Discuss whether the anthropological evidence tends to support or refute the idea that there are human cognitive universals.
The original debate on human universals was fought on metaphysical grounds long before anthropologists started to write ethnographies. Framed as the argument between Continental Rationalism and Anglo-Scottish Empiricism (see Gell, 1992:7), Descartes and Kant believed in a priori reason as constitutive of categories whereas Hume defends the ‘realness’ of sensitive experience. The former are supportive of the universalism, whereas the latter strictly deny it. This abstract controversy does not further concern us here, however. More concretely, the following essay deals with the universal character of ‘time’ in ethnographic studies. Looking at conceptions of time in the context of the Nuer (Evans-Pritchard, 1987) and most particularly Bali (Bloch, 1977; Geertz, 1993; Howe, 1981), the argument can be made that it is hardly possible to find ethnographic evidence against the notion of a universal concept of time. I will demonstrate with the above examples that on the one hand ethnographies can rarely be used to refute the universality of time but that secondly to differentiate the particularly ethnographic viewpoint is essential.
Table of Contents
1. Nuer – Apparent differences resolved
2. Bali – Emphasis shifted
3. The West – New technique
4. Bias of ethnographic data and inadequate level of analysis
Objectives and Topics
This essay explores the debate regarding human cognitive universals, specifically focusing on whether ethnographic evidence concerning the concept of 'time' supports or refutes the existence of such universals across different cultures.
- The universal versus relativistic conception of time in anthropology.
- Comparative analysis of time-reckoning systems among the Nuer and in Bali.
- Critique of Western industrial 'clock time' as a universal standard.
- The influence of observer bias and metaphysical beliefs on ethnographic interpretation.
- The limitations of empirical evidence in deciding deep-seated metaphysical questions.
Excerpt from the Book
Nuer – Apparent differences resolved
In a classical Durkheimian study, Evans-Pritchard (1987) introduces the two partite time system of the African Nuer. The people of the Nuer has two time-reckoning schemes working in parallel. The first – what Evans-Pritchard calls ‘oecological time’ - "a conceptualization in terms of activities or of physical changes that provide convenient points of reference for activities of those phases of the oecological rhythm which have peculiar significance for them" (ibid.: 135). The most telling device in this system is the ‘cattle clock’ (ibid.: 101) that structures the peasant’s day according to the rhythm of the cattle (milking, meadow, stable etc). This system allows the passage of time to be perceived “in relation of activities to one another” (ibid.: 102) but is mostly confined to the annual natural cycle. In contrast to this, the Nuer structural time is based on the social structure, i.e. relations in lineages, clans and with ancestors. This time is mainly backwards looking in order to explain the relationships in terms of their history (ibid.:108). Time units are in this way “co-ordinate with units of structural space” (ibid.:135) that are in turn linked to oecological, political and territorial dimensions. To put it simply, the Nuer differentiate between a system of time that reflects their relation to nature and a scheme that is associated with their relation to one another in the realm of sociality. In this way, Evans-Pritchard (ibid.: 103) admits that the Nuer have only "very limited means of reckoning the relative duration of periods of time intervening between events, since they have few, and not well-defined or systematized, units of time." Most strikingly, in the Nuer language no word for time exists (ibid.:103).
Summary of Chapters
Nuer – Apparent differences resolved: This chapter analyzes the Nuer's dual system of 'oecological' and 'structural' time, arguing that their unique perspective does not necessarily contradict universal notions of time.
Bali – Emphasis shifted: This chapter explores Balinese calendars and their focus on qualitative modalities rather than linear duration, highlighting the debate between cultural relativism and universal cognition.
The West – New technique: This chapter examines the Western concept of industrial 'clock time', critiquing its status as a universal standard and identifying it as one specific, culturally constructed facet of time.
Bias of ethnographic data and inadequate level of analysis: This chapter addresses how observer ideology and the metaphysical nature of 'universal' categories limit the possibility of reaching definitive empirical conclusions.
Keywords
Cognitive universals, Ethnography, Nuer, Bali, Time perception, Cultural relativism, Evans-Pritchard, Gell, Geertz, Clock time, Industrial time, Metaphysics, Social structure, Anthropological evidence, Time-reckoning.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core subject of this paper?
The paper investigates whether ethnographic evidence, specifically regarding the perception of time, supports or refutes the idea of human cognitive universals.
What are the central themes discussed in this work?
The work focuses on time-reckoning systems in Nuer and Balinese cultures, the critique of Western industrial time, and the influence of anthropological bias.
What is the primary goal of this research?
The goal is to determine if ethnographic data can empirically settle the debate between cultural relativism and the existence of universal human cognitive concepts.
Which scientific methods are employed?
The author uses a comparative analysis of existing ethnographic studies and critical theory to evaluate the logical consistency of universalist claims.
What is addressed in the main sections of the paper?
The main sections cover the specific time-reckoning schemes of the Nuer, the ritualistic and non-durational time concepts in Bali, and a critique of the dominant Western mechanical clock-time model.
Which keywords best characterize this work?
Key terms include cognitive universals, time perception, ethnographic bias, cultural relativism, and industrial time.
How do the Nuer perceive time differently from Western societies?
The Nuer utilize an oecological rhythm linked to nature and a structural time linked to social relations, rather than having a singular, metrical concept of time defined by units.
What does the author conclude regarding the "universality" of time?
The author suggests that while practical cultural differences exist, there is no definitive proof that these reflect fundamental differences in human cognition, leaving the debate largely on a metaphysical level.
- Arbeit zitieren
- Johannes Lenhard (Autor:in), 2012, Is Time Universal? Discuss whether the anthropological evidence tends to support or refute the idea that there are human cognitive universals., München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/205566
