up the depletion of our natural resources, including water, even in the richest and most abundant regions of the earth. Thus, food waste adds to the decline in biodiversity and upholds the poverty of our farmers and small producers. This is especially true for fish, where one in four are lost during the catching process alone, not accounting for losses in the other sectors of the industry. These findings are shared around the world. Thus in November 2016, the Mexico City deputy Adrián Rubalcava, considered it necessary to establish clear and obligatory rules for all productive sectors and society, so that they assume their responsibility to put an end to food waste.148 Adrián Rubalcava considers that this food waste represents at the national level, including in Mexico City, more than 30,000 tonnes of unsold food thrown into trash cans.149
I agree with his analysis when he states that it is imperative to change the paradigm on this subject and to overhaul the entire food chain in order to help farmers, producers and consumers. And I agree with him in his analysis when he makes the link between the fight against waste and the fight against hunger. French researchers from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, or « GIEC » in French) have established that food waste accounts for 8 to 10% of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide.150
As a result, the origins of the green revolution may be found in the tension between an active global community and a stagnant States. And it was because of these causes and these problems that there was a political and civic upheaval.
PART 2: PEOPLE'S MOVEMENT TO STRENGTHEN LEGAL MEASURES AGAINST FOOD WASTE
CHAPTER 1: THE ADVENT OF THE CONTEMPORARY GREEN ECONOMY
Section 1 - The use of the law as a weapon by judges to restrain states
I. Environmental defense: the role and operation of national courts
A. A safeguarding legal and regulatory structure
France is one example of a country in the European Union. Beginning in the early 1970s, French environmental legislation was established by Law No. 76-629 of 10th July 1976, concerning natural conservation, and Law No. 76-663 of 19th July 1976, concerning facilities designated for environmental protection.151 The opportunities created by these laws are amazing. France has had an environmental code since 18th September 2000, when it passed Ordinance No. 2000-914 pertaining to the legislative section of the code.152 It collects together the many laws and regulations whose aim is to safeguard the environment.
The main bodies at the origin of the legal texts applicable to the environment are the constituent power with regard to the Constitution, the Parliament which adopts laws and the government which takes regulatory and individual administrative acts. At the local level, the prefects represent the State and have regulatory power. Local authorities also have, within the framework of their powers, regulatory power. Depending on the case, prior administrative authorizations are issued by the Minister of the Environment, the prefects or by the local authorities (construction authorization by a town hall in particular). On 8th July 2002, France ratified the Aarhus Convention, which came into effect on 6th October 2002, and addresses access to information, public participation in decision-making, and access to justice in environmental problems.153 Prior to ratification, French law already granted the procedural rights outlined in the Aarhus Convention, which was ratified in Denmark. Since the statute of 17th July 1978, access to administrative papers has been granted free of charge.154 Public involvement has been around since the 19th century in some contexts, but with the 12th July 1983 statute, it was expanded to include all environmental operations.155
Historically, France has allowed both individuals and legal organizations to have rather extensive access to the legal system. But it was the associative approval process—which was strengthened by the 2nd February 1995 law—that allowed authorized environmental protection societies to really have legal access rights.156 In the case of a disagreement involving environmental problems, the European Commission has established an educational system that enables every person of Europe to get in touch with local legal authorities.157 In order to make it simple for any person to learn about the guidelines governing the appeals process before an impartial court or authority, the European Commission has created practical documents on access to justice in environmental problems on its website executive. This pertains to an individual who is only observing an environmentally detrimental action or a litigant who does not profit from procedural safeguards offered throughout the decision-making process (e.g., environmental data accessibility, environmental impact assessment, or public involvement). These documents offer a helpful way to get in touch with a court or any other impartial judicial authority while an appeal is pending. It is crucial to understand the laws governing access to justice in relation to administrative activities, judgments, or omissions. These laws are commonly referred to as « locus standi » or « standing to act ». In addition, when the right to challenge a judgment is established, persons and groups of citizens can get specific assurances about the terms of access by filing an appeal with the court.
This implies, among other things, that the appeals process must be finished in a fair amount of time and without undue delay, and that the parties involved cannot be required to pay excessive processing fees. Knowing that non-governmental groups involved in environmental preservation have a special standing during appeal processes is also helpful. These organizations operate as guardians of the environment and as agents responsible for protecting the environment, which is unable to defend itself since « the environment cannot argue its case ». Sometimes, specialist agencies, such prosecutors, or mediators, can assist residents who are able to file a complaint when deciding how best to pursue legal action in the case of an activity that is really or potentially damaging to the environment, such as having an influence on a protected area or the inhabitants' health.
B. Accessible and efficient legal instruments for citizens
Legal actions are taken by individuals, groups and communities in France, as well as many other countries, to force government action on environmental and climate-related issues. Since 2005, environmental rights have been guaranteed by the French Constitution of 1958.158 There is constitutional importance to the « Environmental Charter ».159 This obligatory constitutional requirement offers the following160: the right to live in a healthy, balanced environment that respects one's health (Article 1); the obligation to contribute to the preservation and enhancement of the environment (Article 2); the responsibility to prevent environmental harm (Article 3); the obligation to assist in repairing environmental damage (Article 4); the precautionary principle (Article 5); the sustainable development concept (Article 6); and the rights to access environmental information and to be involved in the formulation of public policies that affect the environment (Article 7). A right of access to justice in environmental problems is not established under the Environmental Charter.
Nonetheless, the Constitutional Council acknowledged the "right of interested parties to pursue an effective remedy before a court," which includes environmental appeals, based on article 16 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 26th August 1789.161 It is not possible to bring most of the Aarhus Convention's provisions before French courts. For instance, the Aarhus Convention's clauses 3 and 5 are not directly applicable and so cannot be invoked.162 The civil procedure code, criminal procedure code, and administrative justice code all contain general requirements pertaining to access to justice. The most significant guidelines for access to justice in administrative litigation come from case law. The environmental code has specific regulations regarding access to justice, primarily in relation to associations in compliance with the environmental code's article L. 142-1 al. 1.
Initially, environmental protection groups have the right to file a challenge in administrative courts against the actions or inactions of administrative authorities concerning environmental concerns.
Second, because such actions directly relate to their statutory purpose, groups recognized under article L. 141-1 of the environmental code are assumed to have an interest in contesting administrative decisions that negatively impact the environment in compliance with the environmental code's article L. 142-1 al. 2. The French Environmental Code defines an approved association as one that « may be subject to reasoned approval from the administrative authority when it has been operating for at least three years and regularly declares associations that are carrying out their statutory activities in the areas of nature conservation and wildlife management, the betterment of the living environment, the protection of water, air, soil, sites and landscapes, town planning, or having as its goal the fight against pollution and nuisances and, 'generally speaking, working largely for the protection of the environment ».'" Having a minimal assurance of authenticity and severity allows one to sort out who can pursue legal action thanks to this article.
Third, approved associations may use the rights recognized to the civil party with respect to facts causing direct or indirect harm to the collective interests they have as a means of defense and constituting a violation of the legislative regulations pertaining to environmental protection, according to article L. 142-2 of the environmental code. Accordingly, under Article 2 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, recognized groups may seek damages for harm resulting from a criminal conduct. The environmental code's article L. 142-4 gives municipal governments the similar privileges. According to public law, local authorities are separate legal entities from the State and as such enjoy property and legal autonomy. Elected politicians freely administer them.
Fourth, the Environmental Code's Article L. 142-3 states that an approved organization may, upon the request of at least two of the affected natural people, seek compensation in any court on behalf of several recognized natural persons who have each experienced individual injury resulting from the same person's activity and sharing a common origin.
Fifth, the environmental code's article L. 142-3-1 states that when many parties in a comparable circumstance experience injury as a result of damage, a group action may be filed
in a civil or administrative court.
Moreover, additional regulations about access to justice are included in the environment law and the rural and marine fishing code, namely in relation to hunting federations and professional organizations: In terms of facts indicating a violation of the regulations pertaining to protected species, the departmental federations of hunters may exercise the rights acknowledged to the civil party, according to article L. 421-6 of the environmental code. However, under article 944-4 of the rural and marine fishing code, professional organizations created in accordance with L. 912-1, L. 912-6, and L. 912-11 may use the rights granted to the civil party with regard to facts that constitute an infringement of the laws pertaining to water and fishing and that cause injury to the collective interests that they want to defend, either directly or indirectly. Access to the legal system has always been rather extensive in France. The French Council of State, the highest administrative court, has a long history of jurisprudential precedent that contributes to the accessibility of administrative courts.
- French Council of State, 29th March 1901, Casanova : taxpayers may appeal municipal actions that impact public funds.163
- French Council of State, 21st December 1906, Union of owners and taxpayers of the Croix-de-Seguey-Tivoli district : the Council of State acknowledges the activity of a group defending a common interest. Hence, the group may take action to uphold its social goal, in this example, the continuation of a neighborhood's public transportation system.164
- French Council of State, 28th December 1906, Limoges Syndicate of Hairdressers : The Council of State recognizes the right of unions to represent the interests of its members collectively.165
- French Council of State, Ass., 17th February 1950, Dame Lamotte : Even in the lack of a legislative foundation allowing for such a recourse, every administrative act may be subject to a recourse for excess of authority, which allows for the annulment of the administrative act. The respect for law is its purpose.166
- French Council of State, Ass., 31st October 1969: Durance Water Defense Union :
Administrative actions that injure the interests that the groups are fighting for might be challenged by even unregistered associations.167
- French Council of State, Ass., 30th October 1998, Sarran and Levacher : based on article 16 of the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen from 26th August 1789, the Council of State affirms the right to an effective remedy.168
- French Council of State, 19th November 2020, Municipality of Grande-Synthe : The Council of State grants the municipality of Grande-Synthe's appeal, which aims to overturn the government's decision to forgo taking further action to fulfill its climate obligations.169
The administrative judge implements this case law in environmental concerns and modifies it for environmental protection societies. The interest in initiating action is evaluated in light of many factors, especially with respect to organizations that have been approved: the association's statutory purpose must be directly related to the subject of the disputed decision, and it must have negative environmental effects. Furthermore, the association's approval's geographical reach must match or exceed that of the disputed judgment. On the other hand, a national group cannot, in theory, protest against an administrative decision that serves a local interest. It could be different, though, if the ruling raises issues that are related to public freedoms and have repercussions that extend beyond local conditions due to their nature and intent. The French Court of Cassation holds that an association has an interest in taking action when it seeks to recover damages that directly and specifically arise from the offense that is being prosecuted and that cause harm to the collective interests that the group is trying to safeguard. This ruling applies to appeals in civil and criminal issues.
Nonetheless, the French parliament has limited the availability of justice in town planning cases:
- The administrative judge and the Constitutional Council both affirmed Article L. 600-1-1 of the municipal planning law, which restricts access to the administrative judge to associations that were established before the construction permission application was published.
- The Constitutional Council Upheld Article L. 480-13 of the local planning code,
which restricts the amount of time that an unlawful development may be demolished.
- According to Article L. 600-1-2 of the town planning code, an appeal for abuse of authority against a decision on the occupancy or use of property regulated by this code may only be filed by an entity other than the State, local authorities, their groups, or an association if the construction, development, or permitted project is expected to have a direct impact on the conditions of occupation, use, or enjoyment of the Property.
There are two jurisdictional orders in the French legal system. Both are probably going to get involved in environmental issues.
Initially, the court has the authority to resolve conflicts between individuals and to penalize wrongdoing. It comprises three tiers and handles both civil and criminal matters among other things:
- The judicial court has authority over civil cases, to start.
- The Assize Court is responsible for handling criminal cases involving felonies, which are the most serious offenses, the Criminal Court handles misdemeanors, which are an intermediate category of offenses and the Police Court handles violations, which are the least serious offenses.
Regarding the Court of Appeal, Civil cases fall within the jurisdiction of the Court of Appeal's civil chamber. Crimes are handled by the Assize Court of Appeal, whereas violations and misdemeanors are handled by the criminal chamber of the Court of Appeal. Finally, the highest court in the legal system, the Court of Cassation, is responsible for hearing cassation appeals. Criminal proceedings are handled by its criminal chamber, while civil matters are handled by its civil chambers. Second, disagreements between a private individual and a public person as well as conflicts between two public people are under the administrative order's authority. It is divided into three levels.
First instance: The administrative court has jurisdiction over most matters relating to the administrative order, with the exception of cases heard by the French Council of State in the first and last instance or cases within the jurisdiction of specialized courts such as the National Court of Asylum. Regarding the Court of Appeal: For decisions made by the administrative courts, the judge of appeal is the administrative court of appeal. Finally, Regarding the Cassation, the Council of State serves as both the government's counselor and the highest court of administrative law (jurisdictional role). It hears appeals in cassation at the jurisdictional level. Additionally, the Council of State may hear appeals against regulatory actions taken by the President of the Republic, the Prime Minister, and other ministers; appeals against judgments made by independent administrative agencies; and appeals pertaining to regional and European elections, among other instances where it has first and last instance authority. In addition, the role of the constitutional court is fulfilled by the Constitutional Council. His main duty is to keep an eye on whether legislation are constitutional.
Lastly, jurisdictional disputes between judicial and administrative domains are settled by the conflicts tribunal. France, like many other governments, is committed to the fight against climate change by enacting new laws and signing international agreements. Many people, groups and municipal authorities have contacted the administrative justice system, responsible for ensuring compliance with these promises. Thus, administrative justice has obliged the State to fulfill its obligations in terms of air pollution and the reduction of greenhouse gases through numerous important judgments. In France, the Council of State decided in 2023 to impose new regulations on the government to control greenhouse gas emissions. This time, it is the community of Grande-Synthe (North), particularly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and rising sea levels, which filed a complaint in 2019. Since 11th February 2016, the date of adoption of the law requiring large stores to donate their unsold goods to charitable associations, Arash Derambarsh, deputy mayor of Courbevoie, has ensured the proper application of the law. He inspects the trash cans next to Parisian businesses with the bailiff.
After noticing that several stores were throwing unsold food in the trash, he filed numerous complaints with them. The procedures work. The courts are therefore regularly called upon to control state action.170 171 172 France has been sentenced twice by justice. The « first climate action with a worldwide scale » was devised in December 2018 by the organization « Our business to all », which was founded in 2015—the year of the Paris Agreement and « COP21 ».173 In collaboration with many non-governmental organizations (NGOs) such as Oxfam, Greenpeace, and the Foundation for Nature and Man, the group urges the French government to uphold its environmental and climate-related pledges. « The case of the century » (or « Affaire du Siècle » in French) will be the moniker given to this case. Good news came from the Paris administrative court's 14th October 2021, condemnation of the French government for failing to uphold the terms of the Paris Agreement, notably the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C by decreasing greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2030.
The French government was given until the end of 2022 by the Paris administrative court to take action to rectify the « ecological harm » resulting from their failure to fulfill their climate change mitigation obligations. One year was allotted to the State to implement fundamental changes and change course. Organizations known as « The Case of the Century » requested in June 2023 a 1.1 billion euro financial penalty from the State in order to compel it to take action, pointing out that these duties have still not been met.
However, Justice turned down this plea.
Indeed, the French administrative court takes the following into consideration in its ruling on Friday, 22th December 2023 : « that in view of the data available for the years 2021 and 2022, the compensation for ecological damage could not be considered complete on the date of 31st December 2022, the part of the damage remaining to be repaired amounting to 3 or 5 Mt CO2eq, depending on the assumptions made ». But he « did not consider that there was reason to issue additional enforcement measures since the analysis of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the first quarter of 2023 compared to 2022 (- 4.2%, or 5 Mt CO2eq) had already made it possible to repair the damage remaining to be covered ».
The court also ruled that « if external circumstances, linked to the Covid-19 epidemic or the war in Ukraine, had also influenced the drop in CO2 emissions, there was no need to neutralize the effects, since this repair is assessed in light of the emissions objectives set by the first carbon budget ». In order for France to comply with the legal requirements, we believe it is imperative to record the legal justifications that motivated this collective—which includes activists, attorneys, non-governmental organizations, and associations—to submit a complaint against the country. Indeed, the objectives are set by Law No. 2009-967 of 3rd August 2009 on programming relating to the implementation of the Grenelle de l'environnement, Law No. 2010-788 of 12th July 2010 establishing a national commitment for the environment, Law no. 2015-992 of 17th August 2015 on the energy transition for green growth, Decree no. 2015-1491 of 18th November 2015 relating to national carbon budgets and the national low-carbon strategy, Decree No. 2016-1442 of 27th October 2016 relating to multiannual energy programming, Decision No. 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23rd April 2009 relating to effort sharing, Directive 2009/ 28/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23rd April 2009 relating to the promotion of the use of energy produced from renewable sources, Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25th October 2012 relating on energy efficiency, Regulation (EU) 2018/842 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 30th May 2018 on binding annual reductions in greenhouse gas emissions by Member States from 2021 to 2030 and Directive 2018/ 2001 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11th December 2018 on the promotion of the use of energy produced from renewable sources.
Based on the 1961-1990 reference period, which was already characterized by an increase in temperatures relative to pre-industrial era averages, this research confirms that the average temperature climbed by almost 1.14° C in the metropolitan zone during the decade 2000-2009.174 The ecosystem, human health, and life itself are suffering greatly as a result of this temperature rise and other signs of climate change. Hence, melting land glaciers, an increase in sea level (of around 4.3 cm over the past ten years), increasing coastline erosion, and a decline in biodiversity are all signs of the effects of climate change on the ecosystem of France. Furthermore, there are major effects of climate change on people's life and health. On the one hand, it makes people more vulnerable to extreme weather events that are encouraged by climate change, such as heat waves, droughts, forest fires, excessive precipitation, and floods in the Mediterranean area in particular, as well as cyclones in overseas territories, as this chart illustrates.175
On the other hand, the creation and dispersion of allergenic pollens, the deterioration of atmospheric ozone pollution, and the growth of insect vectors and infectious agents are only a few examples of how climate change raises the risks of both new and current illnesses.176 In a document headed « Action in support of the climate of the French State », which was linked to its rejection judgment dated 15th February 2019, the government acknowledged the truth of the issue. As per the conditions stated in this agreement, it acknowledges that : « We are living in a state of climate emergency, the dramatic consequences of which are already noticeable. France is not spared, as shown by the disasters that affected Saint-Barthélemy and Saint-Martin, Aude, Var, or even the drought that our farmers faced last year. [...] We are certain that, despite our action, certain effects of global warming will be felt by our fellow citizens. We must therefore now prepare measures to limit the impact on populations, particularly in terms of climatic disasters (floods, storms, droughts, fires, etc.) which will be more and more frequent and violent ».
The State nonetheless disregards its responsibilities in the battle against climate change in spite of this observation and the established dangers of severe harm to the environment and human health associated with climate change. It is true that the State is required to battle climate change, but that responsibility is wide and includes specific requirements to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, improve energy efficiency, create renewable energy sources, and lessen vulnerabilities brought on by climate change. In fact, the State consistently fails to meet its goals and fails in its role to prevent and safeguard residents and the environment. In specifically, this shows how French greenhouse gas emissions have risen since 2016, surpassing the yearly limitations established by decree on the national low-carbon plan for the period of 2015-2018. Similarly, fresh research indicates that the State will not be able to meet the goals set forth by France and Europe on the development of renewable energy sources and the reduction of energy consumption. In general, the State has not implemented a monitoring and assessment system for these actions, making it impossible to guarantee that its responsibilities are met.
Instead, it has postponed or refrained from taking action to eradicate or, at the absolute least, reduce the known risks and hazards associated with climate change. This circumstance exposes, if not the State's inability or delay in implementing the essential climate change mitigation measures, then at least the shortcomings or inadequacies of those that have been implemented. Here are the collective's legal justifications together with the stated harm to the environment and morality.
II. Legal arguments
A. The faults and deficiencies of the State in the fight against climate change
The responsibility of the Administration is engaged when it fails to fulfill one of its pre-existing obligations, or when it abstains from acting, even though it is required to do so. In this second case, its liability is engaged based on a culpable fault. Indeed, if public entities are free to choose the means to use to ensure compliance with their obligations, they are nevertheless required to achieve the result prescribed by these obligations. Failing this, they incur liability for fault. Applying these principles, briefly recalled, the administrative courts have, on several occasions, condemned the State for having failed to fulfill its obligations in matters of protection of public health or the environment (« Asbestos case » : CE Ass. ,3rd177
March 2004, Minister of Employment and Solidarity c/ Cts Bourdignon, request no. 241150; CE, 3rd March 2004, Minister of Employment and Solidarity c/ Cts Xueref, request no. 241153; CE, 3rd March 2004, Minister of Employment and Solidarity c/ Cts Thomas, request no. 241152; CE, 3rd March 2004, Minister of Employment and Solidarity c/ Botella, request no. 241151; « Case of contaminated blood »: CE Ass., 9th April 1993, request no. 138652; « Case of pollution by nitrates » : CAA of Nantes, 1st December 2009, Minister of State, Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea, request no. 07NT03775).
This being said, the State is, first of all, subject to a general obligation to fight against climate change, resulting from the Environmental Charter (1), the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms (2) and the general principle of law relating to the right of everyone to live in a sustainable climate system (3), which involves, in particular, taking measures intended to protect natural environments and, more broadly, adopting measures to limit and, if possible, eliminate the dangers linked to climate change.
- First, the obligation to fight against climate change finds its basis in the constitutional recognition of the right of everyone to live in a balanced environment that respects health, as recognized by article 1 of the Charter of the environment. The need to exercise environmental vigilance is thus found to have a concrete foundation in articles 1 and 2 of the Environmental Charter, which are placed on public authorities (Cons. const., 8th April 2011, Mr. Michel Z. and others [Neighborhood disturbances and environment], dec. no. 2011116 QPC, cons. 5; CE, 14th September 2011, M. R., req. number. 348394, Lebon). It is assumed that these authorities take all necessary precautions to avoid environmental harm and protect people's lives. Additionally, the content of this duty of vigilance suggests that the State takes all appropriate steps to recognize, prevent, mitigate, and make up for the impacts of climate change. In fact, the duty of vigilance must be interpreted to include not only the identification of environmental dangers associated with climate change, but also the State's commitment to take action to stop the emergence of these risks and, if necessary, eradicate them through the adoption of appropriate climate change mitigation measures. Thus, it is appropriate to take into account the burden on the State, both in light of everyone's right to live in a healthy, balanced environment and in light of its duty to exercise environmental vigilance, including the duty to put the necessary policies in place to successfully battle climate change.
- In light of the provisions of the European Convention for the Protection of Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as well as the case law of the European Court of Human Rights (UCHR), such an approach to the role of the State is thus required. In fact, based on the principles upheld by Articles 2 and 8 of the Convention, which establish, respectively, the "right to life" and the "right to respect for private and family life," the European Court holds that the state has affirmative responsibilities to preserve the environment in order to safeguard life, health, and private and family life. In order to safeguard people' life and health from environmental dangers, whether they are man-made or natural, the State must first construct a "legislative and regulatory framework aiming at effective prevention of damage to the environment and human health" (ECHR, 30 November 2004, Oneryildiz v. Turkey, case no. 48939/99; ECHR, 20 March 2008, Boudaïeva v. Russia, Case Nos. 15339/02, 21166/02, 20058/02, 11673/02, and 15343/02). According to many cases (ECHR, 30 November 2004, Oneryildiz v. Turkey, case number. 48939 /99, § 90; 27 January 2009, Tatar v. Romania, case no. 67021/01, § 88; 30 March 2010, Bacila v. Romania, case 19234/04, Section 61), the State is therefore required to take preventative practical actions to safeguard the individual whose life is threatened. Nonetheless, it is proven that the rights to life and to respect for one's private and family life, which are protected by the Convention, are globally, immediately, and directly threatened by climate change, along with various and substantial harm possibilities to these rights. Therefore, in order to successfully tackle climate change, states must adopt real steps and develop a legislative and regulatory framework.
- Lastly, the legal concept pertaining to the right to live in a climatic system that is sustainable serves as the foundation for the need to combat climate change. It is true that French law does not yet expressly acknowledge this broad idea. According to Professor René CHAPUS, however, it follows from "the necessities of the legal conscience of the moment and those of the Rule of law" and, like other general principles of law, it is in accordance with "the general state and the spirit of legislation".178 There are two layers to this legal understanding. It first appears in the linguistic acknowledgment of the interconnectedness between the struggle against climate change and the advancement of human communities in a sustainable manner. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions is therefore intended to ensure that present and future generations have a sustainable climate, or one that is favorable to the flourishing of human existence. This is the outcome of a number of internal texts, such as the preamble to the Environmental Charter and article L. 110-1 of the Environmental Code, as well as international texts, such as the Stockholm Declaration, World Charter for Nature, Rio Declaration, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Kyoto Protocol, Paris Agreement, 2020 Climate and Energy Package, and Decision No. 406/2009/EC of the European Parliament and the Council of April 23, 2009, among others, that support this idea. Thus, the struggle against climate change, which translates into a commitment to maintain a sustainable climatic system, necessitates that States undertake public policies aimed at ensuring an environment suitable to the sustainable development of human societies. This requirement stems from both international law and domestic law.
- Secondly, it is predicated on the clearly defined connection between the enjoyment of human rights and the persistence of a sustainable climate. A number of organizations, including the Human Rights Council, the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, the United Nations Human Rights Committee, the Conference of the Parties, and the United Nations Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, were the first to create such a connection on an international scale. Moreover, the legislation of the European Union acknowledges the connection between climatic sustainability and the protection of human rights. Ultimately, in recent times, a number of national courts—including the Pakistani Court, the Colombian Supreme Court, the District Court of Oslo, and the Court of Appeal in The Hague—have rendered decisions along these lines.
In the end, it seems that the battle against climate change is predicated on the assurance of a "sustainable climate," which is a prerequisite for the advancement of sustainable development and the fulfillment of human rights for both the present and the future generations. Administrative authorities are required by law to ensure that they observe this broad principle of law when exercising their functions. Second, the State is burdened with particular responsibilities in the battle against climate change.
These duties, which pertain to mitigating climate change, are derived from a combination of local and European Union legal provisions. They lead to quantifiable goals that are allocated to the State for producing renewable energy, enhancing energy efficiency, and lowering greenhouse gas emissions. These goals are further expressed in the obligation to carry out sectoral and cross-sectoral measures in order to achieve the designated goals. Next, the State must adapt to climate change by taking all required steps to lessen its effects' negative consequences, maximize its positive effects, and minimize its vulnerabilities at both the national and territorial levels.
If we look at the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, energy efficiency, and renewable energies, however, it is clear that France has not met its targets. Moreover, the suggestions, goals, and cross-cutting actions mentioned in the numerous legislative and regulatory instruments mentioned above have not been reevaluated, have not been executed properly, and have not been implemented at all. This is the specific way that French greenhouse gas emissions have risen since 2016, surpassing the annual limitations established by decree on the national low-carbon policy for the period of 2015-2018. Furthermore, fresh research indicates that the State will be unable to meet its targets for lowering energy use and advancing renewable energy sources. The European Commission delivered official notifications to France in 2015 and 2019 for failing to implement Directive 2012/27/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of October 25, 2012, pertaining to energy efficiency. These notices show that the State, in particular, delayed or abstained from taking the measures necessary to accomplish its objectives, particularly in terms of lowering energy consumption.
More generally, the administrative authorities have not fulfilled their legal obligations to implement the numerous action plans and programs that address climate change mitigation, the national plan for renewable energy, the national plan for energy and thermal refurbishment for existing buildings, multi-year energy programming, the national low carbon strategy, the national plan for adaptation to climate change, and so on. Regarding this, it is noteworthy that the government acknowledges that "France must redouble its national efforts to execute its public policies" and that "structural deficiencies [which] can be explained by a delay in recent years in the transport, building, and to a lesser extent construction sectors of agriculture" in the document titled "Action in favor of the climate of the French State," which was attached to its rejection decision on February 15, 2019. Similarly, in terms of adaptation, the first adaptation plan (PNACC1) was not implemented by the public authorities until 2011. The Paris Agreement, in particular, required revisions to this plan, which were made extremely late—in November 2018 (PNACC2)—in order to bring it into accordance with contemporary national and international norms.
Since the 2018 IPCC report explicitly declared that there is a climate emergency, this strategy does not, as of now, qualify as a response measure. Every one of these outcomes shows that the State has violated its broad duty to fight climate change while also indicating a lack of knowledge of its particular responsibilities. The State may already be held liable for this circumstance if it represents a fault on its part. It provides more evidence of the State's incompetence in combating climate change, which may be seen from two perspectives. First, despite the fact that the risks and hazards associated with climate change are well-established, the State has resisted taking action to reduce or eliminate them. It has also failed to put in place the required monitoring systems to fulfill its commitments. Therefore, the State's guilty failure to perform its task of vigilance in the fight against climate change may be characterized by the double observation of the danger that the increasing levels of greenhouse gas emissions represent to the environment, human life, and health, as well as the blatant inadequacy of the monitoring mechanisms put in place to assess the appropriateness of the measures put in place to minimize these emissions. Subsequently, the administrative authorities' suggested actions show inadequate to guarantee the implementation of the legal and regulatory framework meant to tackle climate change. And with good reason : if not the insufficiency of the action plans, strategies, and programs set by the regulatory power, then at least the latter's incapacity to implement them, is sufficiently demonstrated by the observation of the rise in greenhouse gas emissions, or at the at least, their absence of decrease.
In the end, it seems that the regulatory body has not taken the appropriate action to fulfill the duty placed upon it by the national and European legislatures to address climate change. This position indicates that the State has failed to carry out its specialized and general responsibilities in the battle against climate change, which might result in responsibility.
B. About moral damage
An environmental protection association or foundation may claim moral damage in the event that the collective rights and interests it defends are violated; this is well-established case law (CE, Sect., 18 May 1979, Association judaaique Saint- Seurin, Rec. p. 218; CE, 19 February 1982, Saint-Paul neighborhood defense committee, request No. 09899, Rec. T. p. 746; CAA of Nantes, 1 December 2009, Minister of State, Minister of Ecology, Energy, Sustainable Development and the Sea c/Association « Halte aux tides vertes » and others, request no. 07NT0377). The foundation's and associations' laws offer provisions for the battle against climate change, environmental preservation, and, more generally, the defense of basic rights. Nonetheless, the errors made by the government in combating climate change hurt the group interests that the groups and foundation are fighting for since they stand in the way of achieving their social goals. As a result, these flaws undermine the environmental protection activities undertaken by the groups and the foundation, which include planning conferences, exhibits, or other events, publishing media reports and communications, or organizing fieldwork and advocacy campaigns aimed at raising public authorities' and citizens' awareness of the urgency of the climate emergency. In these circumstances, the organizations and the foundation are entitled to reimbursement for the moral harm they have endured as a result of the State's noncompliance with its general and particular climate change commitments.
They are therefore legitimate in their demand for payment of one euro.
C. About ecological damage
According to Article 1247 of the France Civil Code, "under the criteria stipulated in this title, ecological harm consisting of a non-negligible damage to the elements or functions of ecosystems or to the collective benefits gained by man from the environment is reparable." surroundings ». According to the same rule, "everyone responsible for ecological harm is expected to remedy it," according to Article 1246. Article 1249 stipulates that "reparation for ecological harm is carried out by priority in kind" and that "the judge condemns the person responsible to pay damages, allocated to repairing the environment, to the plaintiff or, if the latter cannot take suitable steps for this purpose, to the State in the case of legal or factual inability or insufficiency of the reparation measures." Lastly, article 1252 states that the court "may prescribe appropriate steps to avoid or put a stop to the harm, following receipt of a request to this effect [...], irrespective of payment for ecological damage." Within this framework, environmental harm is considered objective harm, independent of any psychological effects.
Thus, environmental harm is directly caused by climate change. Two cumulative requirements must be met for it to be classified as such: first, it must be a "negligible" attack; second, it must be an attack "on the elements or functions of ecosystems or on the collective benefits gained by man from the environment." In this instance, it is proven that the rise in greenhouse gas emissions associated with climate change, relative to pre-industrial levels, harms ecosystems and the environment in general as well as the advantages that humans gain from them collectively, especially with regard to food security and health. Thus, environmental harm is directly caused by climate change. It is inevitable, therefore, that the State's missteps and inadequacies in the battle against climate change exacerbate the phenomenon, as they are the source of an excess of greenhouse gas emissions that hinder it from meeting the emission reduction targets established by both national and international law. Stated differently, certain ecological harm is produced by the State's mistakes in combating climate change, which are directly responsible for harm to the environment and public health.
Thus, it is reasonable for the groups and the foundation to request payment for this ecological harm or, at the absolute least, to request that the judge order the appropriate steps to stop it and stop the harm from getting worse. The European Court of Human Rights reaffirmed the following details pertaining to the French Public Prosecutor in the ruling « France Moulin vs the French State »179: In accordance with consistent case law, « independence with regard to the executive counts, in the same manner as impartiality, among the protections inherent to the autonomous idea of magistrate » within the sense of Article 5 § 3 ECHR. Members of the public prosecutor's office in France do not fulfill this condition.
Thus, these rulings attest to the challenge of achieving judicial advancement on a nationwide scale.180
III. Environmental defense: the role and operation of international jurisdictions
It is mainly two judicial bodies that citizens refer to within Europe : The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) and the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR).
A. The Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)
The European Union has seven institutions, one of which is the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). The CJEU, which has 11 advocates general and 27 judges—one for each member state—meets in Luxembourg. The institution also consists of a second jurisdiction, the Tribunal, which hears cases in particular instances and is made up of two judges each Member State.181
The CJEU guarantees the correct application of EU law. It settles legal conflicts between institutions and member nations as well. Should a national judge believe that a matter partially comes within Union law and for which he is accountable in his own country, he may submit a question to the CJEU. The Court of Justice of the European Union was established in 1952 with the goal of ensuring "respect for the law in the interpretation and execution" of the treaties. As part of its mandate, the Court of Justice of the European Union upholds the legitimacy of actions taken by EU institutions, guarantees that Member States abide by treaty-related duties, and provides legal interpretations of Union legislation upon request from national judges. This makes it the European Union's judicial branch, which works with the nation's courts to guarantee that Union legislation is applied and interpreted consistently. Two courts make up the Court of Justice of the European Union, which was founded in 1988 and has its headquarters in Luxembourg, and the General Court. Established in 2004, the Civil Service Tribunal came to an end on 1st September 2016, when its authority was transferred to the General Court as part of the Union's judicial reform.
The Court of Justice of the European Union is a multilingual organization, with each Member State having its own language and unique legal system. Given that every official language of the Union may also be a procedural language, its linguistic regime is unmatched by any other legal system in the world. The requirement to guarantee that its case-law is disseminated throughout the Member States and to interact with the parties in the language of the trial really obliges the Court to uphold complete multilingualism.
B. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR)
The judicial branch of the Council of Europe is the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In order to further democracy, human rights, and peace throughout the continent, the Council of Europe is an international organization that was established in 1949. Including the 27 EU nations, it has 46 members. The European Court of Human Rights is a Strasbourg-based court with the same number of judges. The « European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms » (also known as the « European Convention on Human Rights ») has been enforced since 1959 by the ECHR. Several important ideals, like the freedom of speech, the prohibition on torture, and the right to a fair trial, are safeguarded by this treaty. It has been enhanced throughout time as new standards have been adopted, adding several new rights to the original wording. These include things like the right to free elections, property protection, and the repeal of the death sentence. The two courts' rulings have different scopes. Even if the member nations have agreed to abide by the rulings that affect them, an ECHR ruling is primarily declarative. On the other hand, a ruling made by the CJEU is legally binding and may result in fines.182
The European Court of Human Rights website lists all of the ongoing processes.183 184
C. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
Established in June 1945 by the United Nations Charter, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the chief judicial instrument of the United Nations (UN), with its headquarters located in The Hague (Netherlands).185 Three categories of competence apply to the ICJ :
- It can resolve disagreements over the application of international law between States or between States and international bodies. As a result, the Court must often make decisions on border conflicts, aviation mishaps, or issues pertaining to global judicial cooperation. It is essential to remember that its jurisdiction over disputed matters is discretionary, meaning that the States parties to the dispute must consent for it to exist. Certain States (but not France) have agreed to a compulsory jurisdiction clause that gives the ICJ automatic jurisdiction over any dispute between them in order to avoid the ambiguities associated with this norm.
- Additionally, UN agencies are able to get in touch with it to seek its advice on legal matters. The Court's rulings, however, have only moral power and are not legally binding. Lastly, it is in charge of reviewing the rulings issued by the International Labor Organization's administrative tribunal, which consists of seven judges and has reviewed cases pertaining to the status of foreign public servants since 1947. The parties are then required to abide by the ruling rendered by the ICJ.
D. The use of international law to protect citizens.
International conventions and European directives must be separated in order for a European citizen to make use of them. For this reason, the administrative judge cannot call upon the terms of international treaties that do not have direct application. If these laws are self-executing and grant rights to persons, they will be deemed to have immediate effect. International environmental accords thus have very few clauses that are directly applicable. Hence, the majority of them are not admissible in court. The criteria of the Court of Justice of the European Union have been increasingly incorporated into French case law with respect to directives from Europe. All States were compelled to comply, it must be acknowledged. Thus, there is a broad scope for using European directives. Six young Portuguese citizens filed a case before the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) on 27th September 2023, accusing 32 nations of not going far enough in controlling their emissions of pollutants. These people are pleading with the 27 member states of the European Union (EU), England, Norway, Switzerland, Russia, and Turkey, among others, to refrain from limiting their emissions of greenhouse gases, which contribute to global warming and have an impact on life as we know it. The 2017 fires that destroyed tens of thousands of hectares in Portugal's Leira area and claimed more than 100 lives shocked these residents. An incident that made them demand responsibility from the government. However, approximately 3,000 such surgeries have been performed globally. The UN really reports that the global GDP shrank in 2023, albeit not as dramatically as expected; that the world economy is in risk of experiencing sustained below- average growth; that inflation is remains persistently high; that the labor markets of many wealthy countries have remained strong, with low unemployment rates and frequent labor shortages; and that there has been a global monetary tightening that has made the fiscal vulnerabilities and debt in poor countries worse.186 Citizens are therefore forced by all of these uncertainties, inequalities, and unfairness to seek recourse from many jurisdictions in order to safeguard their rights.
A member of the European Union, the Netherlands was forced to reduce its emissions as a result of the 2013 "Urgenda" case. Six years later, the Dutch Supreme Court finally ordered the government to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 25% by the end of 2020. Dutch courts ordered the Anglo-Dutch oil firm Shell in 2021 to reduce its net CO2 emissions from 2019 by 45% by the end of 2030. A first for the world. Therefore, "Milieudefensie," the Dutch branch of the international group « Friends of the Earth », which launched a lawsuit in 2019, won the case at the Hague court. Still, the oil magnate gave a call.
E. Global awareness of citizens
A number of cases specifically aim to stop projects that are seen to be harmful to the climate, with varying degrees of success. Within the context of climate justice, a new phenomenon is emerging: « greenwashing » techniques, which take aim at large corporations or organizations—such as FIFA, the Olympic Games, and other sporting events—for deceptive marketing. The United States, the largest economy in the world and historically the largest emitter of greenhouse gases, is seeing a rise in climate justice lawsuits. The Sabin Center for Climate Change Law's database has more than 1,600 examples.187 The most prominent case that has affected the country is the first-ever climate change-related constitutional litigation in American history. 2020 saw the filing of a lawsuit by ten or so young people in Montana, ages five to twenty-two, who claimed that the government had violated their constitutional right to a « clean and healthy environment » by encouraging the use of fossil fuels. Allegations made by the plaintiffs were limited to their government seizing its constitutional duty to mitigate the harm caused by its own actions. They did not ask for payment in exchange. In August of 2023, a court made a decision that supported the cause of these young individuals. More recently also, in June 2023, Multnomah County, Oregon, which is in the northwest of the nation, launched a lawsuit against many multinational oil corporations. This county is suing ExxonMobil, Shell, Chevron, BP, ConocoPhillips, and Total Specialties USA for allegedly being involved in the catastrophic « heat dome » disaster of 2021, alleging damages of over $51 billion. The McKinsey firm and the American Petroleum Institute are also targets. Justice has also been served in Asia, like in the case of a Pakistani farmer, Asghar Leghari, in Pakistan.188 He chastised his government in 2015 for failing to implement the National Policy on Climate Change, which had been established the year before and was meant to be in effect until 2030. He then appeared in court to protect against global warming the rights to property, information, human dignity, and life.
Later that year, the courts concurred with him and found that the Pakistani executive's "delay and lethargy" in carrying out the National Policy had infringed the people' rights. As a result, the court gives specific ministries instructions to provide a list of measures that will be carried out in the upcoming months. It was also decided to establish a Commission on Climate Change, which would track advancements in this field and include of professionals, NGOs, and ministries. However, Pakistan, one of the most polluted nations in the world, has not significantly altered its climate policy as a result of this triumph for environmental activists. Extremely susceptible to climate change, it experiences frequent natural calamities. This demonstrates the emergence of civic consciousness.
All of the current procedures were developed by the University of Columbia in New
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Section 2: The role that charitable groups have played in breaking state stagnation
A fundamental idea to have in mind is that the foundations of every civilization are empathy, fraternity, solidarity, and mutual aid. Given that it is true in both the richest and poorest countries on the earth, this is very pertinent. Giving food aid to people who are most in need has been very popular in the last several years. Its shape has evolved throughout time. To understand food aid to the poorest, we must first determine if this is a new kind of help pushed by a government looking to deflect criticism or, at the at least, to provide food to as many people as possible, or whether it is a practice deeply embedded in the ideology of the welfare state. The first known food relief techniques are from Greece and Ancient Rome.191 In particular, via avarice, which allows a well-known and rich individual to engage in patronage by contributing to the costs of public facilities that the city needs to function properly, food aid during famines, or even the expansion of the city.
Evergetism first appeared in the second century BC and gave them access to citizenship, honorary military rank, political power, and even the ability to construct a stele bearing their donor's name.
I. Throughout Antiquity
A. In ancient Greece, relief was institutionalized
The first nation to get food help will be Greece.192 Evergetism was therefore recognized as the historical pioneer of food aid. In response to the frequent food crises, the Greeks of the classical and Hellenistic eras (6th to 1st century BC) were forced to rely entirely on themselves. Once the Greek State was established and matured, its concerns went beyond aiding the most defenseless citizens. The Greeks organized themselves in this way since there were no established laws or institutions. All control over the city's food supply and administration of food products was handed to private merchants and landowners; the state only became involved to regulate market prices and restrict trade freedom when necessary.
Even if evergetism was a recognized profession, most of the time, individuals relied more on their families' or their communities' solidarity during times of food shortage than they did on the government.
B. In the direction of institutionalizing aid in Rome
But food assistance takes on a different form when we look at a later period, especially under the Byzantine or Roman Empires. Currently, supply management cannot coexist with exclusively private endeavors. The royal services use an entity called an annone to manage food. The giveaways appear to have been planned and funded by many governments. Thus, the Patrician Senate fiercely opposed a range of populist agrarian and land reforms proposed by the Gracchi brothers, Tiberius and Gaius, in the 130s and 120s BC. Still, the brothers Tiberius and Gaius tried to pass a law dividing up large aristocratic estates among the common people. The plebeians were a large group of free Roman citizens who belonged to the lowest social strata, in contrast to the patricians, who stood for a few of families from the ruling elite of ancient Rome. Sadly, both brothers were assassinated by mob violence during political impasses. However, after many laws were approved, a common food management concept was developed that called for free wheat delivery. This gift is offered to Publius Clodius Pulcher, the tribune (93-52 BC). He arranged for low-income households to get free deliveries of wheat. Thus, in - 73 BC, around 12% of the population benefitted from free help. Approximately 320,000 individuals in Rome benefited from this kindness in the years 62 and 58. When Emperor Augustus legally restricted the number of recipients to 200,000, a numerus clausus was created. Nonetheless, the estimated 670,000 individuals were indirectly impacted by the wheat distributions, and because 30% of that population is believed to be enslaved, that number approaches one million.193
Of the 150,000 tons of wheat needed annually for human use, 80,000 tons were supplied by the government. This indicated that around 50% of the public was covered. Once in place, the system would last until the fall of the Roman Empire. If the Empire sets up free gifts, the first thing we ask ourselves is who will receive it. Were they poor people? Insightfully expressed by Alain Clément, we also have to acknowledge the truth of this circumstance. One should not consider the news to be a redistribution.194 There was a difference between theoretical right holders and practical beneficiaries because of the existence of a numerus clausus; the former might get aid as soon as a place opened up. To benefit from the Annone, one needed to be a regular citizen, a city dweller, emancipated or of free birth, and registered on the waiting list records. The main beneficiaries were chosen based on criteria unrelated to poverty. Citizenship was therefore one of the decisive elements. The criteria used for selection in the Byzantine Empire were more directly related to property rank. The annone, which was distributed to the male population, satisfied the urgent needs of around 25% of Rome's entire population. For the daily meals, about 1.1 kg of wheat were supplied. Distribution took place according to tiers in both the Byzantine and Roman eras. However, they encountered resistance to their efforts, chiefly from Publius's powerful opponent Clodius Pulcher. In actuality, Cicero thought that the Plebe people would benefit more from employment than from charity, and that the food handouts qualified as aid.
That's why this type of intriguing current debate has always existed.
II. During the Middle Ages
Throughout the Middle Ages, the Church played a major role. Beginning in the eleventh century, it became clear that funding food aid would be beneficial because it was intended for the most vulnerable segments of society. Being a naturally altruistic institution, the Catholic Church will be able to organize philanthropic activities throughout France thanks to its supremacy, notably large-scale food distributions. Hospitals and the church have collaborated on these selfless projects since the 12th century. These supplies can help soldiers wounded during the Crusades (1095-1191) and those who are weak from serious illnesses such as the plague, flu, diphtheria, dysentery, TB, and even cholera.195 During the Middle Ages, we can observe the emergence of a redistribution technique that is more extensive, well-targeted, and well-supervised than it was in antiquity.
However, there will be an increase in poverty and inequality.
III. During the Renaissance
Contrary to popular belief, poverty did not go down throughout the Renaissance. One the one hand, the sharp rise in population is not being matched by an increase in agricultural output. Price hikes are unavoidable due to the stagnating output of meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, and cereals. Nevertheless, the fact that growing expenses won't be offset by rising revenues is what will ultimately decide how much poverty increases over this period. As more and more traders and merchants enter the market, farmers and small producers lose out. It is the beginning of the sector's slow and agonizing descent into poverty in agriculture. This phenomenon draws the most impoverished individuals to the cities along with the homeless, beggars, and vagrants. In the seventeenth century, almost forty percent of the population in France, the Netherlands, and England lived in poverty.196 This period will see the recognition of two societal phenomena. The rise of secularism, which has diminished the power of the church. And the Monarch's acts, which are limited to maintaining the position of a plain economic and trade regulator without utilizing hasty interventionism.
Nonetheless, something had to be done because of the acute hunger and poverty. Hospitals and charitable establishments (called « Workhouses » in England, « Tuchthuys » in Belgium, « Bridewels » in Holland, etc.) were taken over all across Europe in order to provide employment for the underprivileged. Simultaneously with the rise in poverty, the Monarch imposed stringent security measures, such banning begging, to preserve public order. This is the moment for better organization in the aim of helping the truly needy.
IV. In the 18th century, with the Lumières movement and the French Revolution
Regarding the Lumières movement and the French Revolution (18th century) The 18th century saw the emergence in France of the idea of the impoverished worker, and several laws governed this state of affairs. As such, it is a whole way of thinking that will be used moving forward. Help for the poor thereby becomes part of the country's debt. With the declaration that « society owes all its members sustenance or employment », the right to labor superseded the almsgiving right during the French Revolution. The coercive component was not completely ignored, either. This resulted in the 1791 legislation that promoted domestic help in France.197 198 The phenomenon known as philanthropy—an ancient Greek term that means literally « love of humanity »—will be honored at this period. This concept demonstrates kindness, sensitivity, and general interest. The institutions of the French Republic will also be significantly impacted by this phenomenon. The French Revolution was based on three main ideas: property, equality, and liberty. In actuality, the concept of « fraternity » started to function as « property » in 1848199 200. The most disadvantaged people will get employment, food drives, and philanthropic activities funded by the government. But it is the beneficiaries who will see this system through to completion. Thus, it is a consistent tendency throughout Europe, as seen in England in 1782 with the enactment of « Le Gilbert's act », which allows the building of « poor houses » for the elderly, infirm, and crippled, and in France in 1780 with the formation of the Philanthropic Society of Paris. Relief funds, hospitals, and dispensaries flourished along with public involvement on a local and national level. Contributions from socially conscious subscribers support charitable organizations in promoting societal change. Right now, the rise of charity schools and the SPCK Society (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge) are at their highest points.201 202 Additionally, during this period three large hospitals were founded: St George's in 1733, The London in 1740, and The Middlesex in 1745. Aiding with food is obviously not the only option. In 1795, Thomas Bernard, Wilberforce, and Barrington created the Society for Bettering the Conditions and Improving the Comforts of the Poor (SBCP), and among their proposals was a soup kitchen system. In the 1790s, Patrick Colquhoun's idea for a soup kitchen received backing from a number of prominent Londoners. Following in the footsteps of Jeremy Bentham, Patrick Colquhoun (1745-1820) was a roaming wanderer and merchant before turning to writing, the legal profession, and eventually philanthropy. One of the main forerunners of the century-ending "meat and soup charity" was him. He is a pioneer of culinary aids. He was the impetus behind the creation of three homes where the poor were fed soup and a school for the disadvantaged in Westminster, a neighborhood in central London near Buckingham Palace. His understanding of the working class incorporates both pragmatic and ethical considerations.
« A person who lacks a reserve labor force, or who, to put it another way, has no other resources for goods or means of sustenance than those obtained from working continually at a variety of occupations, is said to be in a condition of poverty. Therefore, poverty is the most fundamental and vital aspect of society since without it, towns, nations, and cultures could not continue to exist at the current level of civilization. This is humanity's destiny. It is the wellspring of riches because without poverty, there would be no jobs, which implies that there would be no goods, extravagance, comforts, or profits for the wealthy ».203
The premise of Patrick Colquhoun's political and moral philosophy is that « wealth is derived from injustice ».204 The principles of kindness and selflessness have allowed innumerable autonomous charitable organizations to serve as the cornerstone of civil society since the 18th century.205 These constructions were often the product of the inertia of leaders and governors. But let's be honest, there are times when they help and motivate us to leave it. French philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau summed it up simply in his 1762 work « The Social Contract ». Therefore, in his writings, Rousseau asks that Man go from the state of nature to the state of society. In other words, as a result of this transformation, or even this mutation, it creates a social order in the service of the common good. According to Rousseau's suggested social contract, each person must give up all of their special rights or their strongest ones in order to receive the equality of rights provided by society. Each and every State subject is alienated by this agreement that promises equality to everyone. In "Book I, Chapter 6" of his book, he states as follows: « The stipulations of the social compact are all reduced to one : the absolute alienation of each associate with all of his rights to the whole community. This is because, first of all, everyone puts forth their best effort, which equalizes everyone's standing and removes any motivation for burdening others ». The legitimacy of the social compact arises from man's recognition that the social agreement is a necessary condition for the maintenance of his inherent rights, rather than really alienating (by gift or exchange). Rousseau agrees that the basis of a « just » social organization is a contract that guarantees equality and freedom to every member of the society. This agreement is a contract to which all of the citizens collectively are parties. Because he was a visionary, Rousseau asserts that giving up one's natural freedom is necessary to attain civic freedom. Therefore, each person's contribution to the common good is a prerequisite for the inclusion of the destitute into the population. In the end, it comes down to advancing a self-reliant and thoughtful morality. Rousseau contends that the social contract is necessary when the needs of each individual surpass what each man can do to maintain them independently. To live, they must form a group and « act in harmony ».
One essential component of the social contract is « the utter alienation of each associate with all his rights to the entire community ». The social contract is summed up as follows: « Each of us submits his self and all his strength under the supreme direction of the common will; and we welcome each member as an indivisible component of the total ». This has several implications: everyone devotes themselves to it equally and fully; no one want to see it treated unfairly since it directly impacts them; and ultimately, « everyone who provides himself to everyone gives himself to no one ». This union gives rise to a moral and social body that the Roman Empire refers to as a republic or political body (a « city »). « Power in contrast to his peers, Sovereign when it is active, and State when it is passive » is how its members describe this body. « Subjects as subject to the regulations of the State, Citizens as participants in the sovereign authority » is how people refer to one another when they are citizens. Without accepting responsibility, Rousseau was a liberal who upheld the rights to private property and individual freedom.
His ideas were intricate and fascinatingly prophetic of the 19th and 20th centuries to come.
V. Towards the contemporary period
It stopped providing aid to the poorest people in the 19th century. Moreover, by 1890, just 2.6% of the population, or 757,000 individuals, were getting aid to make up for their lack of resources. The focus was mostly on disabilities rather than overall poverty. The whole population consisted of just 19,000 physically fit men and women who provided assistance for 159,000 people, or 0.5% of the total. The figures are unmistakable: at the end of the 1800s, just 25% of the excluded were receiving aid. In 1889, despite severe poverty in the countryside, every Englishman was transferring the equivalent of 28 kg of bread a year, most of it to the urban population, especially in London. Concurrently, the tax burden on taxpayers dropped.206 The force of charity was once again linked to a strategy of social insurance and solidarity, even if the early 19th century demonstrated a lack of State engagement in food donations. Christian fraternity and revolutionary together. It is the establishment of the institutions of a modern society (insurance, mutual insurance, free medical care, assistance for the elderly and frail, and assistance for the sick). These days, the idea is more economic than moral: each individual must make a contribution to society, and solidarity must be the cornerstone. The State will then acknowledge assistance as a right: unemployment, old age, and disability are important causes of poverty that need the implementation of provident and preventive programs. For anyone over seventy, the first set of provisions (the Old Age Pension Act of 1908) will be applicable.
There will be a deliberate approach to these activities.207
VI. Consecration of State interventionism and liberation of food aid in the 20th century
Only throughout the 20th century did the state exhibit interventionist tendencies. In fact, the majority of States allocate at least 20% of their GDP (gross national product) to social expenditures aimed at combating poverty. Despite this, charity organizations and foundations have persisted in completing the gaps left by states. The idea of "association" has been made possible by international law. Many international agreements currently describe and safeguard the right to freedom of association.
J The right to freely associate was established by the United Nations General Assembly in the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights; The right of assembly and association was guaranteed by the European Convention on Human Rights in 1950;
J The freedom of association was protected by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1966;
- The African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, which was adopted in 1981, upheld the freedom of association and denounced any mandatory associative membership as a breach of this basic right that is contingent upon solidarity;
- Minors' right of association was guaranteed by the International Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990;
- All mandatory associative membership was denounced by the European Court of Human Rights in 1999 as being against the European Convention on Human Rights.
As a result, associations act as a vital middleman between contributors and receivers.
While some organizations focused on poverty and nutrition, others shifted their focus to help and food contributions, maintaining their generalist goal even as new groups geared themselves toward disaster relief.
CHAPTER 2: TOWARDS A ZERO-WASTE, MORE RESPONSIBLE AND MATURE SOCIETY
Section 1: Innovative and inspiring public policies
I. Aiming for a city with zero food waste
By 2050, almost 80% of the world's food will be consumed in cities, which will house 66% of the world's people.208 Simultaneously, and according to our research, 1.3 billion tons, or one-third, of the food produced for human consumption is lost or squandered annually. The land, water, and energy required for their production are not included in this number. However, cities have the key to releasing the potential to enhance lives, public health, and the environment in addition to meeting this expanding demand. Under the Paris Agreement, nations can use a variety of dividend-intensive measures to address food loss and waste by implementing circular activities.209 Bio-waste recycling into electricity has also begun in several localities. With more and more towns getting started, it appears that bio-waste recycling is going well. Whether by bike, as in Strasbourg, or through city services that offer composters or recovery bins, like in Clermont-Ferrand or Montpellier. Local governments in France will have to establish up biowaste source sorting for private citizens as part of the public waste management service as of 1st January 2024.210 The law pertaining to the battle against waste and the circular economy (AGEC law) and the European Framework Directive on waste are followed by this.211
But in this regard, France still trails behind nations such as Austria, where over 80% of the population benefits from separate organic waste collection, making Austria the top European nation in terms of the amount of composted garbage produced annually per resident (175 kg) as opposed to 87 kg in France.212
By utilizing a variety of local, regional, and international providers, cities may boost their food security and become more resilient to shocks from the outside world. Reduced food waste stemming from ineffective storage and transportation methods, superfluous plastic packaging, and related distribution expenses may all be mitigated via shorter food supply chains. Additionally, it benefits the populace as a whole as locally grown, fresh food promotes a balanced diet and overall wellbeing. Many major cities around the world are already trying to improve their urban food systems under the 2019 Milan Urban Food Policy Pact. During this international conference, many mayors committed to developing sustainable and resilient food systems, to guaranteeing healthy and accessible food for all, to preserving biodiversity and reducing food waste. 199 cities have signed the Milan Urban Food Policy Pact (MUFPP) which carries these objectives through 6 axes and 37 recommended actions.213 An international pact bringing together 210 cities and covering more than 450 million people. The world is becoming global thanks to local elected officials who work for a common general interest. In their own unique ways, other cities are also at work. For example, the American city of San Francisco is now regarded as a global model for zero-waste cities.214
Today, the city receives 80% of its garbage recycled because to strong environmental rules, such as the installation of distinct recycling bins, awareness-raising campaigns, and penalties for irresponsible ecological behavior. Cities may act as both defenders and facilitators of urban agriculture by establishing policies that support it, leasing out unused municipal property for agricultural purposes, and launching initiatives in this regard. Urban planning rules, initiatives supporting urban agriculture, and the availability of vacant municipal land for agricultural leases are just a few ways that cities may act as both defenders and facilitators of urban agriculture. Consider the municipality of Courbevoie, which developed a « farm 2.0 » that enables the start-up « Agricool » to grow high-quality strawberries year-round without the use of pesticides and with up to 90% less water usage than a traditional operation.215 The agricultural heritage of many migrants from the countryside helps cities improve their food security in the poorest countries. Zambia's main and largest city, Lusaka, is home to more than half of its population who grow their own food. On the other hand, many urban households grow animals, particularly chickens, dairy cows, and sheep, in the major towns of Yaounde, Cameroon, and Kampala, the biggest and capital of Uganda.
Nonetheless, land preservation is still a significant issue and urban agriculture is not included by formal urban planning plans in a number of African nations. On the other hand, there exist several African leaders and activists that are extremely dedicated, like Madame Coumba Dieng Sow.216 In 2018, this Senegalese activist started the FAO program « One million tanks for the Sahel».217 The Sahelian strip that runs from Senegal to Sudan via Mali and Burkina Faso, and from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. The goal of the Coumba Dieng Sow project was to make water more accessible to rural areas that are vulnerable to climate change. It draws inspiration from the Fome Zero program's impact in Brazil.218 The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) estimates that food loss and waste cost $1 trillion annually. By reducing this sum, governments and small enterprises might earn more cash.219 By turning garbage into natural fertilizers, high-value goods, or sustainable agriculture products, some of this financial loss might be made up. Using sink grinders, a number of American towns crush food wastes into a slurry that is then used as biogas to power water treatment facilities and buses. A creative example in Cotonou, the capital of Benin, is « Sweet Benin », which collaborates with Techno Serve to turn cashew nut harvest waste into a new beverage sector and assist cashew nut growers in making extra money outside of harvest seasons.220 This substantial waste stream may be recycled into components and products that are palatable, safe, and healthful and can be widely disseminated. In order to figure out how to recover and "upcycle" food or « trash » into other processes that provide value, we can better comprehend the path taken by these streams of data. Online markets were used by several cities, including those in China and Russia, to link smallholders with customers during the Covid-19 health crisis and to distribute food as food supply networks collapsed.221 Cities may monitor the nutritional and environmental benefits of their food loss and waste reduction initiatives with the use of tools such as the Food Loss and Waste Value Calculator.
It is consequently important that humanity innovate, adapt, and reinvent itself in light of the problems and difficulties that lie ahead.
II. Courbevoie city in France: a model city in the fight against food waste
The city of Courbevoie has shown to be inventive and resourceful in its efforts to combat food waste.222 Thus, starting in 2020 and lasting six years, Jacques Kossowski, the city's mayor, launched a campaign to end food waste. In France, an elected municipal official's term is six years. Thus, the goal was to turn this metropolis into a global laboratory. First and foremost, we had to make an initial observation. The 11th February 2016, rule in France prohibiting food waste is limited to stores larger than 400 square meters. Since the law is responsible for the distribution of over 10 million meals annually, its positive impacts were felt right away. A 22% rise in food contributions meant for nonprofit organizations. And everyone in the world applauded this law. However, at the local level, we had to go considerably farther. As a matter of fact, two thirds of the thirty-one supermarkets located in Courbevoie are exempt from the legal duty since their sales area is smaller than 400 m[2]. Therefore, it was decided that, with the assistance of several start-ups and social and economic stakeholders, a charter against food waste would be put to a vote annually in all spheres of the city's operations:
- 2020 with all supermarkets located in the city without area delimitation
- 2021 with hospital catering
- 2022 with school catering
- 2023 with food businesses (restaurants, bakeries, markets)
- 2024 with retirement homes
These commitment charters, which are a first in France, have a triple objective:
- Create synergies so that everyone can take part in this fight and adapt its practices
- Participate in raising awareness among the general public about the fight against waste eating
- Help reduce the economic impact of this waste
- Establish food donation partnerships in favor of associations in accordance with the law
- Promote partnerships with city associations
- Run « anti-waste » promotions, particularly for products close to the DLC
- Offer sales in bulk or individually in order to adapt the quantities purchased, and reduce packaging
- Promote the development of fresh products, and develop marketing operations awareness-raising (for example: « Ugly Fruits and Vegetables » operation, etc.)
- Conduct a discussion with suppliers in order to define a control strategy against food waste (quality charters for products, etc.)
- Take action to recover waste.
Furthermore, on 24th October 2022, the city of Courbevoie, represented by its mayor, Jacques Kossowski, and his deputy mayor, Arash Derambarsh, arranged a working meeting in the National Assembly with the aim of proposing an amendment to the French legislation against food waste. Deputies Karl Olive and Philippe Juvin were present at the meeting.223 The proposal was straightforward: amend the statute that was enacted on 3rd February 2016, and issued on 11th February 2016.224 The city of Courbevoie specifically suggested the following fixes:
- Reducing the current 400 m2 barrier for applying the legislation to food enterprises to at least 100 m2 in order to include over 5,000 more points of sale.
- Increase the penalties for enterprises that discard food from 10,000 euros to 20,000 euros, replacing the current 5th class fine of 10,000 euros.
- If someone deems their unsold goods unsafe for eating, they will be fined twice as much.
Finally, the FAO designated Courbevoie as a “global Green City” in 2024, granting it formal recognition.
Section 2: Aspiring ideas to prevent food waste
I. A behavioral and cultural evolution in food consumption
As we have observed, times have allowed human beings and States to modify their behavior and their way of acting. Some adapt, some reject and others suffer. Humans are living shorter lives due to the speed at which time is passing. This is a serious issue that makes us reflect on our connection with food. However, it is essential to link the imperatives of our time, seeing the future with the means to meet our needs to live or survive. The French and world- renowned starred chef, Thierry MARX, gave an interesting analysis of the future issues concerning food. Thus, according to him, “ among the most important issues, in addition to the question of connected objects, there is the problem of water shortage. This means that we will be forced to make our diet more and more plant based. To produce one ox, you need 14,000 liters of water. In these conditions, should we continue to do mass breeding or stop eating meat, or at least reduce its consumption? Tomorrow there will have to be much less animal protein on our plates. We have already started this, and I think that the next ten years will move in the direction of this 80/20 law - 80% plant-based, 20% animal protein. Today, there are great advances in the use of vegetable proteins: for example, we can make mayonnaise with chickpea cooking juice, simply emulsify it, it has the same protein content as 'an egg albumin. Faced with water shortages, we will also need to be able to collect it elsewhere. This is why we are working, for example, on the use of tomato waste. Unsold tomatoes can represent up to 30 tonnes and consist of 25% water. If we know how to recover it, we can reinject it into crops... We try not to lose anything and to produce as little waste as possible. It's just a matter of common sense, and common sense often comes from survival. We are also considering technical advances in terms of containers: getting rid of PVC, for example by working on plant membranes inspired by grapes or tomatoes, according to the principle of biomimicry. Today, in the laboratory, we are able to produce a completely natural membrane, which can be edible or biodegradable. The more society modernizes, the more anxiety-provoking the world becomes, the more we want to return to nature, to a form of naturalness. We saw things completely reversedfrom the 2000s and the desire to “see the hand that feeds me”, to know where the products come from. As there has been a loss of confidence in terms offood, and we know that it is part of our survival, we return to this naturalness, we try to understand the root of things. Eating in 2050 will mean eating less but eating better, if we want to continue to eat healthy. From Greek Antiquity to Auguste Escoffier at the start of the 20th century, food has always been governed by a balance between three axes: pleasure, well-being and health. After the Second World War, things took a turn for the worse. We have reached overconsumption, soil exhaustion and a lack of knowledge of what we eat. Today, there is a public health risk that forces everyone to say: no, we don't want to die right away, we want to take things in hand! Many people now know that eating poorly has an impact on their health.
So, we have to go back to the principles of Greek Antiquity: I eat better, I eat less and I understand what I eat”.225
In order to look forward and explore promising opportunities, the renowned chef Thierry MARX collaborated with physico-chemist Raphaël Haumont, co-director of the French Center for Culinary Innovation at the University Paris-Saclay, to create and prepare the meals for French astronaut Thomas Pesquet of the European Space Agency (ESA).226 The latter brought meals from the celebrity chef when they entered the International Space Station (ISS).227 In order to meet the criteria for space food, a rigorous and constrictive production procedure was implemented, necessitating the utilization of technological and chemical processes. But in order to produce these foods, flavors and textures have to be preserved as much as possible. A potato cake with truffled Roscoff onions, a beef dish with porcini mushroom sauce that was cooked for seven hours, almondine with caramelized pears, and a test meal using freeze-dried cherry tomatoes were among the foods served to the astronaut. Researchers around the world also agree that we will eat less meat in the future. In fact, a growing number of experts and academics contend that, especially in developed nations, cutting back on meat consumption and switching to a plant-based diet is acknowledged as essential to addressing public health concerns, preventing global warming, achieving climate objectives, and preserving animal welfare.228 229 230 [230] Many scientists also confirm that our diet will turn more towards the consumption of insects and plants and that we will favor organic farming which will impose a progressive, slow and structural transformation of our methods.231
Finally, a problem arises: the massive exports of products which have disrupted international trade. It is therefore appropriate to legally limit production abroad and relocate or regionalize as much as possible. Hence the objective of helping all countries and regions in the world achieve agricultural independence and food autonomy. Thus, it is absolutely unreasonable to consume red fruits in autumn or winter on a simple whim, or to grow potatoes grown in Armenia232 and consume them in Russia or Georgia. Local sectors and small local businesses must be favored. This requires helping direct supply chains and, as we have already stated, breaking the monopoly of mass distribution in order to rebalance the food chain. But eating better and being healthier does not mean that food may be altered without legal oversight or regulation. After the Second World War, the approach to science, food and medicine evolved. This approach requires more ethics, precautions and consultations. In 1947, the Nuremberg Code came into force and established ten conditions that must be met for research involving human subjects to be approved.233
One of these requirements is that of free and informed consent. This movement was carried out by the 1964 Helsinki Declaration 234, which established the guidelines for human subjects research. It makes clear that the welfare of the subject will never come before the interests of society or research. The first impartial review panels for research projects were established in US hospitals in the 1970s, along with the establishment of bioethics research and education facilities.235 In 1979, the Belmont Report formulated the founding principles of current bioethics : beneficence, autonomy, justice.236 In the 1980s, the first national ethics advisory committees were created.237 In 1993, an International Bioethics Committee (IBC) was created at UNESCO, which adopted three declarations.238 On the one hand the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights in 1997239, then the International Declaration on Human Genetic Data in 2003240 and finally the Universal Declaration on
Bioethics and Human Rights in 2005.241 In 1997, the Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine, known as the Oviedo Convention, was adopted under the aegis of the Council of Europe. It was ratified by France on 13th December 2011.242 In addition, international human rights treaties have established food as a fundamental right. Consequently, « everyone has the right to a level of living sufficient to maintain his health and well-being and that of his family, in particular with regard to food, medical treatment, as well as for basic social services », in accordance with article 25 of the United Nations Declaration of 1948.243
Each and every person has the right to food and nourishment that meets their requirements, as stated by the UN in accordance with Article 11 of the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights.244 This agreement was the first to specify what States had to do to protect the « societal » rights of their citizens. As a result, feeding someone is protected by a number of texts: necessities must be met, especially for those who are refugees or have been robbed of their freedom. This is also stated in the UNESCO Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights (2005) in accordance with article 14.245 These days, food and nutrition are discussed in relation to public health and health policy. These days, these two legal ideas are connected. Consequently, in 1999 the Council of Europe, a leading authority on human rights protection, resolved to convene specialists from twelve nations, including France. The objective was to assess the state of hospital nutrition treatment and suggest ways to make it better. There are five main dysfunctional spots that have been found: absence of clearly defined duties, inadequate instruction, patients' ignorance and lack of influence, Insufficient collaboration across various staff types, hospital management's lack of participation. Multidisciplinary seems to be key to solving this challenging issue, involving all healthcare workers involved in patient nutrition and hospital catering. The circular on the establishment of the Food and Nutrition Liaison Committee (CLAN), which is in charge of organizing and coordinating care in this field, was signed by the French Minister of Health in 2002. [246] Additionally, in 2007 the Public Health Code established the Care Quality and Safety Commission, which includes CLIN, CLAN, and several other transversal entities in accordance with article L 6144-1 of the French Public Health Code.[247] Concurrently, the National Nutrition and Health Plan (PNNS) has been in place since 2001.
This plan's second component, which has been in operation since 2006, attempts to establish a dietary strategy based on public health goals that have been determined. The provisions of international conventions establish the right to nourishment as a basic human right, especially for disadvantaged people. Although it has only recently been included in official legal sources, empirical research on it has been done from the dawn of humankind.
Hospitals have not yet widely implemented nutritional care, despite increased awareness of the issue. Respect for human dignity, a fundamental tenet of medical ethics, is the goal.
II. Eating and Sustaining the Food Chain: Essential Requirements for Human Survival
A. Impact of each individual's behavior
In July 2023, the United Nations published an alarming report. This column, written by John Wilmoth, Clare Menozzi, Lina Bassarsky and Danan Gu of the Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA), is disturbing but ambitious.[248] They require Humanity to change our habits, our behavior and our mode of consumption. The United Nations had in fact confirmed that the world population had exceeded 8 billion inhabitants at the end of 2022, one billion more than in 2010.[249] [250] Therefore, in less than 15 years, the population of our planet has expanded by a billion people. This United Nations graph shows that the global population has increased by 1 billion people alone in the previous 15 years. According to this graph, the population will grow even more quickly over the coming years, reaching 8.5 billion in 2030. By 2100, there will be more people on the planet than 11 billion. This acceleration forces us to consider important concerns about how human activity affects the earth and if it can support human and other species life.
As we have analyzed, the impact of human activities on the terrestrial environment is the product of the number of inhabitants, the quantity of food consumed per capita as well as the technology used to satisfy this level of consumption. We will only be able to reduce all of these impacts by modifying one or more of these elements. Because in fact, it is through the behavior of each individual that we can change the world overall. This is consistent with the analysis of meteorologist Edward LORENZ who created the scientific concept of « Butterfly effect ». The idea that little differences between two beginning conditions might result in unrelated final situations was first introduced by Edward LORENZ in 1963. Because uncertainty is inescapable and man is unable to account for every variable that makes up his environment, particularly when it comes to minute deviations, weather forecasts are consequently unpredictable.246 247 Lorenz's theory demonstrates that risks can still occur even in the presence of forecasts. Despite the fact that man may control his fate and give himself a chance to get there. As reality is what we have to deal with. Resource-intensive modes of production and consumption that are neither globally replicable nor sustainable have played a major role in the growth and well-being of many high-income nations today. Even if the average worldwide consumption were to match the level of today's high-income nations, our planet could not sustainably meet the requirements of its population with the technology available to us. Higher living standards are frequently the consequence of economic activities that harm the environment. This is especially true when economic decisions about production and consumption fail to fully account for social and environmental costs, such as harm from pollution. These pressures are intensified by population expansion, which raises overall economic demand. The intricate link between population expansion and the environment is exemplified by the rising need for food. The overall amount of food required has always been influenced by population size. Thankfully, during the past few decades, the world's food output has expanded more quickly than its population. Though there is currently enough food produced on the earth to sustain everyone, issues with distribution and uneven access continue to be important concerns when it comes to hunger, malnutrition, and food insecurity. Changes in the amount and variety of foods consumed have had a substantial impact on the food demand, even if population increase is a key contributing element. Diets have shifted to incorporate a greater range of high-resource foods and more calories as average wages have risen. In terms of greenhouse gas emissions, biodiversity loss, and contamination of the water and soil, this development has had a detrimental impact on the environment.
Indeed, the food chain system is disrupted. It is appropriate to give more rights, freedoms and access to small producers, to organic production, to direct but supervised access to good food. One that not only nourishes but also provides essential vitamins to keep everyone in good health. Indeed, the food chain system is disrupted. It is appropriate to give more rights, freedoms and access to small producers, to organic production, to direct but supervised access to good food. One that not only nourishes but also provides essential vitamins to keep everyone in good health.
Above all, it is necessary to break the monopoly system of mass distribution which has taken on a much disproportionate power, and which influences the life of our societies both on public authorities and on human beings. Thus, it would be particularly desirable for the distribution system to return to a much more balanced and equitable 50/50 distribution between large-scale distribution and small producers. An « anti-trust » and « anti-monopoly » law must therefore be adopted urgently, as has already been passed in the past in other economic areas.
B. For the reaffirmation of strong political power to rebalance the food chain
Political power has often intervened to assert its power. Thus, the misuse of a dominating position in business concerns is already covered by laws in several states. On the one hand, the United States has been preoccupied with establishing a healthy framework for national economic regulation among various businesses. The renowned « Sherman Anti-Trust Act » of 2nd July 1890, is therefore known in the United States and represents the country's first attempt to restrict business practices that are anti-competitive. Enacting this Basic Law was one of the first acts of the 51st Congress, which was convened during Benjamin Harrison's administration as a response to rising concerns among American lawmakers about the influence of trusts and monopolies. The Sherman Act's first part forbids unlawful contracts that limit trade and commerce, and its second section penalizes monopolies and efforts to monopolize—a practice known as abuse of dominant position. These several court instances demonstrate that this law may be advantageous, as demonstrated by history:
- In 1911, American Tobacco was dissolved in accordance with the Sherman Antitrust
Act.248
- In November 1906, the US government filed a lawsuit against Standard Oil, which was ultimately dismissed on 5th May 1911.249
- In January 1982, AT&T was dissolved following six years of legal action by the US Department of Justice.250
In an even more recent case, we can recall the legal conviction of the Apple group. Apple is charged with and found guilty of breaking « antitrus t» rules by entering into an unlawful arrangement with five book publishers in 2013. They did this in order to avoid paying a larger fine when the publishers, Hachette, HarperCollins, Simon & Schuster, Penguin, and Macmillan, were on trial in 2012 and 2013 respectively.251 On the other hand, Europe adopted the Anglo-Saxon movement as its own. A corporation has therefore been defined as any entity that engages in economic activity since the « Hoffner case » (CJCE, no. C-41/90, Judgment of the Court, Klaus Hofner and Fritz Elser v. Macrotron GmbH, 23rd April 1991).252 Articles 101 (prohibition of cartels), 102 (prohibition of misuse of a dominating position), and 103 of the Treaty (regulation of concentrations) describe the « Antitrust » legal framework that has been formed.253 Better still, in order to maintain healthy corporate competition inside the EU's internal market, Article 107 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) establishes a general prohibition on state assistance.
Nevertheless, the European Commission loosened these regulations from 2020 to 2022 in response to the Covid-19 outbreak, enabling the twenty-seven Member States to assist their struggling businesses.254 In order to assist the most vulnerable—disabled and disadvantaged workers—or even businesses in emerging technological areas seeking funding for R&D and innovation, these exemptions also apply to specific enterprises. This assistance is deemed to be in the « Important Projects of Common European Interest » (IPCEI).255 Apart from these basic situations, States have to notify the Commission of any project involving State help, which may only be carried out after approval. The European Commission is focusing especially on anti-competitive practices related to taxes. Some states offer tax incentives to major firms on an as- needed basis to entice them. The Commission believes that these actions, when combined with state assistance, stifle competition.256
As a result, Apple was forced to pay back 13 billion euros in 2016 after requesting preferential tax treatment in Ireland; however, the Court of Justice of the European Union rejected this motion in July 2020.257 As an additional illustration, Google was penalized €2.42 billion by the European Commission for breaking EU antitrust laws. The European Commission believed that by giving its price comparison tool, another Google product, an unlawful advantage, Google had exploited its dominant position in the search engine industry.258 With regard to the legal protections that States allow, it should be noted that two very large firms are interested in the agri-food sector: the Chinese company « Ali Baba »259 and the
American company « Amazon »260. It is crucial to highlight in 2022 that the EU's 27 member states' mass distribution industry has seen a significant growth in turnover. A rise of +6.5% from the conclusion of the Covid-19 health crisis was realized by industry participants, who made over 2,830 billion euros.261 But for comparison, in 2022, Amazon achieved a turnover of 514 billion US dollars, or more than 468 billion euros.262 As for Alibaba, its total turnover in 2022 amounted to more than 717 billion yuan, or approximately 98 billion euros.263
These two companies are therefore in a situation which could destabilize the entire agri-food sector. Therefore, it is clear to us that the agri-food industry is evolving and that governments need to act accordingly. This includes anticipating these changes with a political, social, economic, and commercial perspective and enacting regulations that permit free trade without undermining rivals. This will be a vital issue and a major challenge for the next generations.
CONCLUSION
The study of this thesis leads us to support two major scientific innovations: the legal overhaul of the agri-food system and the creation of legal tools to address food waste as a direct link to world hunger. So, as we have seen, the first innovation is the overhaul of the agri-food system from Antiquity to the present day in response to legal issues on the environmental, medical, economic and societal levels. Indeed, the study of our thesis entitled "the issues and legal controversies of food waste from Antiquity to the present day" shows a cultural, legal and economic evolution.
Food waste and food insecurity are two complex and interdependent phenomena. Food waste is a major problem, both environmentally and socially. It represents a loss of valuable resources and can have a negative impact on people in food insecurity. Therefore, the concept of food insecurity is often reduced to the question of access to sufficient food in quantity and quality. However, a broader approach is needed to take into account the social, cultural and political issues associated with food. By considering food insecurity through the prism of social and political factors, we are led to re-examine the legal issues that arise from it, as evidenced by the history of the right to food.
Indeed, Nicolas Bricas, Damien Conare and Marie Walser highlight the relational and political dimension of food, which transcends many domains and profoundly influences our world. Rather than considering it as an isolated domain, an ecological approach to food suggests using it as a lever to rethink our society in crisis. That said, the consumer-citizen, a specific actor, must be convinced of the importance of fighting against food waste and appropriate this approach, thus underlining the importance of lifelong education, training and communication.
From this perspective, the causes of food insecurity are multiple and complex. They can be related to economic, social, political or individual factors. In other words, food insecurity stems from various causes, including food waste, illustrated by the fact that 30% of food products sold in supermarkets are thrown away, hence the emergence of « waste-eaters », a phenomenon that is gaining momentum, by ideology for some (fights against the consumer society), by necessity for the majority (V. ROCHER C., The dumpster divers hunt waste by recovering what is consumable, Midi Libre, 6th April 2009). Similarly, an irresponsible diet, characterized by excessive meat consumption, has harmful consequences for health and the environment. That being said, according to a survey conducted by the Brussels Observatory of Sustainable Consumption, in 2001 « food waste amounted to 7.6% by weight of household waste, of which 3.1% of expired products and 4.5% of opened products ». The 2004 campaigns show a decrease in weight of the fraction « freshly wasted » (from 30.4 kg per household per year to 23.1 kg per household per year) and an increase in percentage by weight of the fraction of opened products (from 4.5% to 5.6%) in household waste. The opened products are mainly (more than 80% of the flow): cooked dishes (33%), bread (28%), fruits and vegetables (22%). The main expired foods are fresh fruits and vegetables (more than 60% on average). Also, some 265 million tons of meat are produced annually for only 0.1% of privileged eaters who consume annually the trifle of 100 kg of meat per person. And if such consumption is well beyond what our body requires and even proves to be harmful to health, it also comes with other deleterious effects.
Because this livestock consumes 60% of the world’s cereal production, or the trifle of 670 millions tons, which therefore escape human consumption, occupies 78% of the world’s agricultural land, or so many hectares that cannot therefore be devoted to the production of foodstuffs. And what about when we learn that it takes 25,000 liters of water to produce 100 g of beef, while many populations do not have drinking water, which is essential for their survival? Or even that it takes 17 cal of vegetable food to produce 1 cal of beef? Then, food waste and food insecurity are two phenomena that must be fought in a concerted manner. In fact, food waste, with its multiple ramifications, generates deleterious impacts on the environment, the economy and society, while posing an ethical challenge in the face of the persistence of hunger in the world. Simply put, food waste also has an impact in the long term. This compromises food security and climate stability on the planet. Indeed, food waste accounts for 8% of global greenhouse gas emissions, more than the emissions of civil aviation. It also contributes to soil degradation, overexploitation of water resources and loss of biodiversity. It finally represents an enormous economic cost, estimated at 1,000 billion dollars per year.
Therefore, the fight against food insecurity becomes a complex challenge that requires a global approach. It must involve all actors of society, from public authorities to charitable associations, through businesses and citizens. A rights-based approach will therefore be essential to fight against food insecurity. It will consist of recognizing the right of everyone to adequate and quality food. This will ensure that people in food insecurity have access to the food they need. In the face of food waste, forms of citizen organization have emerged to fight hunger, by recovering, redistributing or transforming food destined to be thrown away. These initiatives have taken various forms, depending on the actors involved, the modalities of operation, the objectives pursued, and the beneficiaries targeted. For example, food banks, created in the 1960s in the United States, collect the surplus from producers, distributors and consumers, and distribute them to charitable associations. Disco-soups, which appeared in the 2010s in Germany, organize festive events where participants cook and eat together fruits and vegetables that are unsold or damaged. Finally, anti-waste applications, developed in the 2010s, connect merchants and consumers, to offer them products at a reduced price before their expiration date. The objective of this thesis is therefore to explore the historical roots and legal debates surrounding food waste, from antiquity to the present day, highlighting the various citizen initiatives to counter this scourge.
Thus, in pharaonic Egypt, food was considered sacred and waste as a sin, according to the book [Aux origines du gaspillage alimentaire]. In ancient Rome, on the contrary, waste was a sign of wealth and power, and sumptuous banquets were frequent, as reported by the article « Food waste: what consequences for the planet ». In the Middle Ages, the Church condemned waste as a vice, and advocated charity towards the poor, according to the book « History of food, from prehistory to the present day ». In modern times, waste was denounced as a waste of resources, and laws were enacted to limit it, especially during periods of war or famine. In contemporary times, waste was recognized as a major problem, and initiatives were taken to reduce it, both at the national and international level, as highlighted by the 2021 UNEP Report on the Food Waste Index. This has led us to underline the need for an integrated and participatory approach involving the whole of society, from producers to consumers, through public authorities, businesses and associations.
Moreover, the thesis broadens the notion of food insecurity by integrating the social and political dimensions, thus revealing the legal issues in a new light. In this respect, the importance of education from an early age is emphasized, as well as the involvement of the citizen-consumer in the fight against food waste. Thus, beyond the concrete efforts presented, this thesis calls for a paradigm shift in the fight against food insecurity, by recognizing the identity, social and cultural dimensions of this issue, and by redefining the contours of adequate legal protection for all. This leads to rethinking the food system as a whole, by promoting a more environmentally friendly production, a more equitable distribution and a more responsible consumption. It is also essential to strengthen cooperation between the different actors, from the local to the global level, and to raise public awareness of the importance of reducing food waste. Finally, it is possible to draw inspiration from existing good practices, which show that it is possible to valorize unsold or damaged food, by transforming it into useful products or energy. In the end, it is essential to distinguish between simply guaranteeing access to food and guaranteeing dignified and sustainable access for all. Overall, this distinction reveals the complex issues related to the « gastronomy of hunger » and underlines the need for adequate legal protection to fight against inequalities and social exclusions around food.
As, this research has taken a comprehensive approach to the issue of food waste, examining it from historical, legal, sociological, and economic perspectives. It has identified the paradox of food waste existing alongside global hunger and has explored potential strategies to address this complex problem. Grounded in the theoretical framework of human rights, particularly the right to food, it has highlighted the ethical and moral implications of food waste and its connection to social inequalities. The research has also explored the legal and regulatory frameworks surrounding food waste management, identifying potential areas for improvement. It has employed a multi-disciplinary approach, utilizing a combination of methods such as literature review, data analysis, and case studies, and incorporating empirical data from surveys, interviews, and field observations.
The research has made significant contributions to the existing body of knowledge by establishing a spatiotemporal inventory of the current status of food waste, exploring the historical evolution of the relationship between citizens and governments regarding food waste management and hunger alleviation, and proposing concrete strategies for tackling food waste at various levels of the food chain. The research has both theoretical and practical importance, contributing to the understanding of food waste as a complex issue and providing valuable knowledge and recommendations that can inform policy makers, businesses, and individuals in their efforts to reduce food waste and build a more sustainable food system. The validity and reliability of the research findings have been established through triangulation and peer review. As the American author and activist, Jonathan Safran Foer, once said, « Food is not rational. Food is culture, habit, craving and identity269. » Looking forward, it would be interesting to explore how technological advancements could aid in reducing food waste. For instance, how might innovations in food packaging, storage, and transportation contribute to waste reduction? Additionally, how might digital platforms and applications help consumers and businesses better manage their food resources? These are just a few of the many questions that future research could seek to answer, as we continue to strive for a more sustainable and equitable global food system.
On the basis of the above, the economic rise of the agri-food system cannot come at the expense of social justice. Citizen mobilization, empowerment, and legal innovation are essential levers for building a fairer and more sustainable food system, where each individual has a place and human dignity is respected. To better explain our sentence, the economic rise of the agri-food system has been accompanied by a growing impoverishment of populations, particularly the middle class. Faced with the inaction of governments, citizens have organized and taken collective action, through the creation of NGOs, charities, and entrepreneurship. Faced with the inertia of public authorities to reform the management of unsold food and to modernize an unjust food system, citizens have initiated legal action. The real novelty will therefore lie in the granting of rights to citizens, who, initially victims, are gradually gaining better control of the food chain through the passage of laws and the evolution of case law.
That said, it is through the granting of rights, the passage of laws, and the challenging of governments and citizens through the courts that the rebalancing of the food chain will be possible. To the extent, this process will be facilitated by the creation of a legal framework including the enactment of various offenses, the possibility of going to court, and easier access to a judge in environmental matters. The implementation of safeguards and increased legal protection for vulnerable people will also be necessary. Despite the challenges this proposal presents, significant progress will be made in the pursuit of social justice in food donation, illustrating the power of scientific innovation in social transformation. Indeed, all the scientists, data and international reports confirm that there is a climate emergency to react and take concrete action for change. Reducing food waste is one of the three main solutions to combat global warming. We have a powerful lever to preserve Humanity.
Ultimately, it is indisputable to affirm that the law against food waste, passed on 3rd February 2016 in France, was a true scientific innovation both in terms of the means of coercion imposed by the law and in terms of its impact and its consequences. However, it is necessary to go even further in view of the environmental and climate emergency.
Moreover, the second innovation is to demonstrate the link between food waste and hunger.
This situation that we are seeing leads to a disruption of the agri-food system that we have noted. It is therefore the disruption of the agri-food system that leads to a situation of malnutrition and hunger in the world. Indeed, according to FAO data, 931 million tonnes, or 17% of food produced in 2019, ended up in the trash of households, retailers, restaurants and other food stakeholders. Meanwhile, 811 million people are hungry and 132 million face food and nutrition insecurity, notably because of the Covid-19 pandemic. In monetary terms, annual food losses are estimated at $400 billion. The UN agency highlighted these figures on the eve of International Food Loss and Waste Awareness Day, September 29th, 2021. She pointed out that food that is not consumed wastes resources such as land, water, energy, soil, seeds and other inputs used in its production. Above all, food insecurity, hunger and malnutrition affect all countries in the world, no one is exempt. Some 811 million people suffer from hunger; 2 billion have micronutrient deficiencies, i.e. vitamins and minerals; and millions of children suffer from stunting and wasting, deadly forms of malnutrition.
To reduce this food waste, citizens have organized themselves and invested in associative, international non-governmental organizations and created innovative start-ups. Thus, to identify the possible contribution of technological innovations to the reduction of food waste, our approach favored an in-depth analysis of a relatively limited number of technological innovations (product and process innovation), rather than a more superficial analysis. This methodological choice is linked to the scope of the study which is limited to innovations that can be implemented by the agri-food industry and acting on the final consumption of food products. Innovations proposed by other actors such as, for example by domestic appliance companies, innovations acting on losses at the level of agricultural production and the processing industry as well as organizational innovations have not been studied. The inventory of technological innovations that can be implemented by the agri-food industry first made it possible to highlight that there is very little previous work on the contribution of technological innovations to the reduction of food waste.
Considering the economic, environmental and social issues of food waste, it is surprising that this theme has so far been the subject of so little published work, which could reflect little consideration in scientific research at the international level. The bibliographic review, however, made it possible to identify that the main technological lever making it possible to contribute to the reduction of waste of final consumer products concerns the improvement of the shelf life of foods, in particular the most perishable products such as refrigerated products. Subject to a « Shelf-Life Date » (DLC), thanks to innovations in the field of processes and packaging. The study of consumer acceptance of innovations, however, reveals that they do not spontaneously recognize the benefit of technologies that make it possible to extend the shelf life of products. They rather favor innovations offering naturalness and practicality.
To meet this demand, innovations providing naturalness while guaranteeing very high organoleptic and health qualities will primarily attract the interest of companies in the agri-food
industry. Technologies that make it possible to significantly increase the shelf life will make it possible to remove barriers to the export of processed products. The study of my thesis makes it possible to identify avenues for increasing the research effort by providing recommendations intended for the different actors of agri-food innovation. For these stakeholders, my thesis presents a detailed review of numerous technological innovations in the field of distribution to charities, packaging and food preservation technologies, with an analysis of consumer acceptance as well as a review of the different factors (technical, economic, environmental, regulatory) likely to influence their marketing. This information constitutes a knowledge base that can help in thinking about the implementation of technological innovations within companies. Several recommendations are addressed directly to representatives of the agri-food industries.
This thesis therefore also presents a scientific interest in making it possible to constitute data breaking down the measures and adapting proposals intended for all actors in the academic and parliamentary world. For the scientific community, my thesis highlights the urgency of taking food waste into account in research priorities. And all my research demonstrates a very large gap between the political will expressed at the state level and the research effort. The effects of food waste on the environment also call for greater mobilization of the scientific community. All research stakeholders are concerned. This is how my thesis identifies priority themes and proposes actions to strengthen the activities of the scientific community, such as providing more support and assistance to entrepreneurs involved in the fight against food waste. This is a third innovation in my thesis. Thus, it is demonstrated within this thesis that the fight against food waste has developed a so-called « green » economy because citizens have organized themselves on the one hand in an associative way but then involved themselves in an entrepreneurial way to eradicate this scourge.
This thesis also demonstrates that the fight against food waste is a determining factor in the fight against global warming. Which gives rise to a fourth scientific innovation within the framework of this thesis. Indeed, for public authorities, my thesis identifies several avenues of action to stimulate and support the efforts of the private and public sector. The first step is to make up for the delay observed and noted by the various jurisdictions which have been contacted and which have expressed themselves. The analysis of the legislative context therefore leads us to recall that the « DrawDown » (2020) and « IPCC » (4th April 2022) reports concluded that the fight against food waste is one of the three main solutions to fight against global warming. Several actions are proposed to support research, including greater consideration of the themes of recyclability and food safety of new packaging.
Finally, the fifth and final scientific innovation developed within this thesis is a legislative issue which has concrete consequences on the general interest. Indeed, support for the adoption of the most promising innovations is encouraged through investment aid for businesses and support for manufacturers in their innovation initiatives. Indeed, the law against food waste, passed in France on 3rd February 2016, constitutes a major legislative innovation in the agri-food sector. This is a major innovation both in France, in Europe and internationally. The very first reason is that the food chain is in an unbalanced situation. Thus, this chain brings together production, processing, distribution and consumption. Since large-scale distribution is in a monopoly situation and therefore in a position of economic power vis-à-vis small producers and consumers, it never occurred to anyone to prohibit this powerful lobby from throwing consumable food in the trash. The French law of 3rd February 2016 marked a significant turning point in efforts to combat food waste, setting a precedent not only in the European Union but globally by imposing stringent measures on supermarkets. The law prohibits supermarkets from tampering with unsold, consumable food and imposes a fine of 10,000 euros for violations. This legislative action required supermarkets to significantly alter their practices.
France has taken a pioneering role in this regard, overcoming various hurdles such as lobbying pressures, the divergent interests of different states, and occasional governmental disinterest. The law represents a major innovation not only in waste management but also as a contribution to the fight against global warming. Decomposing food waste in landfills emits substantial quantities of methane, a potent greenhouse gas, hence reducing food waste aligns with broader environmental conservation efforts and the global climate change mitigation agenda. The success of this law can be attributed to various awareness-raising and lobbying campaigns. In the sense that it has highlighted the dual benefits of reducing food waste— feeding the hungry and promoting a circular economy. Key outcomes of the law include:
- Reduction in Greenhouse Gases: By diverting food from landfills, the law helps to decrease methane emissions, a potent greenhouse gas.
- Resource Optimization: It encourages better inventory management among food retailers, leading to more efficient use of resources.
- Social Solidarity: The law fosters a sense of community as supermarkets partner with charities, benefiting those in need.
- Awareness and Education: It raises public awareness about the value of food and the importance of reducing waste, influencing consumer behavior.
The initiator’s role in bringing about this legislative change underscores. The power of individual and collective advocacy to drive significant environmental and social reforms. The law has inspired similar legislation in other countries. A fact showcasing the importance of responsible consumption and sustainable practices. It highlights France's commitment to protecting its food producers, supporting the less fortunate, and setting a global example.
Moreover, supermarkets have realized that food donation enhances their public image. It also reduces waste disposal costs. The global acclaim of this law illustrates the effectiveness of civic engagement. And the profound impact determined advocacy can have on societal norms and policies.
By integrating insights from law, history, and social sciences, our research contributes to an interdisciplinary understanding of food waste and security. We argue that addressing food waste requires a holistic approach. By tackling structural inequalities, filling regulatory gaps, and altering behavioral patterns in order to ensure a more equitable, sustainable future.
As part of this innovation, we therefore demonstrate that the law against food waste has had a direct impact on the agri-food system, on the fight against hunger, on global warming, on the creation of a so-called « green » economy and on bold laws regulating the actions of an influential but necessary agri-food lobby.
In view of this thesis and this long research, we cannot say that we were not informed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books
- Asa Stenmarck (IVL), Carl Jensen (IVL), Tom Quested (WRAP), Graham Moates (IFR) : « Estimates of European food waste levels » FUSIONS (2016)
- BAKKER E. DE, DAGEVOS H., 2012, « Reducing Meat Consumption in Today’s Consumer Society: Questioning the Citizen-Consumer Gap », Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 25, 6, p. 877-894.
- Balanza, R, Garcia-Lorda, P. Perez-Rodrigo, C., Aranceta, J., Bullo Bonet, M., Salas- Salvado, J. (2007) Trends in food availability determined by the Food and Agriculture Organization’s food balance sheets in Mediterranean Europe in comparison with other European areas. Public Health Nutrition: 10(2), 168-176.
- BARNARD A.V., 2016, Freegans: Diving into the Wealth of Food Waste in America, Minneapolis, Univ Of Minnesota Press, 280 p.
- BLAIR D., SOBAL J., 2006, “Luxus Consumption: Wasting Food Resources Through Overeating”, Agriculture and Human Values, 23, 1, p. 63-74.
- BRADSHAW C., 2013, “The environmental business case and unenlightened shareholder value”, Legal Studies, 33, 1, p. 141-161.
- COHEN L., 2003, A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar. America, New York, Vintage, 576 p.
- DESOUCEY M., 2010, « Gastronationalism: Food Traditions and Authenticity Politics in the European Union », American Sociological Review, 75, 3, p. 432 455.
- ERIKSSON M., STRID I., HANSSON P.-A., 2015, « Carbon footprint of food waste management options in the waste hierarchy - a Swedish case study », Journal of Cleaner Production, 93, p. 115-125.
- EVANS D., 2014, Food Waste: Home Consumption, Material Culture and Everyday Life, Londres, Bloomsbury Academic, 136 p.
- EVANS D., MCMEEKIN A., SOUTHERTON D., 2012, « Sustainable Consumption, Behaviour Change Policies and Theories of Practice », dans WARDE A., SOUTHERTON D. (dirs.), The Habits of Consumption, Helsinki, Finland, Helsinki Collegium for Advanced Studies, p. 123-129.
- EVANS, D., CAMPBELL, H., MURCOTT, A. (dirs.), 2013, Waste Matters: New Perspectives on Food and Society, 1e édition, Malden, MA, Wiley-Blackwell, 250 p.
- FRIEDMANN H., MCMICHAEL P., 1989, « Agriculture and the State System: The Rise and Decline of National Agricultures, 1870 to the Present », Sociologia Ruralis, 29, 2, p. 93-117.
- GENTIL E.C., GALLO D., CHRISTENSEN T.H., 2011, « Environmental evaluation of municipal waste prevention », Waste Management, 31, 12, p. 2371-2379.
- GENTILINI U., 2013, « Banking on Food: The State of Food Banks in High-income Countries », IDS Working Papers, 415, 18 p.
- GEREFFI G., HUMPHREY J., STURGEON T., 2005, « The governance of global value chains », Review of International Political Economy, 12, 1, p. 78-104.
- GEREFFI G., KORZENIEWICZ M., 1994, Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism, Praeger (Contributions in economics and economic history), 350 p.
- GILLE Z., 2012, « From Risk to Waste: Global Food Waste Regimes », The Sociological Review, 60, p. 27-46.
- GOODMAN D., DUPUIS E.M., GOODMAN M.K., 2013, Alternative Food Networks: Knowledge, Practice, and Politics, 1ère édition, New York, Routledge, 320 p.
- HALL K.D., GUO J., DORE M., CHOW C.C., 2009, « The Progressive Increase of Food Waste in America and Its Environmental Impact », PLoS ONE, 4, 11, p. e7940.
- Safran Foer, J. (2023). Food is not rational. Food is culture, habit, craving and identity. MeaningIn
- Law No. 2016-138 of 11th February 2016 relating to the fight against food waste in France
- Law of January 2, 2023 relating to the fight against food waste in Spain
- MICHELETTI M., 2003, Political Virtue and Shopping: Individuals, Consumerism, and Collective Action, Palgrave Macmillan, 262 p.
- MIDGLEY J.L., 2013, « The Logics of Surplus Food Redistribution », Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 57, 12, p. 1872-1892.
- MOURAD M., 2016, « Recycling, recovering and preventing “food waste”: competing solutions for food systems sustainability in the United States and France », Journal of Cleaner Production, 126, p. 461-477.
- NEFF R.A., SPIKER M.L., TRUANT P.L., 2015, « Wasted Food: U.S. Consumers’ Reported Awareness, Attitudes, and Behaviors », PLoS ONE, 10, 6, p. e0127881 (en ligne).
- PACKARD V., 1960, The Waste Makers, New York, Pocket Books, 340 p.
- Proposed law aimed at combating food waste in France (17th January 2023)
- QI D., ROE B.E., 2017, « Foodservice Composting Crowds out Consumer Food Waste Reduction Behavior in a Dining Experiment », American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 99, 5, p. 1159-1171.
- REDLINGSHOFER B., COUDURIER B., GEORGET M., 2017, « Quantifying food loss during primary production and processing in France », Journal of Cleaner Production, 164, p. 703-714.
- Report of the debates in the Senate concerning the vote on the law against food waste (3rd February 2016)
- SMIL V., 2004, « Improving Efficiency and Reducing Waste in Our Food System », Environmental Sciences, 1, 1, p. 17-26.
- FINE F., LUCAS J.-L., CHARDIGNY J.-M., REDLINGSHOFER B., RENARD M., 2015a, « Food losses and waste in the French oilcrops sector », OCL, 22, 3, p. A302
- Preparatory study on food waste across EU 27. Bio Intelligence Service. European Commission (DG ENV). October 2010.
International legal acts
- “Investigation of consumer attitudes, practices and food waste for three food items, to use as input in new packaging designs that aim to reduce food waste” (Helén Williams, Fredrik Wikstrom, Annika Lindstrom, Kristina Wickholm, Ann Lorentzon, 2017)
- Fredrik Wikstrom, Helén Williams : “Packaging design that reduces food waste and increases recycling” (2023)
- GARCIA-GARCIA G., WOOLLEY E., RAHIMIFARD S., 2015, « A Framework for a More Efficient Approach to Food Waste Management », International Journal of Food
- Lisa Mattsson, Helén Williams : “Avoidance of Supermarket Food Waste—Employees’ Perspective on Causes and Measures to Reduce Fruit and Vegetables Waste” (2022)
- Ng, M. et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. The Lancet. May 29, 2014
Online sources
- “Avoiding food becoming waste in households - The role of packaging in consumers’ practices across different food categories” (Helén Williams, Annika Lindstrom, Jakob Trischler, Fredrik Wikstrom, Zane Rowe, 2020) : https://kau.diva- portal.org/smash/record.j sf?pid=diva2%3A1440471&dswid=-1009
- “Avoiding food becoming waste in households: The role of packaging in consumers’ practices across different food categories” (Helén Williams, Annika Lindstrom, Jakob Trischler, Fredrik Wikstrom) : https://kau.diva- portal.org/smash/record.j sf?pid=diva2%3 A1440471&dswid=-1009
- “COP26 as the convergence of the corporate food-climate agendas” (Tomaso Ferrando) : https://repository.uantwerpen.be/desktop/irua
- “Food Waste In America: One Big Issue, Many Possible Solutions” (Refed) : https://refed.org/articles/guest-blog-food-waste-in-america-one-big-issue-many-possible- solutions/#:~:text=35%25%20of%20all%20food%20goes,the%20food%20and%20beverage %20industry.
- “Food Waste In America: One Big Issue, Many Possible Solutions” (Branch Food) : https://www.branchfood.com/blog/food-waste-in-america-refed
- ADEME (2014). Source : http://ecocitoyens.ademe.fr/mes-dechets/stop-au-gaspillage- alimentaire/a-savoir
- ALBAL. Source : http://www.albal.fr/save food abal fr,2910.html
- Buurman, R., Velghe, J. Les supermarchés et le gaspillage alimentaire. CRIOC. Edition 2013. Source : www.oivo-crioc.org
- Buzby, Jean C., Hodan Farah Wells, Bruce Axtman, and Jana Mickey. Supermarket Loss Estimates for Fresh Fruit, Vegetables, Meat, Poultry, and Seafood and Their Use in the ERS Loss-Adjusted Food Availability Data. EIB-44, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Econ. Res. Serv. March 2009. Source : http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic-information- bulletin/eib44.aspx#.U6QmY l v1 Q
- Combris, P. 2006. Le poids des contraintes économiques dans les choix alimentaires. Cahiers de nutrition et de diététique. 41 (5) : 279-284 in: Esnouf, C. Russel, M. Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011. duALine - durabilité de l’alimentation face à de nouveaux enjeux. Questions à la recherche, Rapports Inra-Cirad (France), 236 p. Source : http://www.cirad.fr/publications- ressources/edition/etudes-et-documents/dualine
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas ; Poncelet, Charles. Contestation des actes des institutions de l'Union européenne à l'épreuve de la Convention d'Ahrus. In: Revue Trimestrielle de Droit Européen, no.1, p. 7-34 (janvier-mars 2013). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/143196
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Climate Change Litigation in the EU. In: ANU Center for European Studies Briefing paper, (2021). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/253340
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Droits fondamentaux et protection de l'environnement dans l'ordre juridique de l'UE et dans a CEDH. In: Revue européenne du droit de la consommation, no.1, p. 25-51 (2011). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3Z143065
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Enforcing EUCHR Principles and Fundamental Rights in Environmental Cases. In: Nordic Journal of International Law, no.81, p. 39-74 (2012). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3Z143136
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Les droits fondamentaux menacés par le changement climatique selon la Cour constitutionnelle allemande. In: Justice en ligne, (2021). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/253366
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Les enjeux de l’harmonisation des règles de protection de l’environnement. In: Revue du Droit de l'Union Européenne, Vol. 2021, no.3, p. 149-163 (2021). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/253355
- de Sadeleer, Nicolas. Les pouvoirs publics belges responsables pour une politique climatique déficiente. In: Justice en ligne, (2021). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/253361
- Decree relating to the Walloon Agricultural Code (27th March 2014)
- Esnouf, C., Jean, S., Redlingshofer, B. Les nouveaux enjeux liés à la durabilité des systèmes alimentaires. Innovations Agronomiques. 24 (2012), 121-132. Source : http://www6.inra.fr/ciagZRevue/Volume-24-Novembre-2012
- EUFIC. Food Today. How to minimise food waste. 05/2012.
- Eurostat 2010 in: Pertes et gaspillages alimentaires : causes, impacts et propositions. Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition (BCFN). 2012. Source : http://www.barillacfn.com/wp- content/uploads/2012/11/WEB FRA.pdf
- FAO 2011. Food Loss Reduction Strategy. Source : http://www.fao.orgZfileadminZuser upload/ags/publications/brochure phl low.pdf
- FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U. 2011. Source : http://www.fao.orgZdocrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
- FAO 2011. Produire plus avec moins. Guide à l’intention des décideurs sur l’intensification durable de l’agriculture paysanne. Rome. 2011. Source : http://www.fao.orgZdocrep/014/i2215f/i2215f.pdf
- FAO 2013. Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources. Summary report. 2013. Source : http://www.fao. org/docrep/018/i3347e/i3347e.pdf
- FAO 2014. Save food: global initiative on food loss and waste production. Source : http://www.fao.org/save-food/principaux-resultats/fr/ Angl. http://www.fao.org/save-food/key- findings/en/
- Fondation Louis Bonduelle. Les 7èmes Rencontres de la Comportements alimentaires et gaspillage : pertes alimentaires, déni et contradictions. 20 mai 2014. Source : http://www.fondation-louisbonduelle.org/france/fr/tout-sur-la-fondation/les-rencontres-de-la- fondation-louis-bonduelle.html
- Food in the lives of Paris and Chicago residents” (Thesis Coline Ferrant - 17th december 2020) : https://www.theses.fr/2020IEPP0006
- Food supply procurement : the influence of politics on food supply chains and the governance of local public food services” (Thesis Yoan Robin - 22nd december 2017) : https://www.theses.fr/2017PA01E055
- Foresight. The Future of Food and Farming: Challenges and choices for global sustainability (2011). Final Project Report. The Government Office for Science, London. Source : https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment data/file/288329/11- 546-future-of-food-and-farming-report.pdf
- France Nature Environnement. Du gaspillage alimentaire à tous les étages. Dossier thématique. Décembre 2013. Source : http://www.fne.asso.fr/fr/nos- dossiers/dechets/gaspillage-alimentaire/agir.html
- Gooch, M., Marenick, N., Laplain, D. Dent, B. Cut Waste, GROW PROFIT. Reducing food waste by addressing the disconnect between the attitude and behaviour of producers and managers of businesses situated along the value chain. Value Chain Management International. May 30, 2013.
- Guardian : https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/may/25/french- supermarkets- donate-food-waste-global-law-campaign
- Gunders,D. Wasted: How America Is Losing Up to 40 Percent of Its Food from Farm to Fork to Landfill. Natural Resources Defense Council. August 2012. IP:12-06-B2012. Source : http://www.nrdc.org/food/files/wasted-food-ip.pdf
- History Food Banks. Source : http: //www.banquealimentaire. org/
- Independent : https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/news/man- behind- campaign-for-french-supermarkets-to-donate-waste-food-wants-to-take-law-global- 10276028.html
- La lutte contre le gaspillage alimentaire en France et aux Etats-Unis : mise en cause, mise en politique et mise en marché des excédents alimentaires” (Thesis Marie Mourad - 2nd October 2018) : https://www.theses.fr/2018IEPP0014
- Laisney, C., Soyeux, A., Redlingshofer, B. (Juillet 2013) Source : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/CEP Document de travail no7 Gaspillages alimentaires cle0a419d.pdf
- L'autorégulation en tant que stratégie hors marché. Une étude exploratoire sur les mécanismes transformant l'environnement hors marché des entreprises” (Thesis Agnieszka Majewska - 14th february 2023) : https://www.theses.fr/2023UPSLD012
- Lundqvist, J., C. de Fraiture and D. Molden. Saving Water: From Field to Fork - Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain. SIWI Policy Brief. Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), 2008. Source : http://www.siwi.org/documents/Resources/Policy Briefs/PB From Filed to Fork 2008.pdf
- Luxemburger Wort : https://www.wort.lu/de/international/gaspillage-alimentaire- appel-a- juncker-57504feeac730ff4e7f615c3
- McWhirter JP, Pennington CR. Incidence and recognition of malnutrition in hospital. BMJ. 1994; 308(6934): 945-948.Source : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2539799/pdf/bmj00435-0025.pdf
- Ministère de l’Écologie, du Développement durable, des Transports et du Logement (2011). Rapport intermédiaire de l’étude relative au gaspillage alimentaire. Juillet 2011. Source : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/Rapport%20interm%C3%A9diaire VF-1.pdf
- Misonne, Delphine. Droit du climat et de l'environnement - Chronique 2022. In: Journal de droit européen, Vol. 290, no.290, p. 310-318 (2022). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/265290
- Misonne, Delphine. L’actualité des communs à la croisée des enjeux de l’environnement et de la culture. In: Revue interdisciplinaire d'études juridiques, Vol. 81, no. 81, p. 59-82. http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3Z207747
- Misonne, Delphine. L'ambition de l'Accord de Paris sur le changement climatique. Ou comment, par convention, réguler la température de l'atmosphère terrestre ?. In: Aménagement - environnement : urbanisme et droit foncier, Vol. Double numéro spécial "Climat", no. 4, p. 8-26 (2018). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/190896
- Misonne, Delphine. Lire le rapport du GIEC à la lumière de l'affaire Urgenda (et vice-versa). In: Plateforme wallonne pour le GIEC - Lettre d'information, Vol. 11, no.Octobre 2018, p. 11 (2018). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3Z207759
- Nanocarbon from food waste : dispersions and applications” (Thesis Aikaterini Kampioti - 9th december 2016) : https://www.theses.fr/2016BORD0364
- O’Brien, D., Aldeen, H.T. Hunger in America 2006. America’s second harvest - the nation’s food bank network fourth national hunger study. Source: www.hungerinamerica.org
- Oxfam 2013. Cooper, N., Dumpleton, S. Walking the breadline. Oxfam, Church Action on Poverty. 2013. Source : http://historyofsocialwork.org/1967 food banks/2013%20OXFAM%20Walking%20the%20 Breadline.pdf
- Pacte national de lutte contre le gaspillage alimentaire. Ministère de l’Agri culture, de l’Agroalimentaire et de la forêt. 2013. Dossier de presse. 14 juin 2013. Source : http://alimentation.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/250913-Pacte-gapillageAlim cle4da639.pdf
- Poverty USA. 2014. Source : www.povertyusa.org
- Réduction du gaspillage alimentaire - État des lieux et pistes d'action. Rapport final. Ministère de l’Écologie, du Développement durable, et de l’Energie. Novembre 2012. Source : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
- Résolution du Parlement européen du 19 janvier 2012 sur le thème « Éviter le gaspillage des denrées alimentaires : stratégies pour une chaîne alimentaire plus efficace dans l'Union européenne». Parlement européen. Source : Europa (2011/2175(INI)).
- Restaurants du cœur. Source : http ://www.restosducoeur. org/
- Sambon, Jacques. Les voies de recours en matière d’accès à l’information environnementale : diversité et complexité des régimes applicables. In: Aménagement - environnement, Vol. 2021, no.2, p. 73 (2021). http://hdl.handle.net/2078.3/267609
- SMED (2011) in Food waste volumes in Sweden. 2012. Swedish Environment Protection Agency. Source : http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-8695- 4.pdf?pid=11892
- Source : http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdfZbiofoodwastereport.pdf
- Source : http://www.eufic.org/article/en/artid/How-to-minimise-food-waste/
- Source : www.cutwastegrowprofit.com
- Soyeux, A. La lutte contre le gaspillage, une solution d’avenir ? Ministère de l’Agriculture et de la Pêche. Service de la statistique et de la prospective. Prospective et Evaluation. Analyse N° 5. Mars 2009. Source : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Analyse 5 La lutte contre le gaspillage.pdf
- Süddeutsche Zeitung : https://www.sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/lebensmittel- verschwendungcontainern-1.4331886
- The "greening" of empire : the European Green Deal as the EU first agenda - Political geography - ISSN 0962-6298-105 (2023) p. 1-10 (Diana Vela Almeida, Vijay Krishnan Kolinjivadi, Tomaso Ferrando, Brototi Roy, Héctor Herrera, Marcela Vecchione Gonçalves, Gert Van Hecken) : https://repository.uantwerpen.be/desktop/irua
- TNS SOFRES. Les Français et le gaspillage alimentaire. 2012. Source : http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes-et-points-de-vue/les-francais-et-le-gaspillage-alimentaire
- Tomaso Ferrando and Julie Mansuy : « The European Action against Food Loss and Waste : Co-Regulation and Collisions on the Way to the Sustainable Development Goals » (University of Warwick - November 2018) : https://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/109189/
- University of Stuttgart. Too good for the bin. 2012. Source : https://www.zugutfuerdietonne.de/uploads/media/TooGoodForTheBin.pdf
- USDA 2014. Source: http://www.usda. gov/oce/foodwaste/
- Venkat, K. The Climate Change and Economic Impacts of Food Waste in the United States. Int. J. Food System Dynamics 2 (4), 2011, 431-446. Source : http://www.cleanmetrics.com/pages/ClimateChangeImpactofUSFoodWaste.pdf
- WRAP 2012. Household Food and Drink Waste in the United Kingdom. Final report. 2012. Source : www.wrap.org.uk
« Food waste : why we had to make supermarkets give it away » (Arash Derambarsh - Resource) : https://resource.co/article/food-waste-why-we-had-make-supermarkets-give-it- away-10853
- « For a European law against food waste » (The president of the Hauts-de-France region, Xavier Bertrand, Arash Derambarsh, deputy mayor in Courbevoie and Marc Simoncini, entrepreneur, are calling for a European law against food waste - JDD) : https://www.lejdd.fr/Politique/xavier-bertrand-veut-une-loi-europeenne-contre-le-gaspillage- alimentaire-3772679
- « Let’s put an end to food waste in Europe » (Arash Derambarsh - Le Monde) : https://www.lemonde.fr/idees/article/2015/07/21/mettons-fin-au-gaspillage-alimentaire-en- europe 4692338 3232.html
- « Why we had to bring mass distribution to bear on food waste » (Arash Derambarsh - Huffington Post) : https://www.huffingtonpost.fr/actualites/article/pourquoi-nous-devions- faire-plier-la-grande-distribution-sur-le-gaspillage-alimentaire 71285.html
- For a European law against food waste » (Arash Derambarsh - Le Figaro) : https://www.lefigaro.fr/vox/politique/2016/06/03/31001-20160603ARTFIG00377-pour-une- loi-europeenne-contre-le-gaspillage-alimentaire.php
- For a rehabilitation of the French agri-food system » (Arash Derambarsh - Huffington Post) : https://www.huffingtonpost.fr/economie/article/pour-une-remise-en-etat-du-systeme- agroalimentaire-francais 95926. html
- Manifesto against Food Waste » (Arash Derambarsh - Fayard) : https://www.fayard.fr/livre/manifeste-contre-le-gaspillage-9782213693866/
- Supermarket food waste 'must be banned by EU and US » (Arash Derambarsh - The Independent) : https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/supermarket-food-waste- must-be-banned-by-eu-and-us-demands-french-politician-arash-derambarsh-a6884191.html
- « French councillor calls on Europe to adopt 'food waste' supermarket law » (Arash Derambarsh - Guardian) : https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/09/french-food- waste-councillor-calls-on-ec-supermarkets-law
- Farmers : the reasons for despair. Bankruptcies, lobbies, malnutrition, pollution - the consequences of a system » (Arash Derambarsh, Eric de la Chesnais - Plon) : https://www.lisez.com/livre-grand-format/agriculteurs-les-raisons-dun- desespoir/9782259252522
Other sources
- “D(i)ritto al cibo” (Andrea Segré - 2022) ;
- “Lo spreco alimentare in Italia e nel mondo” (Andrea Segré, E. Risso - 2023).
- L'insosténibile pesatezza dello spreco alimentairere : dallo spreco zero alla dieta mediterranea (Andrea Segré - 2022)
APPENDIXES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF TOPICS
I- ABBREVIATIONS
II- THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CITIZEN ORGANIZATION TO FIGHT HUNGER
III- SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
I- ABBREVIATIONS
AB: Organic farming
ADEME: Agency for the environment and energy management
ALF: French Dairy Association
ANIA: National Association of Food Industries
ANSES: National Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health Safety
ANSM: National Agency for the Safety of Medicines and Health Products
A.O: Calls for tenders
AOC: Controlled designation of origin
AOP: Protected Designation of Origin
ARIA: Regional Associations of Food Industries of France
BDNI: National identification database
BHPS: British Household Panel Survey
BINGO: Business-friendly international NGO or Big international NGO
BOL: Bill of Labor
BOM: Bill of Materials
CBA: Cost-Benefit Analysis
CCFL: Codex Committee on Food Labeling
CDC: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
EEC: European Economic Community
CAP: Common agricultural policy
CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity
CERFA: Center for registration and review of administrative forms
CESE: The Economic, Social and Environmental Council
CIQUAL: Food Quality Information Center
LAN: Food and Nutrition Liaison Committee
CNRS: National Center for Scientific Research
CPA: Classification of products associated with activities
CPF: French product classification
CPG: Consumer Packaged Goods
CPI: Consumer Price Index
CS: Compensating Surplus
CSO: Civil society organization
CSR: Corporate social responsibility
CREDOC: Research center for the study and observation of living conditions
DALY: Disability-adjusted life years
DCM: Damage Cost Method
DGCCRF: Directorate General for Competition, Consumer Affairs and Fraud Prevention
DLC: Use-by date / Best before date for optimal use
DONGO: Donor-organized NGO
ECHR: European Court of Human Rights
EDI: Electronic Data Interchange
ENGO: Environmental NGO
EPA: Environmental Protection Agency
ERP: Enterprise Resourcing Planning
ES: Equivalent Surplus
EU: European Union
EUFIC: European Food Information Council
EUROSTAT: European Commission's Directorate General for Statistical Information at Community level
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FCA: Full-Cost Accounting
FCD: Federation of Commerce and Distribution
FDA: Food and Drug Administration
FMI: Food Marketing Institute
FMCG: Fast-Moving Consumer Goods / Consumer product
FNE: France Nature Environment
FNSEA: National Federation of Farmers' Unions
FORUM: Zero Food Waste Forum
FUND: Framework for Uncertainty, Negotiation and Distribution (Climate)
FWRA: Food Waste Reduction Alliance
GCVP: Product Life Cycle Management
GDSN: Global Data Synchronization
GDP: Gross Domestic Product
GED: Electronic data management
GHG: Greenhouse Gas
GITNUX: independent marketing platform (business, finance, and technology)
GMA: Grocery Manufacturers Association
GMO: Genetically modified organism
GNP: Gross National Product
GONGO: Government-organized non-governmental organization
GSO: Grassroots Support Organization
HLPE: High-level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition
IAA: food-processing industry
IBC: International Bioethics Committee
IFGB: Institute for Development of Agricultural Economics
IFM: International Monetary Fund
IGO: Intergovernmental organization
INCA: National Cancer Institute
INCI: International Nomenclature of Cosmetic Ingredients
INCO: Consumer Information
INGO: International NGO
INSEE: The national institute of statistics and economic studies
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
IPCEI: Important Projects of Common European Interest
IPPAP: Agricultural product producer price index
IPVI: Industrial Sales Price Index
IS: Information System
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
IV: Instrumental Variable
IWMI: International Water Management Institute
LIMS: Laboratory Information Management System
LM: Maximum limit
MANGO: Market advocacy NGO
MAP: Modified Atmosphere Packaging
MDD: Date of minimum durability
MERGERS: Food use for social innovation by optimizing waste reduction strategies
MES: Manufacturing Execution System
MIN: Markets of national interest
MN: National Brand
M.O: Mail order
MOA: Project management
MOAO: Operational project owner
MOAS: Strategic project management
MOE: Project management
NBI: National Biodiversity Index
NC: Combined nomenclature
NCRA: Northern California Recycling Organization
NGDO: Non-governmental development organization
NGO: Non-governmental organization
NHS: National Health Service
NNGO: Northern (UK) NGO
NPD: New Product Development
NPO: non-profit organization
NRA: National Restaurant Association
NRDC: Natural Resources Defense Council
OTEX: Technical-economic orientation of farms
OECD: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
OMAFRA: Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and Food
P: Phosphorus
PACT: National pact to combat food waste
PAGE: Policy Analysis for the Greenhouse Effect
PANGO: Party NGO — addressing political matters
PGI: Protected geographical indication
PIM: Product Information Management
PLM: Product Lifecycle Management
PNNS: National Nutrition Health Program
PPI: Industrial production index
PPM: Product Portfolio Management
PRODCOM: Community production
PVDO: Private voluntary development organization
QHSE: Quality - Hygiene - Safety - Environment
QMS: Quality Management System
QSE: Quality Safety Environment
QUANGO: Quasi-autonomous NGO
RACI: Responsible, Accountable, Consulted, Informed
RAD: Rapid Application Development
R&D: Research and development
RESEDA: Network of professional and interprofessional organizations for the safety and quality of animal foodstuffs
SBO: Social benefit organization
SCO: Social change organization
SIAL: International Food Exhibition
SCC: Social Cost of Carbon
SIK: Swedish Institute for Food and Biotechnology
SIWI: Stockholm International Water Institute
SNGO: Southern (UK) NGO
SOL-m: Sustainability and Organic Livestock model
SP: Stated Preference
SPS: Safety Health Protection
SRM: Supplier Relationship Management
SRS: Software Requirements Specification
SWB: Subjective Well-Being
TANGO: Technical assistance NGO
TEEB: The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity
TEV: Total Economic Value
TIPP: Internal tax on petroleum products
TNGO: Transnational NGO
TNO: Unofficial National Trend
UFC-Que choisir: Federal Consumer Union—What to choose
UNEP: United Nations Environment Program
UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
USDA: United States Department of Agriculture
VSM: Mechanically separated meat
WBCSD: World Business Council for Sustainable Development
WFP: World Food Program
WHO: World Health Organization
WRAP: Waste and Resources Action Program
WRI: World Resources Institute
WTO: World Trade Organization
WV: Well-being Valuation
WVS: World Values Survey
YOUNGO: Youth NGOs - advocacing for youth rights.
ZAP: Protected Agricultural Zone
II- THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF CITIZEN ORGANIZATION TO FIGHT HUNGER
History has encouraged persons to band together and form associations in light of this historical and legal picture.
As a result, we shall see the ways in which non-governmental organizations, foundations, associations, and international organizations assist the most underprivileged in the modern period.
§1 The main international organizations
A. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
With 194 member nations, two associate members, and one member organization—the European Union—FAO is an intergovernmental organization.
With its main office located in Rome, Italy, this organization has operations in over 130 nations.263
Founded in 1945, it is a United Nations Specialized Agency for food, defined broadly to cover forestry, agriculture, fisheries, and food-related sectors.
It is a key player in global initiatives to end hunger.
Serving both developed and developing nations, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) provides an impartial platform where all nations gather as equals to negotiate agreements and discuss policy.
FAO is a resource for information and expertise as well. It supports modernizing and enhancing agricultural, forestry, and fisheries practices as well as ensuring enough nourishment for all in emerging and transitional nations.
Almost 70% of the world's impoverished and hungry reside in rural regions, therefore since its founding, it has paid special attention to their development.
Four primary areas of action for FAO are :
- Ensure that everyone has access to information.
- Exchange knowledge on policies.
- Act as a venue for State meetings.
- Provide expertise to the field.
The FAO's motto is « helping establish a world free of hunger ».
The Latin phrase « Fiat panis », which translates to « Let there be bread for everyone », appears on its logo.
Therefore, it appears that this slogan contradicts the Latin phrase « Panem et circenses », which was coined in ancient Rome and is commonly translated as « Bread and games »
The literal meaning of the phrase is « bread and circus games ».
The historical irony lies in the fact that the FAO's headquarters is located there. Very symbolic.
Mr. Qu Dongyu is its director at the moment.
On August 1, 2019, he was appointed as the ninth Director-General of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
On July 2, 2023, he was re-elected to a second four-year term in this capacity.264
B. The World Food Programme (WFP)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
WFP works with communities to improve their nutritional status, resilience, and ability to withstand hardship in order to fight world hunger. It also distributes food help when needed. Every year, 80 million people receive aid from WFP in almost 80 countries.
The 2020 Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to this organization for their efforts to fight hunger in areas affected by conflict around the globe.265
Rome, Italy is home to the company's headquarters.
President Dwight Eisenhower of the United States came up with the concept for it in an effort to get funding for a short-term, three-year humanitarian initiative266.
Consequently, resolutions passed by the UN on 24th November 1961, and the FAO on 19th
December 1961, established the PAM.267
This temporary program became a permanent program of the UN and the FAO in 1965, following its intervention following the 1962 earthquake in Buin Zahra in Iran.268
In order to combat world hunger, WFP works with communities to enhance their resilience and improve their nutritional condition in addition to providing food aid in times of need. In almost 80 countries, WFP provides assistance to 80 million people annually.
For their work to combat hunger in places impacted by violence worldwide, this group was given the 2020 Nobel Peace Prize.
The Nobel Foundation listed the following justifications for this decision on their website :
« Combat hunger on a global scale
The World Food Program was awardedthe Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts to combat hunger, promote peace in conflict-affected areas, and prevent the use of hunger as a weapon ofwar and conflict.
WFPwas establishedin 1961 by the UnitedNations GeneralAssembly andFAO, the Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. WFP is the world’s largest humanitarian organization and is funded by voluntary contributions from governments, organizations and private individuals.
WFP works in particular to achieve the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal of eradicating poverty and hunger. In 2019, more than 100 million people suffered from severe hunger, most ofthem as a result ofwar and conflict. The worldwide Coronapandemic did also swell the number ofpoor and hungry. In 2019, WFP provided emergency food assistance in 88 countries, but the organization also worked in a long-term perspective to increase local production offood and to meet the nutritional needs ofwomen and infants.
The Norwegian Nobel Committee has previously awarded Peace Prizes for efforts that can prevent war andpromote peace by combating hunger. The first one was presented in 1949 to
FAO’s Director General John Boyd Orr, and the second in 1970 to Norman Ernest Borlaug, “the father ofthe Green Revolution ».269
The Executive Director of the World Food Program (WFP), Cindy Hensley McCain, took office on 5th April 2023270
§2 The main food banks
Food banks are defined as organizations that « collect, handle, and share food to help people eat » in the French Federation of Food Banks charter. Tipping, giving, sharing, volunteering, and patronage are the foundations of their operations ».271
These non-profit organizations seek to gather food, ideally non-perishable, and provide it to the poorest people for free or almost free, mostly through partnerships with other intermediate groups in North America, Europe, and more generally throughout all developed nations.
The objective is to combat food waste and provide food assistance in response to the social emergency so that the hungry and those in need can be fed.
The European Federation of Food Banks reports that 12.8 million people's basic needs were met in 2020 with 1.6 billion meals supplied around Europe.272
5.5 million French citizens, according to the French Federation of Food Banks, rely on food assistance provided by significant humanitarian organizations (French Red Cross, Les Restaurants du Cœur, Food Bank, Secours Populaire français).
These folks include the elderly, the impoverished working class, the homeless, the disabled, single mothers with small children, and a growing number of young people.
In 2005, food banks in the United States helped almost 25 million underprivileged individuals (of which 9 million were children and 3 million were elderly).
Over 38 million Americans are food insecure, hungry, or at danger of becoming hungry, according to Second Harvest.
The European Federation of Food Banks reports that 1.6 billion meals were supplied throughout Europe in 2020, satisfying everyone's basic requirements.
1. United Food Bank America
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The East Valley has played a significant role in United Food Bank's history from its founding as United Food Distribution Center, Inc. in July 1983.
In order to collect and provide food to East Valley groups that were assisting in feeding the hungry, the East Valley communities and their separate United Ways launched the Food Bank as a nonprofit cooperative effort.
In its inaugural year, the Food Bank provided support to 28 distinct community partners, some of which remain partners to this day, including the Chandler Christian Community Center, the Apache Junction Food Bank, and the Mesa Senior Center.273
The Food Bank's original service region in the East Valley of Maricopa County was joined in 1985 by the present serving areas of Gila, Pinal, and southern Apache and Navajo Counties.
In response to the growing demand from residents in our service region, the Food Bank has expanded.
Some of the most isolated places in the state are included in our 19,608 square mile service region. Locations such as Sanders, Arizona, where the next town is forty miles distant and there are just a few food outlets.
United Food Bank works with more than 150 partner agencies and programs to assist feed families, kids, and elderly in order to serve as many people as possible.
About 40% of the food produced in the US for human consumption is wasted annually.
The goal of United Food Bank is to provide part of that food to individuals in need. The goal of the initiative is to get a range of wholesome items for food pantries and meal programs from nearby grocery stores.
2. European Food Banks Federation
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The European Food Banks Federation's website provides an excellent account of the Food Bank's history and beginnings.274
John Van Hengel established the first food bank, St. Mary's Food Bank, in Phoenix, Arizona (USA), in 1967.
After leaving his childhood home of Los Angeles to relocate to Arizona in 1965, John Van Hengel volunteered at a soup kitchen.
With only $8,000 allotted for dining hall expenses each year, John Van Hengel had to find ways to receive free goods. He began by gathering fruits and vegetables that were still on the trees and in the fields.
Still, he was receiving more vegetables than was required by the soup kitchen where he worked.
As a result, he gave other humanitarian groups the remaining goods so they could serve more meals. The first food bank was established as a result of the necessity to organize this activity after a time.
The warehouse was an old bakery. Van Hengel and his associates promptly started the task of procuring excess food from many stores, some of which dispatched their vehicles straight to the warehouse.
As a form of positive contamination, the word of this new kind of bank became viral, and similar to the St. Mary's Food Bank, other food banks were established—in the United States and, a few years later, also in Canada.
The idea was introduced to Sister Cécile Bigot in France in 1984 by Francis Lopez, the Canadian founder of the Edmonton Food Bank.
She got in touch with Bernard Dandrel of Secours Catholique to address the rising poverty in Paris, and together they launched the Paris-Ile de France Food Bank in July 1984, working with other charitable organizations as Emmaüs and the Salvation Army.
André Hubert quickly adopted similar strategy in Belgium, opening the nation's first food bank in Brussels.
Subsequently, André Hubert and Bernard Dandrel realized that Food Banks needed a unified, well-run organization to represent them throughout Europe. On 23rd September 1986, the European Federation of Food Banks (FEBA) was established.
FEBA saw a number of changes in 2018.
After thirty-two years, the organization's Board of Directors and General Assembly made the decision to relocate it from Bourg-la-Reine (Paris) to Brussels in order to facilitate the professional development of its members and to be nearer European institutions, other stakeholders, and non-governmental organizations.
The European Federation of Food Banks stated on 28th February 2018, that FEBA, a non-profit organization registered under Belgian law, has expanded its French law organization and set up shop in Brussels with the same goals.
On 10th October 2018, Vytenis Andriukaitis, Commissioner for Health and Food Safety, and Bernard Dandrel, FEBA's founding father, attended the official inauguration of the headquarters in Brussels.
The 35th anniversary of FEBA was commemorated on September 23, 2021.
By encouraging cooperation and preventing food waste, the group has helped to lower food insecurity in Europe since 1986.
In order to achieve this goal, FEBA has encouraged the growth and establishment of a network of food banks throughout Europe in order to save nutritious food from going to waste and to assist nonprofit organizations in feeding an increasing number of the hungry.
FEBA, a network of 351 food banks operating in 30 European nations, is expanding today.
3. Second Harvest Canada
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The largest food rescue organization in Canada, Second Harvest is a global authority in the redistribution of perishable food.275
Second Harvest was established in 1985 with the goal of rescuing and distributing fresh food to Canadians.
6.7 million Canadians utilize non-profit food programs annually, according to Second Harvest
According to the organization, 11.2 million metric tons of unsold surplus food are dumped in Canadian food sector dumps annually.
Recovering food from 5,700 food contributors, Second Harvest presently provides 3,700 nonprofit and philanthropic groups that feed people in Canada with food.
Second Harvest provided assistance to 4.3 million individuals in 2022.
By way of its Food Rescue and Delivery initiative, Second Harvest salvaged and repurposed 53.3 million pounds of food in 2022 (compared to 41 million in 2021).
Produce accounted for 47% of the food, bread and grains for 12%, dairy and dairy substitutes for 10%, baked goods and snacks for 9%, prepared foods for 8%, meats and substitutes for 7%, water and drinks for 4%, and sauces for 4%.
86% of food contributions in 2022 were perishable. Second Harvest relocated to a larger warehouse including more freezer capacity. The quantity of food salvaged through the warehouse grew by 69% with the new facility.
Every year for eight weeks, Second Harvest provides free food packages to children enrolled in summer programs as part of the Feeding Our Future initiative.
In 2022, the organization ran 32 camps in the Greater Toronto Area, giving over 16,000 kits and wholesome meals.
4. Armenian Food Bank276
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Important help has been offered by the Armenian Food Bank, a humanitarian group whose goal is to support Armenian refugees.
The Armenian Food Bank Charitable Foundation was founded in 2020 by Michael Avetikyan, and since then, it has actively provided veterans and impoverished families with much-needed humanitarian relief.
This group helped around 200,000 individuals of Armenia and Artsakh in 2020 alone.
Additionally, it made it easier to gather and deliver 12 tons of humanitarian supplies to
Artsakh.277
5. French food banks
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
French food banks make meals for the organizations based on each one's specific food support technique (meal plan, basket, etc.).
They then give them out to a network of municipal social action centers (CCAS) and more than 6,000 groups.278
Food banks provide a variety of redistribution models, including social grocery stores that sell food at a discount. Social grocery stores help individuals as well.
6. Bancos de Alimentos de Mexico (BAMX)
The Food Bank of Mexico, sometimes referred to as « Bancos de Alimentos de Mexico » (BAMX), is composed of 56 food banks located throughout the Mexican Republic.
In 2021, 135 thousand tons of food are recovered by Mexico's food bank network.
A little over two million individuals in risky circumstances have profited.279
Bancos de Alimentos de Mexico (BAMX) is a consortium of 56 food banks located throughout the Mexican Republic.280
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
7. Food Bank Kanagawa Japan
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
In July 2017, Kanagawa Food Bank Plus obtained a non-profit corporation license.281
The organization's core mission is to help those who lead challenging lives and are invisible to the general public.
A rising number of people do not meet the traditional definition of poverty, including those who are unemployed, elderly individuals who only get a minimal pension, and single-parent households that find it difficult to provide for their children.
In collaboration with other organizations, this food bank offers food assistance and a means of subsistence to those who are impoverished, elderly, single-parent households, and those who are at danger of becoming impoverished.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
8. Leket Israel
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Serving more than 175,000 needy individuals each week, Leket Israël, The National Food Bank, is the top food rescue organization in Israel.
It is a recognized nonprofit charity with its headquarters in Israel. Leket Israel uses its network of more than 200 nonprofit organization (NPO) partners to salvage leftover agricultural products and gather extra prepared meals for distribution to the underprivileged throughout Israel.282
§3 The main non-governmental organizations
An organization that works for the public good but is not affiliated with the government or an international body is known as a non-governmental organization (NGO).
The United Nations Charter's Chapter 10, Article 71, first introduced the phrase « non-governmental organization » in 1945.
An official definition of a non-governmental organization (NGO) has also been provided by the Council of Europe.
As a result, there has been discussion over the legal standing of non-governmental groups throughout Europe.
The Council of Europe published a Recommendation CM/REC (2007)14, adopted by the Council of Ministers on 10th October 2007.283
What constitutes an NGO is mostly determined by :
- the non-profit nature of its operations; - the private roots of its constitution; - financial independence
- autonomy on the political front
- the concept of the general welfare
In the absence of clear definitions for NGOs, institutions like the UN and the EU have compiled a list of NGOs that are regarded as reliable sources of information.
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the UN has a committee tasked with overseeing non-governmental organizations.
There are 5591 organizations with consultative status with ECOSOC as of August 2021.
There are 967 organizations on the Roster, 4483 in special consultative status, and 141 in general consultative status.284
The Sustainable Development Commission recognizes 400 more.
Two categories of NGOs can be distinguished :
1) Humanitarian NGOs like Médecin Sans Frontières, Action Against Hunger, La Croix Rouge, and others are examples of organizations that support development or focus on providing emergency relief.
2) Advocacy NGOs, like Greenpeace, OXFAM, WWF, and Reporters sans Frontières, whose goal is to defend a viewpoint, a community, or a cause.
NGOs have gained more credibility at significant international summits during the 2000s as a result of their increased professionalism.
As explained by Madame Agnès Gautier-Audebert (Professor in public law at the University of Paris 8 Vincennes-Saint-Denis), « Despite their weaknesses compared to the main actors, NGOs are multiplying. The study oftheir concept helps to explain this contradiction.
The creation of an NGO is not the result of a complex process and the lack of legal rules applicable to these organizations makes it difficult to precisely define the concept.
Unlike international intergovernmental organizations composed of States, NGOs are groups, non-profit associations, created freely by individuals who express a certain form of transnational solidarity.
Thus, it is a private initiative which allows the creation of an NGO, and this outside of any governmental or intergovernmental directive. Individuals who are members must come from at least two countries.
Only these different criteria make it possible to distinguish NGOs from other entities under international law.
The ease in creation is found in the status.
The international status ofthese private groups is almost non-existent: in fact, NGOs do not benefit from international legalpersonality; They therefore carry out their activity under the national law of the State where they are based, while being able to associate with intergovernmental organizations.
In the absence ofa real international status, ofofficial recognition, the legal status applied to them is that oflegal entity underprivate law: thus, in France, the law on associations of 1901 is applied to them unlike other countries which grant much more flexible benefits like in Belgium for example ».285
Here are the main non-governmental organizations working for food aid.
1. Action against Hunger
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Action Against Hunger is a non-governmental international solidarity group (NGO) that was founded in 1979 and works to end world hunger.
It is an association of the 1901 legislation kind.286
Malnutrition is caused by a number of factors, including poverty, inequality in access to healthcare and water, conflicts, and climate change.
This non-governmental organization's goal is to end hunger by preventing, identifying, and treating undernourishment.
This is especially important during and after emergency circumstances resulting from natural disasters and wars.
2. International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, which is well-known and esteemed globally, is composed of three separate entities as outlined in its charter.287
With its 191 National Societies, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) serves 160 million people annually, making it the biggest voluntary humanitarian network in the world.
The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), on the other hand, is a neutral, unbiased, and autonomous organization whose sole purpose is to defend the lives and dignity of people who are victims of armed conflict and other violent circumstances and to offer them aid.
By advancing and bolstering humanitarian law and universal humanitarian ideals, the ICRC also seeks to stop suffering.
The Geneva Conventions and the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement originated with the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in 1863.
It oversees and plans the Movement's global operations in times of armed war and other violent events.
Lastly, national Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies offer a variety of services, such as social, health, and disaster assistance, and serve as an extension of the governmental authorities in their respective nations.
3. OXFAM
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
An international movement called Oxfam is ending injustice and poverty by fighting inequality.
This organization collaborates with individuals in all fields, from local to global, to bring about lasting change.288
Over 20 separate charities operating in almost 70 countries worldwide are united under the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, or OXFAM.
These non-governmental organizations are now working for sustainable development as well as against global poverty and inequality on the political, economic, and humanitarian fronts. The Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, or OXFAM, is a global alliance of over 20 separate humanitarian organizations operating in about 70 nations.
These non-governmental organizations are now working for sustainable development as well as against global poverty and inequality on the political, economic, and humanitarian fronts. OXFAM specifically addressed the need to restructure the agri-food sector in order to combat food waste and the climate catastrophe289.
4. FOODWATCH
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
A nonprofit advocacy organization called Foodwatch seeks to guarantee that everyone has access to affordable, healthy food.
This organization supports transparency in the food sector, gives consumers a strong voice, and defends consumers' rights to eat food that doesn't harm people or the environment.290
5. Syrian Arab Red Crescent (SARC)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The Syrian Arab Red Crescent (SARC) is a NGO dedicated to humanitarian relief. Its main office is located in Damascus, the capital of Syria.291
6. The Aga Khan Foundation
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Food security and charitable giving to the most impoverished are priorities for AKDN.
Thus, one in nine individuals worldwide suffer from hunger or malnutrition.
In low-income nations, almost 60% of the population experiences food insecurity.
For more than 50 years, AKDN has worked in isolated and vulnerable areas to combat poverty, provide real food security, and enhance the standard of living for smallholder farmers and their families.292
Over eight million people who live in impoverished rural regions now have better quality of life because to the widespread adaptation and replication of this development strategy.
7. WORDL VISION - Myanmar
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Since 1991, World Vision has been operating in 13 of the 14 states and regions of Myanmar.
Among the biggest foreign non-governmental organizations in Myanmar, World Vision employs more than 700 full-time employees and 3,000 volunteers throughout 34 program areas and 10 special projects.
Movement abides with the Humanitarian Accountability Standards and the Sphere Standards for Humanitarian Action.
Islamic Relief has also received accreditation under the Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS), attesting to the caliber of our assistance initiatives.293
Programs are offered in several areas, such as child protection, livelihoods, health, education, and agriculture. In 1998, a microfinance program was launched, and at that time, it had over 60,000 customers.
Additionally, World Vision has a strong capacity for disaster response because to supplies that are stored in advance in warehouses in Mandalay and Yangon.
The emphasis on community-based disaster risk reduction is growing in terms of programming.
World Vision, a prominent humanitarian organization in Myanmar, is still providing aid to internally displaced persons in Kachin State and rehabilitation assistance to regions impacted by the landslides in Chin State and the floods in the Ayeyarwady, Magway, and Sagain Regions in 2015.
Specifically, World Vision is highly engaged in the battle against food waste.
Thus, the worldwide humanitarian organization World Vision called for a global commitment to halt food loss by 29th September 2022, the « International Awareness Day » for Reducing Food Loss and Waste and warned that food waste is intimately related to both rising global hunger and climate change.294
8. Islamic relief - Kenya
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
A Board of Directors made up of both foreign and Kenyan members oversees Islamic Relief, which is locally registered with the Kenya NGO Board (Reg.No. 218/051/204/0374/3386).
Islamic Relief is a non-governmental organization that provides humanitarian aid to individuals based only on their need without discrimination, despite its work being inspired by faith.
It is not a religious organization. Additionally, international agreements and collaborations uphold this commitment: Following the Humanitarian Accountability Standards and the Sphere Standards for Humanitarian Action, Islamic Relief is a signatory to the International Red Cross and Red Crescent (ICRC) Movement's Code of Conduct.
Moreover, Islamic Relief has obtained Core Humanitarian Standard (CHS) certification, demonstrating the excellence of our assistance initiatives.295
9. The Catholic Commission for Development (CADECOM) - Malawi
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Caritas Malawi was established in 1984. In an attempt to present a more development-focused image than a relief organization, it renamed itself as CADECOM (Catholic Development Commission in Malawi) in 1999.
The Social Development Directorate's CADECOM section primarily serves underprivileged, marginalized, and destitute homes and communities in Malawi.
It functions in accordance with Catholic social doctrine.296
Malawi, one of the poorest countries in the world, has a number of challenges, such as extreme poverty, disease, and a lack of essential resources.
Other social and environmental problems that impede improved livelihoods include HIV/AIDS, air pollution, prolonged dry spells, floods, malnutrition, orphaned children, and inadequate educational opportunities, especially for girls.297
10. Caritas Bolivia
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Established to promote integral human development via a network of 18 social-pastoral Caritas groups based in Bolivia, Caritas Bolivia is an official institution of the Catholic Church under the jurisdiction of the Bolivian Bishops' Conference.
It is a member of the Caritas Internationalis confederation, the Justice and Solidarity Department (DEJUSOL) of the Latin American Episcopal Council (CELAM), and the Latin American and Caribbean Secretariat of Caritas (SELACC) at the regional level.298
Established on 4th December 1958, Caritas Bolivia was granted legal personality on 4th December 1958, by Supreme Decree No. 79050, which recognized the organization as a social aid, promotion, and charity organization.
This legal recognition was historically achieved with the USAID PL 480 program, which distributed food, medications, and clothes and ended in 1998.37
The Bolivian Bishops' Conference subsequently established the Pastoral Social organization on February 16, 1964, with the objectives of promoting the Church's social doctrine and providing training in this regard, aiding organizations whose human rights are under danger, and conducting studies and analyses on solidarity and related national campaigns.
Both Pastoral Social and Caritas Bolivia began working on economic and production development in the middle of the 1980s, and they agreed on social activities and pastoral initiatives. The Bolivian Assembly of Bishops made the decision to combine the two organizations in November 1994 in response to this circumstance, and the first Joint Assembly of Pastoral Social - Caritas Bolivia - was the result of this process in 2000.
In order to prevent forced migration, the organization works on the following issues: risk and emergency management (people affected by floods, drought, landslides, and forest fires, as well as humanitarian assistance during social conflicts); promotion, defense, and restitution of human rights (people deprived of freedom, migrants, refugees, victims of human trafficking, the blind, the elderly, and the sick); strengthening of democracy (civic participation, training, strengthening and accompaniment of indigenous and farmers’ organizations); and sustainable development of the economy and production (food security, small businesses, supportive co-funding, development to prevent forced migration).
11. Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
ADRA, or ADRA International is the Adventist Development and Relief Agency.299
The name of the organization is an abbreviation for the Adventist Development and Relief Agency, or ADRA, an English humanitarian organization founded following World War II with the goal of helping victims of war, especially those in Europe, North Africa, and Asia.
She oversees initiatives for community and personal growth as well as relief efforts related to natural catastrophes.
This organization has been a member of the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) since 1997.
The Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA) frequently steps in to address issues related to food security.
It launched its emergency plan to fight hunger for 2023 in order to reach the most vulnerable children, families and individuals in the Horn of Africa.300
12. Asmae - Sister Emmanuelle Association
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The ASMAE association301 was founded by Sister Emmanuelle (Asmae) in 1980.
It is an independent, apolitical and secular international solidarity NGO.
Specializing in child development and recognized as being of public utility, this NGO is involved in many continents such as in Africa with Burkina Faso, Madagascar or Egypt, in Asia with Lebanon or the Philippines and in Europe with France and Belgium in particular.
In 2023, ASMAE and the city of Courbevoie have united around different projects against food waste.302
§4 The main foundations fighting hunger and poverty
Creating a foundation allows the wealthiest residents to contribute to the battle against hunger, food insecurity, and waste.
This arrangement has a strong resemblance to the charitable systems of the 17th and 18th centuries. Some will applaud the investment in the public good, while others will reject it because of worries about money and reputation.
What is exactly a Foundation ?303
A foundation—also called a philanthropic foundation—is a kind of nonprofit organization or charitable trust that, in addition to potentially engaging in direct charity operations, primarily supports and finances other charitable organizations through grants.
Public charity foundations such as community foundations and private foundations, which are frequently endowed by an person or family, are also considered forms of foundations.
However, entities that are not mainly involved in public grantmaking may also choose to use the word « foundation ».
This diagram drawn by Anja Bauer shows how a Foundation works.304
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
1. Foundation Louis BONDUELLE
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Through field initiatives, the « Louis Bonduelle Foundation » has reached over 500,000 beneficiaries since 2004 and has financially supported and encouraged over 200 projects.
Operating on the American, African, and European continents, the Foundation is a business foundation registered under French law that provides help to regions undergoing food transition by utilizing its expertise and inventiveness to create practical, realistic, and long- lasting models.
The Louis Bonduelle Foundation works to promote dietary practices that are sustainable and honor the environment.
The « Louis Bonduelle Foundation » use scientific research and communication to increase the effect of its fieldwork in order to accomplish this goal and increase the availability, acceptability, and accessibility of sustainable food..305
2. The Foundation for Food & Agriculture Research (FFAR)
The « Foundation for Food and Agricultural Research » (FFAR) is involved in the fight against food waste.
The Food Waste Challenge is being launched by the « Kroger Co. Zero Hunger | Zero Waste Foundation » and the « Foundation for Food & Agriculture Research » (FFAR) in order to create a novel and cutting-edge approach for routinely measuring the amount of food waste produced in US households in a way that will be useful to all parties involved in the food chain.
Food waste happens throughout the food system for a variety of causes and at different levels, which makes solving the issue particularly difficult.
Innovative initiatives that place a strong emphasis on a dedication to the collaboration of academics and practitioners across various industries and disciplines will be given priority by FFAR.
The knowledge gained by creating measures at the home level might help guide efforts to reduce food waste at later stages of the food chain.306
3. The Kroger Co. Zero Hunger - Zero Waste Foundation
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
In order to help charitable organizations, social entrepreneurs, and innovative thinkers who are committed to enhancing food security, eradicating food waste, and other related goals, the « Kroger Co. Zero Hunger - Zero Waste Foundation » was established.
Operating on three pillars, the foundation takes pride in feeding the communities that we call home, one meal at a time307:
- Promoting group effort
- Sparking creativity
- Establishing a fairer food system
4. The Zero Food Waste Foundation
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The following initiatives are carried out by the Canadian « Zero Food Waste Foundation »308: - the sharing of food surpluses to combat hunger and climate change.
- connect companies with excess food to the most underprivileged individuals who require it most. Recover and reassign consumable revenue to lodging establishments, restaurants, and catering companies.
- Fight injustices and food poverty
5. Foundation Daniel et Nina Carasso
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The « Daniel and Nina Carasso Foundation » views food insecurity as a social justice issue, and as such, it is actively combating.309
§5 Major associations and charities fighting against food waste
Many charitable associations work to combat food waste. Here is a non-exhaustive list.
Many associations and charitable organizations are working to combat food waste around the world.
The writer Lani Furbank was able to list numerous organizations, associations and personalities who work in their country to combat food waste.310
Here is a non-exhaustive list.
1. 412 Food Rescue311 (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States)
Utilizing technology, this food rescue organization matches food givers with recipients and organizes volunteers to make it all happen.
The group gathers nutritious, fresh food that is unsellable but still in excellent condition, and then gives it to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, neighborhood organizations that help the underprivileged.
Additionally, they have a reduced-price Ugly CSA that offers unsightly but edible food.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
2. Amp Your Good312 (United States)
Crowd-feeding was initiated by Amp Your Good in an attempt to alter the way food cravings function. Instead of limiting food drives to canned or non-perishable items, groups may now create campaigns to raise nutritious, fresh food across the United States.
By gathering donated produce, we can keep it out of the trash and provide it to people in need.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
3. Boston Area Gleaners313 (Boston, Massachusetts, United States)
Volunteer groups are organized by Boston Area Gleaners in Boston, Massachusetts, to salvage excess agricultural products and provide them to those in need.
They harvested almost 400,000 pounds of vegetables in 2015 from 54 separate farms, encompassing 66 crop varieties.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
4. Boulder Food Rescue [53] (Boulder, Colorado, United States)
By working with companies to locate food that would otherwise be thrown away, Boulder Food Recuse transfers it to food pantries and day shelters via bicycle.
Over a million pounds of food have been diverted from landfills to feed the tummies of needy people in Boulder, Colorado, to date.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
5. Caritas314 (Vatican City, Italy)
Caritas, which has its headquarters in Vatican City, works to enhance public awareness of the dangerous consequences of food waste as food prices and food poverty grow.
Through their soup kitchens, National Caritas groups all across the world redistribute high- quality, unspoiled food.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
6. Center for a Livable Future315 (Baltimore, Maryland, United States)
This initiative from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health in Baltimore, Maryland, aims to decrease the amount of food that is wasted in the United States through research, analysis, and consumer awareness campaigns.
Developing improved language for food labeling, mapping wasted food and food recovery, measuring marine waste, studying the nutritional value of lost food, examining agricultural contributions and legislative incentives, and more are some of their ongoing initiatives.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
7. Connecticut Food Share316 (Bloomfield, Connecticut, United States)
As a participant in Feeding America's Food Bank Network, Food Share strives to combat food waste and promote self-sufficiency among the undernourished and food insecure.
By gathering food donations from the food sector and delivering them to food pantries, community kitchens, homeless shelters, and other partner organizations, they assist in the distribution of 12 million meals annually.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
8. City Harvest317 (New York, New York, United States)
The first food rescue group in the world, City Harvest, was established in 1982.
They plan to gather 55 million pounds of surplus food in 2016 from bakers, supermarkets, restaurants, farmers, and manufacturers and donate it to 500 community food organizations located around New York City at no cost.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
9. Community Food Rescue318: (Montgomery County, Maryland, United States)
Utilizing technology, this coordinated food recovery network in Montgomery County, Maryland, improves the efforts of companies, people, and groups who already collect and give away edible food to those in need.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
10. Copia319: (San Francisco, California, United States)
Copia is a smartphone app that uses algorithms to arrange food delivery and donations in six locations in the San Francisco Bay Area of California.
A driver will come pick up food donations once anyone having food to contribute post their details via the app. A food seeker only needs to publish a request online and wait for a match.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
11. Courbevoie 3.0 (Courbevoie, France)
The « Courbevoie 3.0 » association, chaired by Arash Derambarsh320, has initiated numerous distributions of unsold food and two major petitions to obtain a law against food waste in France321 and Europe322.
The association has received support from numerous NGOs (Action Against Hunger, the Red Cross) but also from international organizations such as the United Nations World Food
Program (WFP)323 or the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (FAO)324.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
12. Culinary Misfits325 (Berlin, Germany)
This catering business was founded by two friends in Berlin, Germany, Lea Brumsack and Tanja Krakowski.
They employ fruit that doesn't meet traditional beauty standards or is considered a culinary misfit.
The innate beauty of misshaped vegetables, which are usually discarded, is celebrated in their meals.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
13. DC Central Kitchen326 (District of Columbia, United States)
Free meals are sent to nonprofits, transitional housing units, and homeless shelters by this Washington, D.C.-based food delivery program.
Through their food recycling initiative, they are able to prepare wholesome meals for people in need out of leftovers and excess food. In addition, they provide low-income D.C. kids with nutritious school meals and cooking instruction for jobless adults.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
14. ExtraFood327 (San Rafael, California, United States)
All food donations are accepted by ExtraFood, including cooked meals, fresh vegetables, dairy, eggs, meat, packaged items, and baked goods.
In less than 30 minutes, their volunteers in San Rafael, California, pick up extra fresh food and food donations from various organizations and bring it straight to the beneficiary.
They work to assist the most vulnerable people of the community, such as children, adults, and families, and have saved and given more than 7 million pounds of food.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
15. Feedback328 (London, England)
To bring attention to the worldwide food waste crisis, Feedback runs practical awareness programs like Feeding the 5000.
Feeding the 5000 is a free meal program that uses food that would have otherwise gone to waste to feed 5,000 people.
They are attempting to create a worldwide movement against food waste from their base in London, England.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
16. Food Bank MK329 (Skopje - Macedonia)
Founder and director of MK Food Bank Dusko Hristov is a well-known Macedonian campaigner in the battle against food waste.
He distinguished himself during the Covid-19 health crisis by spearheading the #WeStandTogether effort and providing approximately 1,700 households in over twenty cities nationwide with over 35 tons of food and sanitary supplies.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
17. Food Cycle »330 (London, England)
Food Cycle employs excess food to make wholesome meals for those at risk of food insecurity and social isolation with the assistance of volunteers.
While they service almost thirty communities around the United Kingdom, its headquarters are in London City (UK).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
18. Food For Soul331 (Modena, Italy)
Star chef Massimo Bottura and his wife Lara Gilmore founded the Food for Soul association with the goal of combating food waste and social food isolation.
The chef from Italy has produced a lot of « Refettorio ».
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Massimo BOTTURA was elected in 2019 by Time Magazine among the hundred most influential people in the world.
In his native land of Modena in Italy, he runs the Osteria Francescana restaurant, which has been twice crowned best restaurant in the World's 50 Best rankings.332
19. Food Forward333 (Los Angeles and Ventura, California, United States)
Food Forward, an organization run entirely by volunteers, collects extra produce from public and private areas as well as farmers' markets and wholesale stores in Ventura and Los Angeles, California.
The product is delivered to organizations that assist the underprivileged. Programs like « private picks », where groups may come together and gather excess food, and « youth service projects », which enables interested youngsters to complete service projects with Food
Forward's assistance, are examples of initiatives they have to include other residents.
The group has successfully saved around 19,5 million pounds of vegetables in total.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
20. FoodLoop [74] (Cologne, Germany)
Food retail businesses may fast sell food goods with a limited shelf life by using this network technology from Cologne, Germany.
It works by changing pricing and targeting customers using the FoodLoop mobile app.
Based on their past purchases and preferences, users of the app will receive exclusive deals and discounts.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
21. Food Recovery Network334 (College Park, Maryland, United States)
Since 2011, this student-led initiative to combat poverty and food waste has grown to over 192 chapters and has retrieved over 1.3 million pounds of food.
Since its founding in College Park, Maryland's University of Maryland, it has grown to 42 states.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
22. Food Recovery Project335 (Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States)
This project, an effort of the University of Arkansas School of Law's Agricultural & Food Law Program in Fayetteville, Arkansas, attempts to increase public awareness of the issues surrounding poverty and food waste.
They offer tools and legal information to enable and encourage companies to create and carry out food recovery initiatives.
Razorback Food Recovery is a student-run volunteer group at the University of Arkansas that aims to recover and distribute extra food.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
23. Food Shift336 (Oakland, California, United States)
To create long-term solutions that lessen food waste and hunger, Food Shift collaborates with businesses, governments, and communities. Food Shift provides job and training opportunities for persons overcoming homelessness through their recently created initiative, the Alameda Kitchen, which turns surplus and otherwise discarded goods into nutritional products for the community.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
24. Food Surplus Entrepreneurs Network337 (England)
Through online connections and joint events held in hub cities around the continent, this network brings together European food surplus businesses.
Their social innovators collaborate to develop fresh approaches to reduce food waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
25. Food Waste Reduction Alliance [79] (District of Columbia, United States)
The industrial, retail, and food service industries in the United States are the main focus of the Food Waste Reduction Alliance's (FWRA) efforts. The FWRA aims to lessen the amount of food waste that ends up in landfills and instead utilizes it to feed the hungry in order to lessen our environmental impact.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
26. Forgotten Harvest [80] (Detroit, Michigan, United States)
Grocery stores, fruit and vegetable markets, restaurants, caterers, dairies, farmers, wholesale food distributors, and other establishments provide excess prepared and perishable food to Forgotten Harvest.
After that, they provide it to 300 Detroit-area emergency food suppliers.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
27. Hands for Hunger [81] (Nassau, Bahamas)
Through the reduction of food waste, this group aims to increase food security in the Bahamas. They accomplish this by offering non-perishable food storage, rescuing and donating food, and teaching children about hunger and food waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
28. « Harvard Food Law and Policy Clinic » (FLPC)338 (Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States)
The FLPC, which was founded in 2010, provides Harvard Law School students with the chance to collaborate with groups on food-related legal and policy matters, including food waste. They made a short film called « EXPIRED » to illustrate how US food waste is caused by false food date labels.
Additionally, they are in charge of the Global Food Donation Policy Atlas, which offers suggestions and chances for member nations to cut down on food loss and waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
29. Hungry Harvest339 (Maryland, United States)
Delivered in boxes, this charity rescues « ugly » produce—vegetables that are still edible but cannot be sold in stores.
The boxes are delivered directly to households in Northern Virginia, Maryland, and Washington, D.C.
Through one of their donation partners, Hungry Harvest distributes one to two pounds of vegetables for each transaction made.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
30. Imperfect Produce [84] (Emeryville, California, United States)
According to Imperfect Produce, fruits and vegetables shouldn't be thrown out simply because they don't look good.
They purchase defective product from farmers and sell it straight to Bay Area residents at a discount.
They also have a bulk ordering service and community drop-off locations.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
31. Iskashitaa Refugee Network [85] (Tucson, Arizona, United States)
Through its harvesting program, which teaches refugees and other volunteers how to locate, access, harvest, utilize, and preserve locally cultivated produce—mostly from edible trees— this grassroots group reduces food waste.
Through chances to use their home country's knowledge and abilities, this program also
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
32. Island Grown Gleaning340 (Vineyard Haven, Massachusetts, United States)
On Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts, a group of volunteers gets together once a week to assist with picking and packing the excess produce from that week's harvest.
They saved more than 50,000 pounds of vegetables in 2021.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
33. K-12 Food Rescue341 (Carmel, Indiana, United States)
Food Rescue has established connections between over 200 organizations, more than 200 eateries, and 350 educational institutions, leading to the rescue of millions of meals on a yearly basis.
They supply the first logistics to establish contacts and encourage solutions among the participating corporations, and they concentrate on bringing disparate groups together through advocacy and education.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
34. Last Minute Market342 (Bologna, Italy)
Through Last Minute Market, food-in-need individuals and charity are connected with retailers, businesses, and producers.
Food vendors that have extra inventory contribute it to the market so that it can be distributed to the less fortunate.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
35. Lean Path [89] (Portland, Oregon, United States)
A program developed by Andrew Shakman, Bill Leppo, and Stephen Rogers is an automated industry standard that helps food service firms track food waste while making money for the company.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
36. Les Restos du Cœur343 (Paris, France)
Established in 1985 by Coluche, the Restos du Cœur, officially known as « les Restaurants du Cœur - les Relais du Cœur », is an association registered as a public utility under the 1901 legislation.344
« To aid and give volunteer support to underprivileged individuals, especially in the area of food through free meal access, and by involvement in their social and economic integration, as well as in any action against poverty in all its manifestations », is their stated mission.
About 70,000 volunteers have been combating poverty in all its manifestations for the past 30 years.
At the initial campaign, 8.5 million meals were provided in restaurants.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
37. Love Food Hate Waste [92] (Banbury, England)
The goal of this group is to increase awareness about food waste in homes, as seen by their tagline, « saving you money, saving your food ».
They offer instructional resources that describe doable waste control techniques, such food portioning, planning, and storage advice.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
38. Lovin’ Spoonfuls [93] (Boston, Massachusetts, United States)
Fresh food that would otherwise be thrown away is collected by this food recovery program from over 50 supermarkets, produce wholesalers, farms, and farmers markets.
The same day, they disperse it to more than fifty local charitable organizations in the Boston region that provide food for the hungry.
They feed over 10,000 people and gather over 25,000 pounds of food every week.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
39. Markets Institute, WWF345 (Washington, D.C., United States)
Leading players in the retail, food service, and hotel industries are being gathered by WWF's Jason Clay, Senior Vice President of Markets and Food and Executive Director of the Markets Institute, to discuss ways to quicken the adoption of methods to track and minimize food waste.
Furthermore, by encouraging data openness, businesses will be able to compare their success in preventing food waste to that of their competitors and other industries.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
40. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)346 (New York City, New York, United States)
The NRDC has defended people's rights to clean water, clean air, and safe neighborhoods since 1970.
With the widely disseminated releases of papers like « Wasted : How America Is Losing Up to 40 Percent of Its Food from Farm to Fork to Landfill » and « The Dating Game », scientist Dana Gunders has been spearheading their study on food.
They have joined forces with the Ad Council to modify customer behavior with the goal of cutting down on food waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
41. Organic Armenia347 (Abovyan city, Armenia)
A network of agriculturalists, manufacturers, distributors, legislators, instructors, and foodies in Armenia, Organic Armenia addresses issues of food insecurity, sustainable agriculture, and maintaining sustainable development.
This network encourages Armenian culinary items to be distributed locally.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
42. OzHarvest [97] (Sydney, Australia)
OzHarvest is Australia's first perishable food rescue group, founded by relentless food waste crusader Ronni Kahn AO.
This organization offers high-quality surplus food to over 800 charities by obtaining it from over 2,000 commercial establishments.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
43. ReFED348 (United States)
ReFED is an alliance of corporations, foundations, organizations, and public officials that joined together to examine food waste issues and provide workable solutions.
According to their analysis, which took into account non-financial effects, corporate profit potential, and social economic worth, there were 27 most affordable strategies to decrease food waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
44. REFRESH349 (Wageningen, Netherlands)
A European research initiative called Resource Efficient Food and dRink for Entire Supply cHain (« REFRESH ») is addressing food waste.
The REFRESH collaboration, headed by Wageningen University in Wageningen, Netherlands, unites 26 partners from 12 European nations and China in an effort to reduce food waste by half.
In order to achieve this aim, food losses must be minimized across the production and supply chains, waste management expenses must be decreased, and the value of food waste and packaging materials must be maximized.
Per capita food waste at the retail and consumer levels must also be halved.
Even though the project came to an end in 2019, its work is still being done through the initiatives it assisted in starting.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
45. Salvation Farms [100] (Morrisville, Vermont, United States)
This nonprofit organization manages agricultural surplus to improve Vermont's food system.
They help cross-sector collaborations identify effective ways to use the excess food produced by a farm.
Together with partner groups, they create a network to aid farmers and increase low-income residents' access to food by redistributing farm surplus throughout the state.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
46. Save Food from the Fridge [101] (Torino, Italy)
This initiative was started by Korean food preservation specialist and designer Jihyun Ryou to teach people about reducing waste in households.
She describes methods for extending the freshness of food through preservation.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
47. SecondBite [102] (Melbourne, Australia)
SecondBite was founded to give those in need in Australia access to wholesome, fresh meals.
They re-distribute excess fresh food to national community feeding organizations.
Over 40.7 million meals have been given by farmers, wholesalers, marketplaces, supermarkets, and caterers through food donations.
They also support ending food insecurity and work to increase community capacity in nutrition and food skills.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
48. Society of Saint Andrew [103] (Big Island, Virginia, United States)
This Christian hunger charity rescues fresh produce and distributes it to food banks and soup kitchens throughout the country.
The Gleaning Network is one of their initiatives that organizes volunteers, producers, and delivery companies to salvage food for the underprivileged.
These 43,000-pound truckload of fresh, nutrient-dense vegetables are redirected by the Potato & Produce Project to local churches, food banks, soup kitchens, food pantries, low-income housing areas, and other hunger organizations so that they can be distributed to people in need.
Harvest of Hope informs participants about the domestic and international hunger crisis and challenges them to commit for the rest of their lives to contributing to the solution.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
49. Stop Wasting Food [104] (Copenhagen, Denmark)
The Stop Wasting Food (Stop Spild Af Mad) initiative in Denmark was started by Selina Juul. This is regarded as the biggest nonprofit consumer-led initiative in Denmark to combat food waste.
Stop Wasting Food is a consumer-run organization.
In an effort to reduce the mountains of food waste that now exist, it organizes events, debates, press and media mobilization, campaigns, and other means to increase public awareness.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
50. Think.Eat.Save [105] (Geneva, Switzerland)
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and Messe Düsseldorf have partnered to promote the UN Secretary-General's « Zero Hunger Challenge » through the « Think.Eat.Save Campaign » of the Save Food Initiative.
The campaign aims to increase awareness and action from more societal sectors and to spark broad national, regional, and international action.
As a one-stop shop for news and resources, the Think.Eat.Save website serves as a platform showcasing these concepts.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
51. Yedi Conference [106] (Istanbul, Turkey)
Yedi Conference is a very successful network within Turkey's enlightened society.
Michelin-starred chef Mehmet Gürs and journalist Cemre Torun bring together hundreds of volunteers every year to organize awareness-raising conferences about sustainable development, food insecurity, food waste and gastronomy.
Prestigious guests come from all over the world every year to speak in front of thousands of spectators.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
52. World Resources Institute (WRI)[107] (Washington, D.C., United States)
Global research group WRI collaborates closely with decision-makers to study and advocate for methods to boost food production in a sustainable way while minimizing its environmental effect.
As part of a multi-stakeholder initiative, they created the Food Loss & Waste Protocol (FLW Protocol), which is a global accounting and reporting standard for measuring food loss and waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
53. World Vegetable Center350 (Tainan City, Taiwan)
The World Vegetable Center carries out training and promotion programs, creates networks, conducts research, and raises awareness of the benefits of vegetables for better health and reducing world poverty.
Among their ongoing initiatives are trash reduction, composting, and consumption improvement.
The Center works on enhancing the nutritional content of vegetables, lowering postharvest losses, creating and supporting safe production techniques, and breeding better vegetable lines.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Section 4 - Entrepreneurial and motivating businesses born out of state inertia.
We have witnessed the response of the public on both the judicial and associative levels in response to these diverse convictions and the State's immobility.
However, a different response that will also have a significant effect on bringing about change is the decision made by many entrepreneurs to join the battle against food waste.
How was it possible that this happened?
As we have examined, France, a nation that has emerged as a global leader in the battle against food waste, has seen a continuous strengthening of its legislation since 2013.
Indeed, the law against food waste of 11th February 2016, the EGalim law and the law relating to the fight against waste and the circular economy (AGEC) are some examples of texts which have broadened the framework available to the powers public to better supervise practices. This has led to significant adjustments for both small and large businesses :
Since 2015, it has been mandatory for collective catering to implement a food waste prevention strategy;
Food retailers are not allowed to ruin food that is still edible, especially by tossing it in the garbage or dousing it in bleach, as they may have done in the past, as of 2016;
Distributors with more than 400 m2 are required by law to establish a food donation arrangement with associations as of 2016;
As of January 1, 2020, distributors are required to enhance their management skills by providing training and increasing staff knowledge regarding food contributions.
Collective catering has been obliged to do a food waste diagnostic from 2020;
As of 21th October 21 2020, new activities (collective catering, agri-food industry, and wholesalers) are subject to the necessity for a contribution agreement, which formalizes the link between a firm and a food assistance group;
Commercial caterers must supply clients who request one a « doggy bag » as of 1st July 2021; Collective catering will be able to provide a meal reservation service starting on 22nd August 2021.
Despite the fact that more individuals are facing food insecurity as a result of the economic and health crises connected to the Covid-19 pandemic, a number of initiatives have been developed.
In light of this, businesses have progressively changed the way they run, and many business owners have chosen to make investments in various sectors of the battle against food waste. In order to change behavior, some organizations spend money diagnosing food waste in group restaurants, estimating the cost of food loss, and implementing measures including staff awareness campaigns, trash sorting, and « doggy bag » use.
As a means of establishing new supply guidelines and preventing the disposal of edible food, other businesses are developing inventory policies. Creating smaller portions, altering the requirements, lowering the quantity bought, or even purchasing things that aren't the right size—fruits that are too little, damaged veggies, etc.—are some examples of how to do this. Certain firms are experts at organizing staff to promote team awareness, create a reservation system for the group restaurant, and plan steps to modify procedures both at work and at home (such as anti-waste cooking classes, gleaning for an organization, donating food, etc.).
Some businesses and organizations work out a donation arrangement.
Numerous creative start-ups have been established.
Some are useful, even opportunistic, but others are efficacious.
An extensive examination of this phenomena that paves the way for the development of a cutting-edge, inventive, and compassionate green economy is provided here.
Many Companies that are creative and motivating are battling waste while the State grows passive. Below are a few instances.
1. APEEL SCIENCES (USA)
Since its founding in 2012, Apeel Sciences has focused on developing products for the conventional and USDA-certified organic vegetable industries.
This company, which has its headquarters in Goleta, California, works with both large food corporations and small farmers.
Ensuring a brighter future for everyone and producing high-quality, sustainable products that prevent food waste are its goals, along with adding value to the entire supply chain. [109]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
2. BABACO Market (Italia)
Delivering underappreciated but perfectly edible fruits and vegetables straight to your home is the goal of Milan-based Babaco Market, an anti-waste online food company.
All Italian products that are too unique, too delicious, and too fresh to be wasted in a store can easily be delivered in a box to customers' homes through a subscription service.
Since their establishment in 2020, they have amassed over €8 million in revenue.351
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
3. BENE Bono (France)
2020 saw the founding of Bene Bono, an organic food company with a distinctive twist located in Paris.
By purchasing farmers' unwanted vegetables directly, the company offers farmers a new source of income.
Bene Bono offers reasonably priced organic foods to its customers while simultaneously reducing food waste.
They raised €8.8 million in funding since their founding in 2020 with the goal of reducing food waste.[111]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
4. BIO2CHP (Greece)
For small-scale, on-site power production from the pro-food industry, the Greek-based BIO2CHP system specifically uses fruit waste, coffee grounds, and olive kernels as raw residual biomass feedstock.
The waste-to-energy strategy reduces the environmental effect of the final user while simultaneously increasing revenue and enhancing the company's reputation in the environmental arena.
Established in 2017, this innovative company received funding over one million dollars to assist with the advancement and creation of a technology that won several awards and completely transformed the waste-to-energy sector.352
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
5. C’EST QUI LE PATRON ?! / « Who is the Boss ?! » (France)
This French cooperative group of common interest in the agri-food sector was established in 2016 by Nicolas Chabanne and Laurent Pasquier.
Customers regain control over their purchases thanks to the initiative, which allows them to determine what products go on the shelves and how much farmers should be paid for their labor.
This consumer method, which was first introduced in substantial quantities in August 2016 with milk as the main product, will by 2022 cover around twenty commodities, all of which are the result of publicly available online voting that encourages fair remuneration for farmers. 113
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
6. CHOCO (Germany)
Choco is the ninth-ranked startup related to food waste.
By 2026, this Berlin-based food tech company hopes to have fully digitalized and transformed the food industry's commercial operations. It was founded in 2018.
For purchasing items and tracking sales, many foodservice businesses still rely on obsolete methods like pen and paper and manual spreadsheets. The program offers an efficient digital solution to replace these methods.
It employs 15,000 cooks and has a network of over 10,000 suppliers.
It also says that it would assure less food and money wasted by improving order accuracy and lowering mistakes and inaccurate delivery.
With funding of almost $300 million USD, Choco was able to expand its operations fast and serve markets in the US, Germany, Austria, Spain, and France. [114]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
7. CHOMP (Hong Kong)
The Hong Kong-based app CHOMP, which also deals with food surplus in the city's F&B industry, offers a solution to food waste.
Developed in 2020 by Carla Martinesi and Chris Wettling, this bilingual app with solutions offers users reduced food goods that are unsold from local bakeries and restaurants, all packaged in « mystery boxes ».
But their work is far from done.
Wettling asserts that education is crucial to debunking the different illusions surrounding food surplus and to reducing food waste both locally and globally.
As a result, the CHOMP team is collaborating with local educational institutions to raise awareness among the youth and encourage better communication between food and beverage businesses and their customers by posting tips and ideas on their Instagram page on a regular basis.[115]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
8. COMERSO (France)
The Comerso company, which has emerged as a major participant, has concentrated on reducing food and non-food waste.
Through collaborations, it aids companies in recovering by managing their waste and unsold goods.
A role that has been reinforced by the 2020 AGEC law, which allowed for development, and the 2016 law that outlawed food waste.
With 2,200 customer sites and 1,500 partner associations around France, Comerso is now in operation and has prevented the waste of about 67 million euros worth of goods.
Comerso enters the Spanish market early in 2023 and establishes a joint venture with Vicky
Foods, a global food company based in Spain.353
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
9. CONFETTI SNACKS (Singapore)
Using vibrant plants to feed the hungry, the Confetti startup recycles unsightly veggies into meals that help cut down on food waste.
In addition, she works with international humanitarian organizations to give nutrient-rich meals to the world's poorest places with the assistance of numerous volunteers, with the goal of eradicating hunger and malnutrition.354
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
10. EQOSPHERE ( France)
Eqosphere is a company that operates in both the circular economy and the social and solidarity economy.
She has been offering operational and strategic support to government agencies and businesses since 2012.
She is acknowledged as a trailblazer in the development of CSR/RSO initiatives utilized in waste reduction and recovery strategies.
Xavier Corval, the company's creator, came up with the concept for Eqosphere in 2009 after seeing the need for an intelligent web platform to link the enormous potential of trash and product deposits with the needs of charitable and humanitarian groups as well as the search for "future ex-waste" by reuse and recycling sector players. [118]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
11. FLYFARM (Singapore)
Constant Tedder and Andres Crabbe cofounded the firm FLYFARM, which provides an innovative and sustainable method of producing insect protein.
The Agri-tech company works closely with sustainable larval farms that harness renewable energy to convert organic waste into high-quality protein for animal feeds. This is done even though current farming practices and protein production significantly impact our ecology. Insects, the body's natural converters of organic waste, are used in the recycling of food waste and by-products from agricultural and food processing, such as organic waste from the manufacturing of food drinks and retail rubbish.[119]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
12. FOODLOOP (Japan)
Foodloop is a platform that brings together growers, restaurateurs, and consumers—the three key players in the food business cycle.
They are positioned at various stages of this cycle, including the production and disposal of food. It builds connections and stimulates the local economy while offering chances to participate at every stage of the process.
This platform has the excellent feature of allowing everyone to take the lead. Foodloop, situated in Kanagawa Prefecture's Miura Peninsula, was established in June of 2021.
The idea encompasses « circulation » in addition to « consumption ».
In addition, Foodloop organizes events like CSA-style marches, provides a delivery service with delicacies made from « mottainai » veggies, and composts, encouraging people to think and act in ways that promote "circulation" based on their own perspectives.[120]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
13. FOOD LOSS DIARY (Japan)
According to research done by Gomi Japan, food waste may frequently be decreased by just keeping track of purchases.
By using creativity and implementing habits that adapt as one learns about the quantity and patterns of food lost, food loss may be decreased.
The Ministry of the Environment established the Food Loss Diary app as part of an endeavor to assist decrease food waste at home.[121]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
14. FOODSI (Poland)
An app called Foodsi was developed in Warsaw to combat food waste and provide consumers deals on food items since restaurants usually make more food than they can consume.
Foodsi helps by connecting these businesses with consumers who are prepared to pay less on unsold products.
Since its founding in 2019, Foodsi has raised €1.5 million to assist companies in reducing waste and generating additional revenue. [122]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
15. FRESHFLOW (Germany)
Freshflow, a Berlin-based company, is using artificial intelligence to change the food supply chain.
With an emphasis on refilling, inventory control, and advanced order forecasting, Freshflow significantly reduces food waste while keeping store shelves well supplied.
This lowers carbon emissions while also making fresh food more affordable and accessible, which increases sales for companies.
Freshflow, a 2021 company, has received €1.7 million using technology to reduce global food waste and inefficiencies in the retail sector.[123]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
16. FRIDGELY (USA)
The Fridgely app, developed in 2015 by Justin Ehlert, a senior computer science major at the University of Texas at Dallas, is a food expiry date tracker that notifies users when food is about to expire so they may consume it before it goes bad.
Living in an apartment with three other male college students, Ehlert realized how much food the household was wasting every week, which is how this concept originated.
Approximately 25% of food is wasted by the typical American family of four. Even more startling is the fact that 80% of Americans discard packaged goods and fresh food due to misreading expiration labels.
Fridgely is a special chance to address this enormous, yet simply avoidable, problem. [124]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
17. FULLSOON ( France)
The creators of Fullsoon, Hassan Chaudhary and his sisters Misba and Tayeba, were driven by the goal of ending food waste in restaurants.
Users may get buy suggestions and sales estimates from this AI platform.
Thus, restaurant management reduce waste and unsold inventory by only buying what they need.[125]
It is a thoughtful application, backed by selfless founders who care about the principles of the green economy.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
18. FURRYGREEN (HONG Kong)
Founded in 2020 in Hong Kong, FurryGreen now sells a number of vacuum-sealed pet food kinds made from recycled materials that would otherwise end up in landfills.
In order to provide pet food packaging for Hong Kong's dogs and cats, both in homes and shelters, a business is spearheading the recycling of leftover food and restaurant leftovers.355
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
19. GREENBYTES (Iceland)
GreenBytes is an innovative restaurant management technology that was founded in Iceland in 2020.
With an emphasis on efficiency and sustainability, the platform uses artificial intelligence to assist restaurants in managing inventories, optimizing orders, and dissecting menus.
Founded in 2020, it was able to get a million euros to keep using technology and innovation to cut down on CO2 emissions and food waste. [127]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
20. GREENPOD LABS (India)
Deepak Rajmohan, an entrepreneur, returned to India to create GreenPod Labs in an attempt to reduce food waste in his own nation after working in the food science industry for a number of years in the US.
Having been established in 2019, the firm creates sachets of active packaging that trigger fruits' and vegetables' natural defense systems, preserving their freshness and delaying ripening.
The creative concept offers the Southeast Asian nation a much-needed postharvest remedy for food waste, which is a major issue.
India grows 40% of the fresh food lost before it reaches customers, despite being the world's second-largest producer of fruits and vegetables.356
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
21. IMPERFECT FOODS (USA)
This American start-up was inspired by two observations: each year, 9 billion kg of fresh fruit are not cultivated or sold, and 40% of food goods wind up in the garbage.
Achievement happens swiftly : After launching in 2015, the startup raised almost $250 million in a short period of time.
Growers may sell unsold inventory and unsightly, defective produce with the help of Imperfect Foods.
This program is simple to use; users may select their shopping plan and get weekly deliveries.
The start-up, which was established in 2015, has already raised over $250 million.
It currently has close to 500,000 consumers in the USA and witnessed a doubling of its sales during the Covid-19 health crisis.357
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
22. KEBONY (Norway)
Kebony, based in Oslo, Norway, is a leading manufacturer of treated wood worldwide.
This firm, in contrast to the others discussed thus far, is focused on using food waste to create softwood, a distinct product.
Despite the fact that this kind of wood acts differently from hardwood, Kebony has developed an innovative method that employs food industry waste and modifies it to mimic the traits and behavior of tropical hardwood, which is usually stronger, tougher, and more resilient.
In addition to repurposing food waste effectively, this action stops deforestation and saves tons of greenhouse gas emissions for the firm.358
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
23. KURADASHI (Japan)
A one-third rule applies to food product makers in Japan.
According to this law, a product can no longer be sent if a third of the period between the manufacture date and the expiration date has passed.
Because of this, some things that are still edible are thrown out. Additionally, seasonal packages are likely to be thrown away.
Sometimes, even if the contents are still edible, summer-themed products end up in inventory because they lose their appeal in the fall.359
A sustainable solution to this kind of food waste is what this firm is attempting to achieve. Manufacturers who promote food waste reduction initiatives provide products at a sponsored price that may otherwise end up as food waste because of seasonal packaging and other causes. On the online store, items are available for up to 97% less than the advertised price.
After then, a percentage of the earnings is given to nonprofits and other groups that promote social responsibility.
Users may contribute informally to society while also saving money on their purchases and decreasing food waste.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
24. LA PATISSERIE NUMERIQUE (France)
La Patisserie Numérique, a novel enterprise that combines technology and culinary arts, is based in Paris.
With its proprietary 3D printing process, which converts food waste into sweets, the firm hopes to revolutionize dessert-making for chefs.
Founded in 2019, La Patisserie Numerique has raised more than €800K, giving cooks new opportunities to express their creativity and discover new applications for leftover food.360
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
25. LET (Japan)
B-grade, discontinued, special items, surplus inventory, and subpar products are examples of « translated products » that may be bought and sold on LET.
After downloading the app, anybody may begin listing « reasonableness » things in as little as one minute.361
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
With the launch of the Corona Disaster Support category on their website, the user base has surpassed five million as of March 2022 and is still growing quickly.
This service, in contrast to new and used goods, establishes a new market by bringing together consumers looking to purchase new things at a discount and those want to get rid of unwanted items that can't be sold through traditional channels.
26. LINKEE (France)
Linkee is a start-up company based in France that provides sustainable food assistance to students who are facing food poverty.
Each month, the organization distributes 150.000 meals.362
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
27. Madame FRIGO (Switzerland)
Though it seems like a nice idea at first, using freezers to prevent food waste is risky.
Accordingly, « Madame Frigo » in Bern (Switzerland) 135, « Lebensmittelretten » in Berlin (Germany) 136, and « CREPAQ » in Bordeaux (France)363 364 365, have created an associative business model that enables any citizen to store their leftover goods in a refrigerator.
As a result, anyone who is hungry can gather and consume it.
The three reasons this is a wrong choice, however, are as follows : - No traceability or information about the product's origin is provided.
- No one will be held accountable if food poisoning or other sickness develops after consuming the goods.
- There is no information available about the person who put the product in the refrigerator.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
On the other hand, the World Health Organization (WHO) has reminded people to proceed with utmost caution when it comes to food safety on its website.366 Therefore, the WHO remembers that :
- There is a close connection between food security, nutrition, and safety. A vicious cycle of illness and malnourishment is brought on by contaminated food, which mostly affects young children, the elderly, the ill, and babies.
- It's estimated that every year, around one in ten people worldwide, or 600 million people, get sick from eating tainted food; of them, 420,000 die, and 33 million years of healthy life are lost (DALY).
- Health care expenses and lost productivity from unsafe food cost low- and middle-income nations around US$110 billion annually.
- Every year, 125,000 children under the age of five pass away from foodborne infections, accounting for 40% of all sickness cases.
- The negative effects of foodborne infections on country economy, trade, tourism, and health care systems impede socioeconomic progress.
The World Health Organization notes that foodborne illnesses are typically toxic or infectious in nature and are brought on by viruses (hepatitis A, norovirus), bacteria (Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli, Listeria, Vibrio cholerae), parasites (trematodes, Echinococcus spp., Taenia solium, Ascaris, Cryptosporidium, Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia), prion diseases (also known as « transmissible subacute spongiform encephalopathies / TSE » and which are infectious agents made of proteins linked to certain types of neurodegenerative diseases resulting from the consumption of bovine products), and chemicals (toxins of natural origin, persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals).
Recall that 1,060 cases of listeriosis and over 200 fatalities were reported in South Africa in 2017 as a result of Listeria monocytogenes contamination of ready-to-eat meat. International risk management protocols had to be implemented because the tainted products were exported to fifteen other African nations.367
And lastly, the WHO reiterates, « Food that is unfit for consumption poses a global health risk to all people ».
Those who are elderly, sick with chronic conditions, pregnant women, small children, and infants are especially at risk. 96,000 children perish from diarrheal illnesses, which affect 220 million kids annually.
The nutritional status of the most vulnerable is threatened by food that is unfit for consumption, which starts a vicious cycle of malnutrition and diarrhea.
28. MARUGOHAN by Second Harvest (Japan)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Second Harvest Japan, which started off as Japan's first food bank in 2000, is the organization that runs Marugohan.
In an effort to decrease food waste, companies and people donate food to it.[140]
Marugohan serves as a food safety net, providing assistance to those in need of food and social support.
Instead of earning money, it provides a unique system where users can acquire meals by engaging in « one action » social contribution activities.
You may also « select their food » at Marugohan, a food bank that operates like a market.
29. NOSH (UK)
Nosh, a smartphone app driven by artificial intelligence and based in Essex, UK, helps customers reduce food waste and improve food management at home.
Users may categorize their products and track their expiration dates in real-time using the website, ensuring they never wake up with a product that has expired.
Using an integrated shopping list and culinary ideas that include products you already own, Nosh also helps customers plan ahead.
Since their founding in 2021, they have raised approximately €69K with the goal of lowering food waste in every home. [141]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
30. OLIO (UK)
The Olio app, which is based in London, links neighbors.
Food that is almost bad for deterioration, a refrigerator to clear out before a trip.
To advertise a product on the network, users need only snap a picture of it.
Private message is then used to arrange pickup. Furthermore, you may provide non-food goods with the application.368
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
31. ORBISK (Netherlands)
Orbisk, a fully automated food waste monitoring system, has its headquarters in Utrecht.
They can identify and track wasted ingredients by using scales and smart cameras with AI recognition attached to garbage bins.
Businesses may save money and food by using their dashboard to find and fix inefficiencies. Established in 2019, they have successfully obtained €5.4 million by streamlining inefficiencies in food delivery services.
More ideas from the Dutch start-up Orbisk, which created a camera that scans restaurant garbage.
Food waste may be decreased by using this technique, which retroactively enables better adjustment during purchases.369
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
32. OTTAN STUDIO (Turkey)
Ottan Studio gained notoriety by turning food and garden waste into bio-composite material, which it uses to create wall paneling, furniture, and ornamental objects.
Typically, interior design goods are made from wood and other raw materials, but Ayse Yilmaz, the startup's creator in Turkey, saw the amazing potential of biological waste as a raw material and developed a creative method to upcycle masses of leftover fruit peels, nutshells, and leaves into premium products.370
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
33. OUTCAST FOODS (Canada)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
In order to reduce food waste, Outcast Foods founders Darren Burke and TJ Galiardi set out to recycle items that were unsightly or unsellable in 2017.
In order to recycle wasted produce into protein powders, dietary supplements, and other herbal components for wholesale, retail, and consumer markets, they collaborate with grocers, farmers, food producers, and manufacturers throughout Canada.
Known as a trailblazer in the recycled foods industry, Outcast Foods is now based in Dartmouth and is building a 50,000 square foot factory in Burlington, Ontario.371
34. PHENIX (France)
The startup that most effectively implements the French legislation prohibiting food waste from 11st February 2016, is French in origin.
It links supermarkets with nonprofit organizations.
Phenix will also handle locating an association to collaborate with if the store does not already have one.
Many French towns and stores have embraced it after it made it possible for Courbevoie city to modify the charter against food waste.372
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
35. POSITIVE CARBON (Ireland)
Positive Carbon, a Dublin-based company, uses food detection artificial intelligence (AI) and patent-pending sensors to deliver superior food waste reporting solutions.
They are creating cutting-edge waste reduction tactics that may greatly boost operating revenues in a variety of settings, from high-volume office campuses to low-volume cafés.
With an unknown fundraising round, they were founded in 2020 with the goal of reducing food waste by 50% for its users. [147]
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
36. REPLATE (USA)
Based in San Francisco Replate wants to help communities everywhere by reducing food waste and alleviating food poverty.
The tech-driven humanitarian venture feeds underprivileged areas by redistributing extra food provided by corporations.
The firm recovers excess food from merchants and delivers it straight to nearby non-profit organizations by utilizing data, artificial intelligence, and rapid programming.
Furthermore, to monitor the environmental and social effects of contributions, Replate provides monthly impact measures for all donations.
These metrics include the total pounds contributed, the total number of meals this equates to, the total gallons of water saved as a consequence of donations, and the total pounds of CO2 diverted as a result of these donations.373
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
37. SAGES (UK)
SAGES, a creative enterprise with its headquarters in London, turns food waste into natural dyes, introducing sustainability into the world of color and fashion.
In addition to being 100% natural and created completely of food waste, they generate pigments in a brilliant spectrum of 12 colors that are suitable for a broad variety of fabrics (both natural and synthetic) and yet achieve high color strength and color fastness.
They were founded in 2021 and have raised more than €140K.374
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
38. SpareEat (Israel)
SpareEat is a new Israeli software that promises to « download the app and prevent food waste by Israel ».
Soon after its release, SpareEat has been downloaded by over 400 users and 16 establishments, including cafés, restaurants, supermarkets, and hotels.
With the use of this program, customers may purchase unwanted goods from businesses at a discounted price that otherwise would have been thrown out.375
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
39. SURPLUS FOOD FACTORY (Netherlands)
This startup turns food industry rejects into sauces and soups, giving them a second chance at life.
Additionally, it makes a point of including individuals who are marginalized by the labor
market and victims of injustice to its teams.376
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
40. TABETE (Japan)
In order to assist the last sale, TABETE is a platform that links users with meals that are still tasty and safe to eat but are in risk of being thrown out, such when the store is ready to close.377 All you need to do is visit the store at the appointed time, display the app screen, and you're done—after you've bought your favorite items from the store where you received your rescue request.
Users do not need to register or pay a monthly subscription.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
More than 500,000 people had registered on TABETE as of March 2022, and more than 2,000 eateries had joined as well.
Businesses that sell food can begin listing meals that are at risk of going bad by listing only one item.
After implementing TABETE, over 88% of eateries and shops reported that it was helpful in cutting down on food waste, per a poll.
41. TAKUAL (Spain)
The Spanish startup Takual makes fresh and local products more affordable by offering boxes of defective fruits and vegetables.
The cuisine is made from the excess produce of nearby farms and is delivered right to the customer's house.
Talkual boxes always take a constructive and sustainable approach, and they decompose naturally.378
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
42. Too Good to Go (UK)
According to the start-up, it links consumers with bakers, grocers, florists, and other businesses to provide them with leftover goods at discounted costs in the form of baskets to save money. In actuality, it's an application that need to be avoided.
In fact, Too Good to Go uses a cynical business model to maximize profits rather than combating food waste.
For all CHR professionals, there are two sorts of expenses associated with using the application
- 25% commission is charged when a surprise basket is sold (minimum of €1.09);
- Service charges : €39 annually.379
The French regulation of 11th February 2016, however, was specifically designed to prevent food waste and support charity organizations by donating unsold food to them each night, enabling really impoverished individuals to take care of their own dinner.
Consequently, Too Good to Go violates French law.
This application, in practice, creates a relationship with a store or retailer. Throughout the day, he did not sell every one of his goods.
Thus, each night before to his company closing, the merchant reduces the cost of unsold goods so that they might be sold as baskets rather than giving them away to charity organizations as required by law.
The repercussions are dire: no association will be able to claim these unsold food products, and there is no way to regulate the living conditions of customers who visit to pick up the baskets using the program.
Of these customers, the great majority do not face food poverty.
In conclusion, experts utilize the app to reduce food waste, but they do more than that. They consider this to be a great approach to increase turnover while establishing their brand at a lesser cost.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Violations of the 11th February 2016, legislation carry severe penalties.
In fact, a number of non-profit groups, including the well-known « Les Restos du Cœur », have stated that their food aid program would serve fewer people in the winter of 2023 as a result of severe financial difficulties and a dearth of donations.380
Because of this, it is essential that this law be faithfully implemented and not twisted as this application does.
43. TripleW (Israel)
TripleW, an Israeli business founded in 2015, created a circular solution to the waste management industry's financial and environmental problems.
The business created a method to turn widely accessible organic waste—from food surplus from supermarkets and industries to food waste sorted at the source by municipalities—into feedstock for the synthesis of polylactic acid (PLA bioplastic).
Thousands of items, including yogurt cups, tea bags, t-shirts, and toy blocks, may be made from this renewable and in-demand material.
To further reduce waste, the firm allows biodegradable plastics to be chemically recycled back into their unique method.381
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
44. VERSPILLING is Verrukkelijk / Waste is delicious (Netherlands)
Food that is meant for the garbage is given value by this startup.
When items reach the end of their useful lives, she considers innovative ways to alter them.
Jam, bread, biscuits, and iced tea
Verspilling occurs when Verrukkelijk provides a large selection of waste-reducing goods.382
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
III- SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
1) « The legislation aimed at Reducing Food Waste Represents a Significant Advancement in the Battle against The Legislation Global Warming » (Open Access Library Journal November 2024 / CHINA) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/China.pdf
2) « The adoption of an effective European bill will be necessary to reduce food waste » (Journal of science - April 2024 / Lyon FRANCE): https://zenodo.org/records/11114261
3) « The adoption of an effective European bill will be necessary to reduce food waste » (International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention IJHSSI - April 2024 / INDIA) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Inde%201.pdf
4) « Why the law against food waste is a major innovation to tackle climate change » (International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention IJHSSI - May 2024 / INDIA) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Inde%202.pdf
5) « The law against food waste is a major innovation in the fight against global warming » (Quest Journals Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Science - May 2024 / INDIA) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Inde%203%20Ques t%20Journals%20.pdf
6) « Why the Law against Food Waste is a major Innovation to tackle climate change » (Danish Scientific Journal - April 2024 / DENMARK) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Danemark.pdf
7) « The adoption of an effective European bill will be necessary to reduce food waste » (Norwegian Journal of development of the International Science - April 2024 / NORWAY) : https://zenodo.org/records/10975352
8) « Why the law against food waste is a major innovation to tackle climate change » (Norwegian Journal of development of the International Science - May 2024 / NORWAY) : https://zenodo.org/records/11199932
9) « Food waste legislation is a significant advancement in the fight against global warming » (International independent scientific journal - July 2024 / POLAND) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Poland%20IISJ.pdf
10) « Why support the French new bill against food waste ? » (Sciences of Europe - February 2025 / Praha, CZECH REPUBLIC) : Sciences-of-Europe-No-159-2025.pdf
11) « A new Bill against Food Waste to go further » (Znanstvena misel Journal - February 2025 / SLOVENIA) : Znanstvena-misel-iournal-M>99-2025.pdf
12) « A New french Bill against Food Waste to be supported » (Norwegian Journal of development of the International Science - February 2025 / NORWAY) : file:///C:/Users/a.derambarsh/Desktop/Publication/Publications/Norv%C3%A8ge% 203.pdf
13) « Why support the french New Bill against Food Waste ? » (Danish Scientific Journal - February 2025 / DENMARK) : https://zenodo.org/records/14959184
14) « Why the French Law Against Food Waste is a Scientific Innovation » (Bulletin of Yerevan University C : Jurisprudence, 16(1(42), 32-48 - August 2025 / ARMENIA) : https://doi.org/10.46991/BYSU.C/2025.16.1.032
15) « Support For the New French Bill Against Food Waste » (IOSR Journal of Polymer and Textile Engineering / IOSR-JPTE - India : July - August 2025 / INDIA)
16) « Support for the new French bill against Food Waste Journal of science » - March 2025 / Lyon FRANCE) : https://zenodo.org/records/14983982
[...]
1 International Day Zero Waste (UNEP) : https://www.unep.org/events/un-day/international-day-zero-waste- 2024
2 piggly wiggly patent 9/10/1917 n°126988: https://patents.google.com/patent/US1397824A/en
3 piggly wiggly patent 9/10/1917 n°126988: chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/a2/86/16/dc835 b1e9a16cd/US1397824.pdf
4 Mall of Emirates : https://www.malloftheemirates.com/en/ski-dubai
5 “The small arrangements of supermarkets with their thieves” (Nouvel Obs) : https://www.nouvelobs.com/rue89/rue89-police-justice/20131030.RUE9743/les-petits-arrangements-des- supermarches-avec-leurs-voleurs.html
6 Counting the Cost of Food Waste: EU Food Waste Prevention : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.parliament.uk/globalassets/documents/lords- committees/eu-sub-com-d/food-waste-prevention/154.pdf
7 Guardian: https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2014/jan/29/prosecutors-drop-case-men-food-iceland- bins
8 according FAO - 2011: https://onu-rome.delegfrance.org/Pertes-et-gaspillages-alimentaires
9 EUROSTAT - 2020 - https://www.touteleurope.eu/economie-et-social/pauvrete-72-millions-d-europeens- touches/#:~:text=Eurostat%20estime%20%C3%A0%2072%20millions,%2C5%20%25%20de%20la%20populat ion
10 Euractiv : https://www.euractiv.fr/section/economie/news/en-europe-la-precarite-en-tres-forte- augmentation-alerte-le-secours-populaire/
11 https://sites.marjon.ac.uk/doughnut/2022/01/07/history-of-food-waste/
12 FAO : http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templates/nr/sustainability pathways/docs/Food Wastage Concept Note we b fr.pdf
13 WRAP 2012. Household Food and Drink Waste in the United Kingdom. Final report. 2012 : www.wrap.org.uk
14 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U. Global food loss and waste. Magnitude, causes and prevention. 2011 : http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
15 Between 2 and 4 million (depending on the year) according to data produced by the INSEE (French Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies).
16 Laisney, C., Soyeux, A., Redlingshofer, B. Waste and losses from “farm to fork”: production, distribution, consumption. Publications from the statistics and forecasting service - center for studies and forecasting. Ministry of Agriculture, Agri-Food and Forestry. Working document no. 7. July 2013 : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/CEP Document de travail no7 Gaspillages alimentaires cle0a419d.pdf
17 Silky, A. The fight against waste, a solution for the future? Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Statistics and forecasting service. Foresight and Evaluation. Analysis No. 5. March 2009 : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ Analyse 5 La lutte contre le gaspillage.pdf
18 Voices, 2006. Increasing post-harvest success for smallholder farmers. November 2006, No. 79 : http://farmradio.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/Voices 79.pdf
19 FAO 2014. Save food: global initiative on food loss and waste production : http ://www. fao.o rg/save-food/key- findings/en/
20 FAO 2011. Food Loss Reduction Strategy: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user upload/ags/publications/brochure phl low.pdf
21 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/m b060e00.pdf
22 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson: http://www.fao. org/docrep/014/m b060e/m b060e00.pdf
23 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson - Food loss and waste around the world. Magnitude, causes and prevention: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/m b060e/m b060e00. pdf
24 Lundqvist, J., C. de Fraiture and D. Molden. Saving Water: From Field to Fork - Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain. SIWI Policy Brief. Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) : http://www.siwi.org/documents/Resources/Policy Briefs/PB From Filed to Fork 2008.pdf
25 FAO 2013. Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources. Summary : http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3347e/i3347e.pdf
26 Foresight. The Future of Food and Farming: Challenges and choices for global sustainability : https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment data/file/288329/11-546- future-of- food-and-farming-report.pdf
27 Council of Europe: https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/armenia
28 World Bank: https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/armenia/overview
29 Tomaso Ferrando and Julie Mansuy: « The European Action against Food Loss and Waste : Co-Regulation and Collisions on the Way to the Sustainable Development Goals » (6th November2018)
30 Preparatory study on food waste across EU 27. Bio Intelligence Service. European Commission (DG ENV) Directorate C- Industry. Final report. October 2010: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdf/bio foodwaste report.pdf
31 European Parliament resolution of 19 January 2012 on the theme “Avoiding food waste: strategies for a more efficient food chain in the European Union”. European Parliament: Europa (2011/2175(INI))
32 WRAP 2012. Household Food and Drink Waste in the United Kingdom. Final report. 2012: www.wrap.org.uk
33 24 Ministry of Economic Affairs. Facts and figures on consumer food waste in 2013. How much food is wasted by consumers? http://www.government.nl/documents-and-publications/publications/2014/01/30/facts-and- figures-on-consumer-food-waste-in-2013.html
34 SMED (2011) in Food waste volumes in Sweden. 2012. Swedish Environment Protection Agency : http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-8695-4.pdf?pid=11892
35 SMED (2011) in Food waste volumes in Sweden. 2012. Swedish Environment Protection Agency : http://www.naturvardsverket.se/Documents/publikationer6400/978-91-620-8695-4.pdf2pjdy11892
36 Reduction of food waste - Current situation and courses of action. Final report. Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, and Energy. November 2012 : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
37 European petition to stop food waste : https://www.change.org/p/mettons-fin-au-gaspillagealimentaire-en- europe-stopfoodwaste
38 Le Figaro / 2nd February 2018 : https://www.lefigaro.fr/flash-eco/2018/02/02/97002- 20180202FILWWW00120-la-petition-europeenne-contre-le-gaspillage-alimentaire-atteint-le-million-de- signatures.php
39 European Parliament resolution of 19 January 2012 on the theme “Avoiding food waste: strategies for a more efficient food chain in the European Union”. European Parliament: Europa (2011/2175(INI))
40 French and European petition: https://www.change.Org/p/mettons-fin-au-gaspillagealimentaire-en-europe-stopfoodwaste
41 Commons and Commoning for a Just Agroecological Transition: The importance of de-colonising and de-commodifying our food systems (Tomaso Fernando ) : https://www.socioeco.org/bdf auteur-5606 fr.html
42 Euractiv (2017) : https://www.euractiv.com/section/circular-economy/news/wasted-opportunity-eu- stalemate-on-food-waste-reduction/
43 « French councillor pushes Commission to act on food waste » (Euractiv) : https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy-environment/news/french-councillor-pushes-commission-to-act- on-food-waste/
44 « EU at a Crossroad: Don’t Waste the Chance for a Systemic Approach to Food Loss and Waste » (Slow Food Foundation) : https://www.slowfood.com/blog-and-news/eu-at-a-crossroad-dont-waste-the-chance-for-a- systemic-approach-to-food-loss-and-waste/
45 « Packaging is necessary to reduce food waste » (Swedish Forest Industries) : https://www.forestindustries.se/news/news/2023/03/packaging-is-necessary-to-reduce-food-waste/
46 « The role of packaging in reduced food wastage » : https://www.forestindustries.se/news/news/2018/10/the-role-of-packaging-in-reduced-food-wastage/
47 Law No. 2016-138 of 11th February 2016 relating to the fight against food waste in France
48 Food Waste : Why we had to make supermarkets give it away : https://resource.co/article/food-waste-why- we-had-make-supermarkets-give-it-away-10853
49 Estimate of the quantity and cost of food waste.
50 Anyone who destroys unsold food products that are still fit for consumption may be fined up to 0.1% of their turnover for the last full financial year. The fine imposed is proportionate to the severity of their actions (number and volume of products destroyed).
51 National Assembly : https://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/dyn/16/textes/l16b0701 proposition- loi#:~:text=PropositiondeloinC2B0701visantC3A0luttercontrelegaspillagealimentaire&text=EnregistrC3A9C3A0l aPrC3A9sidencede,nationalele17janvier2023.&text=danslesdC3A9laisprC3A9vuspar,30et31duRC3A8glement
52 French Directorate General for Competition, Consumer Affairs and Fraud Control.
53 Information provided by the manufacturer, which guarantees all the organoleptic and nutritional qualities of the product until that date.
54 Law : https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000042896734
55 Distributors with a sales area of more than 400 m2
56 As provided for in Article 238 bis of the French Tax Code (CGI).
57 Philanthropic, educational, scientific, social, humanitarian, sports, family or cultural charities or public bodies that promote art, protect the natural environment or promote culture, languages and scientific knowledge in France.
58 Receipt CERFA: https://www.associations.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Recu Fiscal pdf Editable.pdf
59 Only charities and non-profit associations are authorized to issue these tax receipts.
60 Comerso Ipsos study : https://www.ipsos.com/fr-fr/distribution-retail-les-evolutions-vers-le-zero-dechet
61 Restos du Coeur, French Red Cross and Secours Populaire Français
62 CNE 2011. Prevention of waste and loss of consumer products: the key role of packaging. National Packaging Council. July 2011: http://www.conseil-emballage.org/Img/Publications/74 1.pdf
63 TetraPak Magazine. Food loss and waste. Issue 101. 2012 : http://www.tetrapak.com/fr/Documents/Compagnie mag/TP Magazine 101 FR LowRes.pdf
64 Laisney, C., Soyeux, A., Redlingshofer, B : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/CEP Document de travail no7 Gaspillages alimentaires cle0a419d.pdf
65 Lundqvist, J., C. de Fraiture and D. Molden. Saving Water: From Field to Fork - Curbing Losses and Wastage in the Food Chain. SIWI Policy Brief. Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI), 2008: http://www.siwi.org/documents/Resources/Policy Briefs/PB From Filed to Fork 2008.pdf
66 FAO 2013. Food wastage footprint. Impacts on natural resources. Summary report. 2013: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3347e/i3347e.pdf
67 WRAP 2012. Household Food and Drink Waste in the United Kingdom. Final report. 2012 : www.wrap.org.uk
68 Vieux, F., Soler, L-G., Touaziz, D., Darmon : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/Impact-carbone-et-qualite
69 DrawDown Report : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://drawdown.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/ProjectDrawdo wn_FRENCH-6.1.pdf
70 IPCC Report : https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-working-group-ii/
71 IMF : https://www.imf.Org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD
72 Source: United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) - 2021
73 Esnouf, C. Russel, M . Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
74 Esnouf, C. Russel, M . Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
75 Gooch, M., Marenick, N., Laplain, D. Dent, B. Cut Waste, GROW PROFIT. Reducing food waste by addressing the disconnect between the attitude and behaviour of producers and managers of businesses situated along the value chain. Value Chain Management International. May 30th 2013: www.cutwastegrowprofit.com
76 Eurostat 2012 in: Hanne, H., Roux, N : http://www.economie.gouv.fr/files/dgccrf eco4.pdf
77 INSEE: http://www.insee.fr/fr/insee regions/reunion/themes/revue/revue133/revue133 consommation menages.pdf
78 “Anti-Waste” advertising campaign: http://www.gouvernement.fr/gouvernement/comment-reduire-le- gaspillage-alimentaire
79 WRAP 2014 : http://www.wrap.org.uk/content/economic-and-environmental-benefits
80 Ministry of Economic Affairs. Facts and figures on consumer food waste in 2013. How much food is wasted by consumers? http://www.government.nl/documents-and- publications/publications/2014/01/30/facts-and- figures-on-consumer-food-waste-in-2013.html
81 Europa (2011/2175(INI)).
82 Venkat, K. The Climate Change and Economic Impacts of Food Waste in the United States : http://www.cleanmetrics.com/pages/ClimateChangeImpactofUSFoodWaste.pdf
83 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson : http://www.fao. org/docrep/014/m b060e/m b060e00.pdf
84 FAO 2014 : http://www.fao.org/food/une-agriculture-sensible-aux-enjeux-nutritionnels-et-des-approches- fondees-sur-lalimentation/faq/fr/
85 FAO 2014 : http://www.fao.org/food/une-agriculture-sensible-aux-enjeux-nutritionnels-et-des-approches- fondees-sur-lalimentation/faq/fr/
86 Esnouf, C. Russel, M. Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
87 Esnouf, C. Russel, M. Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
88 CREDOC : https://www.credoc.fr/
89 World Food Programme 2023 : https://www.wfp.org/publications/poverty-and-food-security-armenia- snapshot-interlinkages-march-2023
90 United Nations: chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/un-gcrg- ukraine-brief-no-1_en.pdf
91 Food Bank : http://www.banquealimentaire.org/
92 World Bank : https://www.worldbank.org/en/home
93 Soyeux, A. 2009 : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/ Analyse 5 La lutte contre le gaspillage.pdf
94 France Nature Environnement 2013 : http://www.fne.asso.fr/fr/nos-dossiers/dechets/gaspillage- alimentaire/agir.html
95 sustainable development guide 2013: http://www.etiktable.fr/wp- content/uploads/2013/04/guide gaspillage refedd2013 web.pdf
96 Restos du Cœur : http://www.restosducoeur.org/
97 Guillou, M. Matheron 2011
98 Etiévant, P., Bellisle, F., Dallongeville, J., Etilé, F., Guichard, E., Padilla E., Romon-Rousseau, M., Donnars, C., Sabbagh, C., Tibi, A. 2010 : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/esco-inra- comportements alimentaires 2010 synthese.pdf
99 Combris, P. 2006 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et-documents/dualine
100 Laisney, C. The evolution of food in France. Publications from the statistics and forecasting service. Center for studies and foresight. Ministry of Agriculture, Agri-Food and Forestry. Working Document No°5 - January 2012.
101 Balanza, R, Garcia-Lorda, P. Perez-Rodrigo, C., Aranceta, J., Bullo Bonet, M., Salas-Salvado, J. (2007)
102 Guillou, M. Matheron, G.
103 Esnouf, C. Russel, M . Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes- et-documents/dualine
104 World Health Organization : http://www.who.int/chp/chronic disease report/media/information/factsheets FR web.pdf
105 Guillou, M. Matheron
106 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
107 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U. : http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
108 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
109 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
110 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
111 CIV 2014 : http://www.civ-viande.org/document/comment-aborder-le-gaspillage-au-niveau-des-filieres- viandes/
112 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
113 Reduction of food waste - Current situation and courses of action. Final report. Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, and Energy - 2012 : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
114 Redlingshofer, B. et Soyeux, A., 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
115 FAO 2011. Gustavsson, J., Cederberg., C. Sonesson, U.: http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/mb060e/mb060e00.pdf
116 Esnouf, C. Russel, M . Bricas, N. (Coord), 2011 : http://www.cirad.fr/publications-ressources/edition/etudes-et- documents/dualine
117 Reduction of food waste - Current situation and courses of action. Final report. Ministry of Ecology : http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
118 Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development, Transport and Housing (2011) : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/Rapport%20interm%C3%A9diaire VF-1.pdf
119 Reduction of food waste / Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy. November 2012 : http://www.developpement-durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
120 Preparatory study on food waste across EU 27. Bio Intelligence Service. European Commission (DG ENV) Directorate C- Industry. Final report. October 2010: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/eussd/pdf/bio foodwaste report.pdf
121 Reduction of food waste and Report from the Ministry of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy - November 2012 : http://www.developpement- durable.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Rapport final gaspillage alimentaire nov2012.pdf
122 ADEME - 2011: http://www2.ademe.fr/servlet/getDoc?sort=- 1&cid=96&m=3&id=91157&ref=14227&nocache=yes&p1=111
123 Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs and Regional Planning / November 2011 : http://alimentation.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Pertes-gaspillages RAPPORT270112 cle02c35d.pdf
124 Buurman, R., Velghe, J. 2013: www.oivo-crioc.org
125 Buzby, Jean C., Hodan Farah Wells, Bruce Axtman, and Jana Mickey. Supermarket Loss Estimates for Fresh Fruit, Vegetables, Meat, Poultry, and Seafood and Their Use in the ERS Loss-Adjusted Food Availability Data. EIB- 44, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Econ. Res. Serv. March 2009 : http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib-economic- information-bulletin/eib44.aspx#.U6QmY l v1Q
126 Buurman, R., Velghe, J. 2013: www.oivo-crioc.org
127 A D E M E: http://www2.ademe.fr/servlet/getDoc?sort=- 1&cid=96&m=3&id=91157&ref=14227&nocache=yes&p1=111
128 Le Monde (3rd february 2016) : https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2016/02/03/la-loi-sur-la-lutte- contre-le-gaspillage-alimentaire-adoptee-au-parlement 4858807 3244.html
129 AFP : https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1252076/article/2022-11-10/antigaspillage-alimentaire-une-proposition- de-loi-pour-aller-plus-loin
130 Food loss and waste - report and solution from the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fisheries, Rural Affairs and Regional Planning / 2011 : http://alimentation.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/Pertes- gaspillages RAPPORT270112 cle02c35d.pdf
131 FAO
132 60 McWhirter JP, Pennington CR. Incidence and recognition of malnutrition in hospital. BMJ. 1994 : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2539799/pdf/bmj00435-0025.pdf
133 FAO
134 CNA (2011) : http://www.cna-alimentation.fr/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/cna resume avis 71.pdf
135 1 Laisney, C., Soyeux, A., Redlingshofer : http://agriculture.gouv.fr/IMG/pdf/CEP Document de travail no7 Gaspillages alimentaires cle0a419d.pdf
136 TNS SOFRES 2013 : http://www.tns-sofres.com/etudes-et-points-de-vue/les-francais-et-le-gaspillage- alimentaire
137 Le Figaro 27th february 2008 (« Competition in mass distribution hides local monopolies ») : https://www.lefigaro.fr/conso/2008/02/27/05007-20080227ARTFIG00293-la- concurrence-dans-la-grande-distribution-cachedes-monopoles-locaux-.php
138 Le Figaro 6th march 2008 (« Carrefour and Auchan reign over hypermarkets ») : https://www.lefigaro.fr/conso/2008/03/06/05007-20080306ARTFIG00520-carrefour-et-auchan-regnent-sur- les-hypers.php
139 CECE - Albert Ritzenthaler « The distribution circuits of food products » 2016 : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.lecese.fr/sites/default/files/pdf/Avis/2016/2016_ 03_circuit_produits_alimentaires.pdf
140 “Fisheries management in the European Union” (European Parliament / 2023) : https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/fr/sheet/115/gestion-des-peches-dans-l-union-europeenne
141 « A new process triples the shelf life of meats » (Le Devoir - January 2018) : https://www.ledevoir.com/societe/consommation/518157/un-nouveau-mode-de-conservation-permet-de- tripler-la-conservation-des-viandes
142 Health effects of exposure to pesticides (Ministry of Health and Prevention) - December 2019 https://sante.gouv.fr/sante-et-environnement/risques-microbiologiques-physiques-et- chimiques/pesticides/article/effets-sur-la-sante-d-une-exposition-a-des-pesticides
143 World Health Organization (« Pesticide residues in food 2022) : https://www.who.int/news-room/fact- sheets/detail/pesticide-residues-in-food
144 « These ultra-processed foods that can make you sick » (Radio Canada - June 2023) : https://ici.radio- canada.ca/recit-numerique/5893/nourriture-produits-transformation-sante
145 « Agriculture: the danger of low prices » (Les Echos - February 2018) : https://www.lesechos.fr/2018/02/agriculture-le-danger-des-prix-bas-1118769
146 « For a restoration of the French agri-food system » (HuffingtonPost - 2017)
147 « Farmers and consumers, big losers from rising dairy product prices » (FNH - November 2023) : https://www.fnh.org/produits-laitiers-eleveurs-grands-perdants-hausse-prix/
148 « Convoca Adrian Rubalcava a terminar con la pobreza alimentaria » : https://periodicoleo.com/gobierno cdmx/2016/11/24/convoca-adrian-rubalcava-a-terminar-con-la-pobreza- alimentaria/
149 « Concluye foro Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en México » : https://paginaciudadana.com/concluye- foro-seguridad-alimentaria-y-nutricional-en-mexico/
150 Ministry of Ecological Transition and Territorial Cohesion « Understanding the IPCC » : https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/comprendre-giec
151 Law No. 76-629 of 10th July 1976 (protection of nature) and Law No. 76-663 of 19th July 19 1976 (installations classified for environmental protection)
152 Ordinance No. 2000-914 of 18th September 2000 (legislative part of the environmental code)
153 Law No. 2002-285 of 28th February 2002 authorizing the approval of the convention on access to information, public participation in the decision-making process and access to justice in environmental matters; Decree No. 2002-1187 of September 12, 2002 publishing the Aarhus Convention. The convention is not applicable in New Caledonia, French Polynesia and Wallis and Futuna.
154 Law No. 78-753 of 17th July 1978 relating to various measures to improve relations between the administration and the public.
155 Law No. 83-630 of 12th July 1983 relating to the democratization of public inquiries and the protection of the environment.
156 Law No. 95-101 of February 2, 1995 relating to the strengthening of environmental protection.
157 Environmental justice accessibility (European Commission website) https://e- justice.europa.eu/300/FR/access to justice in environmental matters
158 Constitutional Law No. 2005-205 of 1st March 2005 relating to the Environmental Charter
159 Constitutional Environment Charter https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/contenu/menu/droit-national-en- vigueur/constitution/charte-de-l-environnement
160 Constitutional Council, 19th June 2008, No. 2008-564 DC, Law relating to genetically modified organisms; Council of State, Ass., October 3, 2008, Municipality of Annecy, n° 297931.
161 Constitutional Council, 9th April 1996, no. 96-373 DC : “right of interested persons to exercise an effective remedy before a court”.
162 Council of State, Ms. Dupont, no. 275742, 5th April 2006 : The Aarhus Convention's Article 9, paragraph 3 provisions, according to the Council of State, "only generate responsibilities between the States party to the convention and do not cause direct repercussions in the internal legal order; that being the case, the petitioners cannot, and in any event, meaningfully invoke them."
163 Casanova Judgement / CE 29th march 1901 : https://www.exacademie.com/post/arr%C3%AAt-casanova--ce- 29-mars-1901-mini-gaja
164 Syndicat des propriétaires et contribuables du quartier Croix-de-Seguey - Tivoli / CE 21 december 1906 : https://www.conseil-etat.fr/decisions-de-justice/jurisprudence/les-grandes-decisions-depuis-1873/conseil-d- etat-21-decembre-1906-syndicat-des-proprietaires-et-contribuables-du-quartier-croix-de-seguey-tivoli
165 CE 28 December 1906 (Legifrance) : https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ceta/id/CETATEXT000007635225/
166 Ministre de l’agriculture c/ Dame Lamotte / CE 17 february 1950 : https://www.conseil-etat.fr/decisions-de- justice/jurisprudence/les-grandes-decisions-depuis-1873/conseil-d-etat-17-fevrier-1950-ministre-de-l- agriculture-c-dame-lamotte
167 CE Ass. 31 October 1969 : https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ceta/id/CETATEXT000007639905
168 Sarran et Levacher / CE Ass. 30 October 1998 : https://www.conseil-etat.fr/decisions-de- justice/jurisprudence/les-grandes-decisions-depuis-1873/conseil-d-etat-assemblee-30-octobre-1998-sarran-et- levacher
169 CE 19 november 2020 : https://www.conseil-etat.fr/actualites/emissions-de-gaz-a-effet-de-serre-le- gouvernement-doit-justifier-sous-3-mois-que-la-trajectoire-de-reduction-a-horizon-2030-pourra-etre- respectee
170 French Council of State (7th may 2021) : https://www.conseil-etat.fr/actualites/decryptage-quand-la-justice- administrative-rappelle-l-etat-a-ses-engagements-climatiques
171 Le Figaro (2019) : https://www.lefigaro.fr/conso/2019/02/05/20010-20190205ARTFIG00170-plainte-contre- un-leclerc-accuse-d-avoir-asperge-de-desinfectant-de-la-nourriture-consommable.php
172 AFP (2019) : https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x7mrx1l
173 COP21 : https://unfccc.int/event/cop-21
174 Press release «The Case of the Century»: chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://laffairedusiecle.net/wp- content/uploads/2019/03/ADS-Brief-juridique-140319.pdf
175 Ministry of Ecological Transition and Territorial Cohesion (National Observatory on the Effects of Global Warming) - August 2023 : https://www.ecologie.gouv.fr/observatoire-national-sur-effets-du-rechauffement- climatique-onerc
176 Press release «The Case of the Century»: the same plase.
177 Legal Arguments « The Case of the Century » : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://laffairedusiecle.net/wp- content/uploads/2019/03/ADS-Brief-juridique-140319.pdf
178 Le Monde (2017) : https://www.lemonde.fr/disparitions/article/2017/08/11/la-mort-de-rene-chapus- professeur-de-droit 5171486 3382.html
179 ECHR - MOULIN v. France 23rd november 2010 : https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/fre#{%22itemid%22:[%22001- 101876%22]}
180 ECHR - MEDVEDYEV AND OTHERS v. France 10th July 2008 : https://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng#{%22itemid%22:[%22001-87369%22]}
181 CJEU : https://european-union.europa.eu/institutions-law-budget/institutions-and-bodies/search-all-eu- institutions-and-bodies/court-justice-european-union-cjeu en
182 ECHR : https://www.echr.coe.int/
183 ECHR (climate change) : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.echr.coe.int/documents/d/echr/fs_climate_chan ge_fra
184 ECHR : https://www.echr.coe.int/
185 ICJ : https://www.icj-cij.org/
186 United Nations (June 2023) : https://www.un.org/en/desa/5-things-you-need-know-about-global-economy- 2023
187 The Sabin Center for Climate Change Law : https://climate.law.columbia.edu/
188 The Lahore High Court -Punjab / Pakistan : Leghari v. Federation of Pakistan : https://web.archive.Org/web/20210430035531/http://climatecasechart.com/climate-change-litigation/non-us- case/ashgar-leghari-v-federation-of-pakistan/
189 Alain Clément (From ancient Evergetism to Restos du Coeur - State and associations in the history of food relief) : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/recma/2001-n279- recma01270/1023752ar.pdf
190 GARNSEY, WHITTAKER (“Trade and Famine in Classical Antiquity”) : https://www.jstor.Org/stable/j.ctv1r07g2v
191 Garnsey and Sailer, 1987 : https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-roman- studies/article/abs/peter-garnsey-and-richard-saller-the-roman-empire-economy-society-and-culture-london- duckworth-1987-pp-viii-231-1-map-isbn-0715621459-cased-0715621475- paper/9524F7049FD3AB24D5B1372503D89F60
192 Alain Clément (From ancient Evergetism to Restos du Coeur - State and associations in the history of food relief) : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/recma/2001-n279- recma01270/1023752ar.pdf
193 Famines and epidemics in the Middle Ages (Bibliotheque nationale de France) : https://essentiels.bnf.fr/fr/histoire/moyen-age/38b980c2-9165-4265-8377-660ba1a87c1a-societe-feodale- 10e-13e-siecles/article/601c171e-509f-4129-ba1f-ab5781270e6d-famines-et-epidemies
194 Philippe Sassier « Good use of the poor : history of a political theme » 16th-20th century (editions Fayard) : https://documentation.insp.gouv.fr/insp/doc/SYRACUSE/124392/du-bon-usage-des-pauvres-histoire-d-un- theme-politique-xvie-xxe-siede-philippe-sassier? lg=fr-FR
195 Philippe Sassier (Le Monde 1990) : https://www.lemonde.fr/archives/article/1990/04/22/la-pauvrete-riche- de-sens 3964879 1819218.html
196 Begging committee (1790) : https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k429342/f1.item
197 French Constitution of 24th February 1793 : https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/les-constitutions-dans-l- histoire/constitution-du-24-juin-1793
198 French Constitution of 1848, Second Republic : https://www.conseil-constitutionnel.fr/les-constitutions- dans-l-histoire/constitution-de-1848-iie-republique
199 Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty ? : England 1689-1727, Oxford University Press, 2002
200 « The Foundation and Early Work of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge », Samuel Clyde McCulloch, 18th march, 1949.
201 Yasha Levine ("The invention of capitalism: how self-sufficient peasants were turned into wage slaves for industry" - April 5, 2012) : https://www.partage-le.com/2018/10/22/linvention-du-capitalisme-comment-des- paysans-autosuffisants-ont-ete-changes-en-esclaves-salaries-pour-lindustrie-par-yasha-levine/
202 Sir Alex Ferguson (Principles of moral and political science, Hachette book) :
203 History of philanthropy and University College Nottingham https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/manuscriptsandspecialcollections/collectionsindepth/university/history-of- philanthropy-and-university-college-.aspx
204 The British Academy : https://www.thebritishacademy.ac.uk/blog/how-poverty-modern-britain-echoes- past/
205 Gazeley, Ian (17 July 2003). Poverty in Britain 1900-1945
206 FAO Publishing : https://www.fao.org/publications/home/about-fao-publishing/en
207 Paris Agreement : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://unfccc.int/files/meetings/paris_nov_2015/application/ pdf/paris_agreement_english_.pdf
208 LAW no. 2020-105 of 10th February 2020 relating to the fight against waste and the circular economy : https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000041553759
209 European Parliament (Resource efficiency and the circular economy) : https://www.europarl.europa.eu/factsheets/en/sheet/76/utilisation-efficace-des-ressources-et-economie- circulaire
210 European Compost Network : https://www.compostnetwork.info/about-ecn/
211 The Milan Urban Food Policy Pact Monitoring Framework (FAO 2019) : https://www.fao.org/urban-food- actions/resources/resources-detail/en/c/1460955/
212 EPA : https://www.epa.gov/transforming-waste-tool/zero-waste-case-study-san-francisco
213 Courbevoie city / Agricool : https://www.ville-courbevoie.fr/10-4722/fiche/une-ferme-20-au-faubourg-de-l- arche.htm
214 Atlantico : https://atlanticoonline.com/en/coumba-d-sow-my-mission-is-to-make-sure-the-people-here- have-water/
215 FAO (One million water tanks initiative for the Sahel) : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.fao.org/3/ca0882fr/CA0882FR.pdf
216 The Fome (zero hunger) Program / The Brazilian Experience : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.fao.org/3/i3023e/I3023E.pdf
217 FAO : https://www.fao.org/publications/home/about-fao-publishing/en
218 Sweet Benin - A New Value Chain for a Better Future in Benin : https://www.technoserve.org/blog/sweet- benin-a-new-value-chain-for-a-better-future-in-benin/
219 FAO Publishing : https://www.fao.org/publications/home/about-fao-publishing/en
220 City of Courbevoie (fight against food waste) : https://www.ville-courbevoie.fr/2195/lutte-contre-le- gaspillage-alimentaire.htm
221 « Anti Food Waste: a proposed law to go further » (La Voix du Nord) : https://www.lavoixdunord.fr/1252076/article/2022-11-10/antigaspillage-alimentaire-une-proposition-de-loi- pour-aller-plus-loin
222 Proposed law aimed at combating food waste in France (January 17, 2023) https://acrobat.adobe.eom/id/urn:aaid:sc:EU:727392be-c20e-4f68-b86d-dcc46fca7193
223 Interview Thierry Marx: “Eating in 2050 will mean eating less but eating better” (Telerama) : https://www.telerama.fr/sortir/thierry-marx-se-nourrir-en-2050-ce-sera-manger-moins-mais-manger- mieux,150902.php#:~:text=%C3%A0%20notre%20alimentation%20%3F- ,Se%20nourrir%20en%202050%2C%20ce%20sera%20manger%20moins%20mais%20manger,plaisir%2C%20bie n%20%C3%AAtre%20et%20sant%C3%A9.
224 CNRS / Paris-Saclay University : https://www.sciences.universite-paris-saclay.fr/actualites/la-cuisine-de- lespace-par-le-chef-thierry-marx-et-le-chercheur-raphael-haumont
225 French Center for Culinary Innovation : https://cfic-squadrone.fr/recherche/
226 "Towards reduced meat consumption : A systematic literature review of intervention effectiveness, 2001-2019" (Science Direct) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0195666321006462
227 Elle GRIFFIN (2023) : https://www.elysian.press/p/we-need-to-disrupt-the-food-industry
228 Oliver Milman (Guardian) : https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/dec/21/lifestyle-change-eat- less-meat-climate-change
229 Céline Laisney, Gilles Bilien (Future of food) : https://usbeketrica.com/fr/article/futur-de-l-alimentation-7- scenarios-decryptes-par-deux-experts
230 OEC World : https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-product/potatoes/reporter/arm
231 UNC : https://research.unc.edu/human-research-ethics/resources/ccm3 019064/
232 WMA : https://www.wma.net/policies-post/wma-declaration-of-helsinki-ethical-principles-for-medical- research-involving-human-subjects/
233 National Library of Medicine : https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK543570/
234 HHS : https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/regulations-and-policy/belmont-report/index.html
235 NIH : https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12739543/
236 UNESCO : https://en.unesco.org/themes/ethics-science-and-technology/bioethics
237 OHCHR : https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments-mechanisms/instruments/universal-declaration-human- genome-and-human-rights
238 UNESCO : https://www.unesco.org/en/ethics-science-technology/human-genetic-data
239 UNESCO : https://www.unesco.org/en/ethics-science-technology/bioethics-and-human-rights
240 Council of Europe : https://www.coe.int/en/web/bioethics/oviedo-convention
241 UN declaration 1948 : https://www.ohchr.org/en/press-releases/2018/12/universal-declaration-human- rights-70-30-articles-30-articles-article- 25#:~:text=Article%2025%20of%20the%20Universal,widowhood%2C%20unemployment%20and%20old%20ag e.
242 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights : https://www.ohchr.org/en/instruments- mechanisms/instruments/international-covenant-economic-social-and-cultural- rights#:~:text=punishable%20by%20law.- ,Article%2011,continuous%20improvement%20of%20living%20conditions
243 Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights : https://www.unesco.org/en/ethics-science- technology/bioethics-and-human-rights
244 Chaos Theory, Edward Lorenz, and Deterministic NonperiodicFlow : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cdanfort.w3.uvm.edu/research/lorenz-1963.pdf
245 Chaos Theory, Edward Lorenz, and Deterministic NonperiodicFlow : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/http://schumacher.atmos.colostate.edu/gherman/ATS780FA2 015_Lorenz_V2.pdf
246 US Supreme Court - United States v. American Tobacco Co., 221 U.S. 106 (1911) : https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/221/106/
247 US Supreme Court - Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States, 221 U.S. 1 (1911) : https://supreme.justia.eom/cases/federal/us/221/1/
248 U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia - United States v. American Tel. and Tel. Co., 552 F. Supp. 131 (D.D.C. 1983) : https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp/552/131/1525975/
249 U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York - United States v. Apple, Inc. Nos. 12 Civ. 2826 (DLC), 12 Civ. 3394 (DLC) : chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.justice.gov/atr/case- document/file/486651/download
250 CJCE, no. C-41/90, Judgment of the Court, Klaus Hofner and Fritz Elser v. Macrotron GmbH, 23rd April 1991) : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/FR/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A61990CJ0041
251 Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/EN/legal- content/summary/treaty-on-the-functioning-of-the-european-union.html
252 “Recovery plan for Europe” (European Commission) : https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and- policy/recovery-plan-europe en
253 Important Projects of Common European Interest (IPCEI) : https://competition-policy.ec.europa.eu/state- aid/ipcei en
254 Eur-Lex Europa EU : https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A32003R0001
255 European Commission (30th August 2016) : https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP 16 2923
256 Antitrust cases against Google by the European Union (European Commission - 27th June 2017) : https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/es/MEMO 17 1785
257 « Alibaba to pay $3.6bn to take control of Chinese supermarket chain Sun Art » (Financial Times 2020)
258 « Amazon to buy Whole Foods Market in $13.7bn deal » (Guardian 2017) : https://www.theguardian.com/business/2017/iun/16/amazon-buy-whole-foods-market-organic-food-fresh
259 GFK : https://insights.gfk.com/gfk-study-on-european-retail
260 Statista Amazon : https://www.statista.com/topics/846/amazon/#topicOverview
261 Statista AliBaba : https://www.statista.com/topics/2187/alibaba-group/
262 Safran Foer, J. (2023). Food is not rational. Food is culture, habit, craving and identity.
263 FAO : https://www.fao.org/home/en
264 FAO : https://www.fao.org/director-general/biography/en/
265 WFP : https://www.wfp.org/history? ga=2.131668687.1737408062.1703833326-1966700146.1703833326
266 WFP USA : https://www.wfpusa.org/articles/historys-hunger-heroes-dwight-eisenhower/
267 CNN (2020) : https://edition.cnn.com/2020/10/09/europe/world-food-programme-nobel-profile-intl/index.html
268 Dollinger « Worl Food Programme » (1964) : https://www.persee.fr/doc/tiers 0040-7356 1964 num 5 18 1025
269 Nobel Foundation : https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2020/wfp/lecture/
270 WFP : https://www.wfp.org/publications/biography-executive-director-cindy-h- mccain? ga=2.229137244.1737408062.1703833326-1966700146.1703833326
271 French Food Bank : https://www.banquealimentaire.org/mieux-nous-connaitre-222
272 Euro Food Bank : https://www.eurofoodbank.org/
273 Food Bank USA : https://www.unitedfoodbank.org/about-us/united-food-banks-history/
274 History and origin of the European Food Banks Federation : https://www.eurofoodbank.org/our-story/
275 Second Harvest : https://www. secondharvest.ca/about-us/our-story 14 Charity Intelligence Canada : https://www.charityintelligence.ca/charity-details/60-second-harvest
276 Armenian Food Bank : https://www.armenianfoodbank.org/
277 French Food Banks : https://don.banquealimentaire.org/agirensemble ?gad source=1&gclid=EAIaIQobChMIrayywbq0gwMVHpFoC R3zWAB-EAAYASAAEgIxu D BwE
278 https://www.vertigopolitico.com/finanzas/mexico/notas/rescata-red-de-bancos-de-alimentos-de-mexico-135- mil-toneladas-de-alimento-en-2021
279 Bancos de Alimentos de Mexico (BAMX) : https://bamx.org.mx/
280 Food Bank KANAGAWA : http ://foodbankplus-kanagawa.org/aboutus/#a01
281 Leket Israël https://www.leket.org/en/
282 Council of Europe - Recommendation CM/REC (2007)14 : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://rm.coe.int/16807096b8
283 Council of Europe - Recommendation CM/REC (2007)14 : chrome- extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://rm.coe.int/16807096b8
284 Agnès Gautier-Audebert (non-governmental organizations / 2017) : https://www.cairn.info/lecons-de-droit- international-public--9782340019324-page-106.htm
285 Action against Hunger : https://www.actioncontrelafaim.org/en/
286 The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement (IFRC) : https://www.ifrc.org/who-we- are/international-red-cross-and-red-crescent-movement
287 OXFAM : https://www.oxfam.org/en/what-we-do/about
288 OXFAM (Food from Waste) : https://policy-practice.oxfam.org/resources/food-from-waste-115390/
289 FoodWatch : https://www.foodwatch.org/en/about-us
290 SARC : https://sarc.sy/
291 AKDN : https://the.akdn/en/what-we-do/building-resilient-communities/agriculture-food-security
292 World Vision : https://www.wvi.org/myanmar/about-us
293 Global food loss and waste are hidden contributors to global hunger, World Vision warns (2022) : https://www.wvi.org/newsroom/global-hunger-crisis/global-food-loss-and-waste-are-hidden-contributors- global-hunger
294 IRK : https://islamic-relief.or.ke/history/
295 Caritas Malawi : https://www.caritas.org/where-caritas-work/africa/malawi/
296 Caritas Malawi mission : https://www.caritas.org/who-we-are/mission/
297 Caritas Bolivia : https://www.caritas.org/where-caritas-work/latin-america/bolivia-2/
298 ADRA : https://adra.org/
299 ADRA’s Humanitarian Action Plan Alleviates Hunger in African Countries (2023) : https://adra.org/horn-of- africa-food-crisis-2023
300 ASMAE : https://www.asmae.fr/fr/
301 Courbevoie is committed to supporting the Sister Emmanuelle Association against food waste (Le Parisien 2023) : https://www.leparisien.fr/hauts-de-seine-92/courbevoie-sengage-au-cote-de-lassociation-soeur-emmanuelle- contre-le-gaspillage-alimentaire-19-07-2023-PEHYSX3RGNHYVB2XCFME2UVZ54.php
302 Candid Learning : https://leaming.candid.org/resources/knowledge-base/what-is-a-foundation/
303 By Anja Bauer - Extracted from [1], CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19504080
304 Foundation Louis Bonduelle : https://www.fondation-louisbonduelle.org/en/our-mission/
305 FFAR : https://foundationfar.org/grants-fiinding/opportunities/food-waste-chaUenge/
306 The Kroger Co. Zero Hunger https://thekrogercozerohungerzerowastefoundation.com/
307 « Zero Food Waste Foundation » : https://www.zerofoodwaste.ca/mission
308 Foundation Daniel et Nina Carasso : https://www.fondationcarasso.org/alimentation- durable/luttecontrelaprecarite/
309 Lani Furbank (FoodTank) : https://foodtank.com/news/2016/07/fighting-food-loss-and-waste/
310 https://412foodrescue.org/
311 https://ampyourgood.com/
312 https://www.bostonareagleaners.org/
313 https://www. caritas. org/what-we-do/food/
314 https://clf.jhsph.edu/
315 http://fdshr.convio.net/site/PageServer?pagename=page not found
316 https://www.cityharvest.org/
317 https://www.communityfoodrescue.org/
318 https://www.gocopia.com/
319 « Arash Derambarsh, the hyperactivist against food waste » (Le Monde 2015) : https://www.lemonde.fr/societe/article/2015/04/06/arash-derambarsh-l-hyperactiviste-contre-le-gaspillage- alimentaire 4610510 3224.html
320 Petition « Stop Food Waste in France » : https://www.change.org/pZvictoire-contre-le- g%C3%A2chisalimentaire-en-france
321 Petition « Stop Food Waste in Europe » : https:ZZwww.change.orgZpZmettons-fin-au-gaspillagealimentaire-en- europe-stopfoodwaste
322 « In Courbevoie, the UN supports the recent law against food waste » (Le Figaro 2018) : https://www.leiigaro.fr/actualite-irance/2018/01/26/01016-20180126ARTFIG00177--courbevoie-l-onu- soutient-la-recente-loi-contre-le-gaspillage-alimentaire.php
323 FAO - Arash Derambarsh (2023) : https://youtube.com/shorts/2ME0uTz07s0?si=ryPA9IttJeh8AX6L
324 https://www.iinedininglovers.com/article/berlin-cafe-only-cooks-ugly-fruit-and-veg
325 https://dccentralkitchen.org/
326 https://extrafood.org/
327 https://feedbackglobal.org/
328 https://www.eeas.europa.eu/delegations/north-macedonia/eu-supports-food-banking-reducing-food-waste- %E2%80%93-reducing-hunger en?s=229
329 https://foodcycle.org.uk/who-we-are/
330 https://www.respectfood.com/fr-fr/partner/food-for-soul/
331 GQ : https://www.gqmagazine.fr/lifestyle/article/massimo-bottura-la-cuisine-est-un-acte-damour
332 https://foodforward.org/
333 https://www.foodrecoverynetwork.org/
334 https://law.uark.edu/service-outreach/food-recovery-project/
335 https://foodshift.net/
336 https://foodsurplusnetwork.wrap.org.uk/
337 https://chlpi.org/food-law-and-policy/
338 https://hungryharvest.net/#how-it-works
339 https://igimvg.org/
340 https://www.foodrescue.net/our-story.html
341 https://www.lastminutemarket.it/home
342 https://www.restosducoeur.org/
343 French Law association : https://www.associations.gouv.fr/liberte-associative.html
344 https://www.worldwildlife.org/pages/markets-institute-change-at-the-speed-of-life
345 https://www.nrdc.org/
346 https://organicarmenia.bio/en/about-us
347 https://refed.org/?sort=economic-value-per-ton
348 https://eu-refresh.org/national-platforms/netherlands.html
349 https: //avrdc.org/about-avrdc/about-us/
350 Babako Market : https://babacomarket.com/
351 Bio2CHP : https://www.bio2chp.com/
352 Comerso : https://www.comerso.fr/qui-sommes-nous
353 Confetti Snacks : https://confettisnacks.com/
354 FurryGreen : https://furrygreen.hk/
355 GreenPod Labs : https://greenpodlabs.com/
356 Imperfect Foods : https://www.imperfectfoods.com/
357 Kebony : https://kebony.com/technology/
358 Kuradashi : https://kuradashi.jp/
359 La Pâtisserie Numerique : https://www.lapatisserienumerique.com/
360 LET : https://let.jp/apps/top/
361 Linkee : https://linkee.co/
362 Madame Frigo : https://www.madamefrigo.ch/en/
363 Lebensmittelretten : https://lebensmittelretter.org/
364 CREPAQ : https://www.crepaq.ong/
365 World Health Organization - WHO (Food Safety) : https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/food- safety
366 World Health Organization - WHO (Listeriosis - South Africa) : https://www.who.int/emergencies/disease- outbreak-news/item/28-march-2018-listeriosis-south-africa-en
367 Olio : https://olioapp.com/en/
368 Orbisk : https://orbisk.com/
369 Ottan Studio : https://www.ottanstudio.com/about-us
370 Outcast : https://outcastfoods.com/
371 Phenix : https://www.wearephenix.com/pro/ 3 7. SAGES (UK)
372 Sages London : https://www.sageslondon.com/
373 SpareEat : https://spareeat.com/our-values/
374 Surplus Food Factory : https://hoUandcircularhotspot.nl/case/surplus-food-factory-salvages-food-waste/
375 Tabete eat me ! : https://tabete.me/
376 Takual : https://www.talkualfoods.com/
377 Too Good To Go (business model) : https://www.metro.fr/service/developpement-durable/appli-anti-gaspi- too-good-to- go#:~:text=Too%20Good%20To%20Go%20%3A%20une,service%20%3A%2039%20%E2%82%AC%20par%20a n
378 The Connexion (“Restos du Coeur, Why issues at France’s biggest charity have hit hard”) https://www.connexionfrance.com/article/Comment/Opinion/Restos-du-Coeur-Why-issues-at-France-s- biggest-charity-have-hit-hard
379 TripleW : https://www.triplew.co/about-us
380 Verspilling is Verrukkelijk https://www.nmu.nl/nieuws/verspiUing-is-verrukkelijk/ extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.fao.org/3/cc0639en/cc0639en.pdf
381 « As the World's Population Surpasses 8 Billion, What Are the Implications for Planetary Health and Sustainability ? » (UN DESA) : https://www.un.org/en/un-chronicle/world-population-surpasses-8-billion-what- are-implications-planetary-health-and
382 UN : https://www.un.org/fr/https%3A//www.un.org/fr/desa-fr/la-population-mondiale-atteindra-8- milliards-dhabitants-en-novembre-onu World Population Prospects 2022 / UN DESA (Summary of results) : file:///C:/Users/utilisateur/Documents/Downloads/undesa pd 2022 WPP summary of results.pdf activity affects the earth and if it can support human and other species life.
Buy now
- Quote paper
- Arash Derambarsh (Author), 2025, The Issues and Legal Controversies of Food Waste from Antiquity to the Present Day, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1666080
