Early 20th century America was a place where the African American had little or no say in society. Only 35 years after liberation the Negro was still struggling against race prejudices that amongst other things kept him from enjoying the same education as whites did. This discrimination had its roots in an obsolete worldview Americans had taken over from the late 19th century and according to which the Negro evolution had never passed the stage of savagery.
To counteract this inflammatory discrimination Negro leaders like W.E.B. Du Bois and Booker T. Washington rose and gave proposals about the right program for Negro education. Although they differed considerably in their views, they aimed for the same goal; the advancement of the Negro race. Apparently, white leaders such as Thomas Jesse Jones, justifying their stance with scientific proof, constantly opposed them.
In juxtaposing the different views this work is trying to shed light on the Negro’s struggle for education in early 20th century America. For this purpose a revision of contemporary literature, surveys, statistics and legal documents was of chief importance. The first part thus gives a preliminary account of the progressive debate that took place in the first years of the 20th century. Since whites based their discriminative attitude on evolutionary theory, a short summary of Lewis Henry Morgan’s Ancient Society is given, and it is shown to which extend it influenced contemporary thinking.
The next part compares Thomas Jesse Jones’ recommendations on Negro education, derived from an extensive study he conducted, with W.E.B. Du Bois’ and Booker T. Washington’s views on that matter.
The second part of this work starts out to give legal documentation on segregation in Americas’ schools that lead to extensive changes of the countries demography. At this point, the North with New York as the most progressive state is characterized as well as the more conservative South, where Cumming vs. Richmond Board of Education had a more negative impact on Negro education.
The final part constitutes an overview of the actual achievements that Negroes made in their struggle for education. In that, not only elementary school education is being looked at but also high school and higher education.
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION
2. PROGRESSIVE DEBATE ON NEGRO EDUCATION
2.1. THOMAS JESSE JONES
2.2. W.E.B. DU BOIS
2.3. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON
3. HARLEM RENAISSANCE SCHOOLING
3.1. CUMMING VS. RICHMOND COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION
3.2. NEW YORK
3.3. THE SOUTH
3.4. RESULTS
4. CONCLUSION
Research Objectives and Themes
This academic work examines the systematic struggle for education faced by African Americans in the United States during the early 20th century, analyzing how racial prejudice and discriminatory educational theories shaped public policy and restricted access to academic advancement.
- The influence of late 19th-century evolutionary theories on early 20th-century educational reforms.
- Contrasting educational philosophies of prominent figures: Thomas Jesse Jones, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Booker T. Washington.
- Legal challenges to educational segregation, specifically the landmark case of Cumming vs. Richmond County Board of Education.
- The role of the Great Migration and the Harlem Renaissance in shaping educational prospects for Black Americans.
- Disparities in resources, teacher compensation, and school facilities between Northern and Southern states.
Excerpt from the Book
2.1. Thomas Jesse Jones
Many scholars participated in the debate and various studies were conducted. One of the most discussed was a study published in 1917 by Thomas Jesse Jones. In Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States 747 schools, accommodating almost 100.000 students, were inspected. Primary aim of this study was to find out what kind of education the Negro needed and how schools managed to meet those needs. In order to achieve this, “educational objects of the school … the training of teachers, the vocational choice of the pupils, the condition of the school plant, the attitude of the white and colored people of the community toward the school, and the work of former students” were analyzed.
Given his biased opinion on “the superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race,” the subsequent recommendations were all but surprising and only mirrored the (white) Zeitgeist of that time. Negroes’ secondary education thus should concentrate on preparing them for domestic employment or agricultural work, rather than a college career. Their instruction should take place in normal schools and be given by white teachers. Since attendance in such schools was not always possible, other Negro schools should be supervised and guided as to guarantee their adjustment to the local community. Due to their economic and psychological inferiority, they were to be educated in different courses of study with different methods of teaching, for they had different needs.
Summary of Chapters
1. INTRODUCTION: This chapter introduces the struggle for African American education in the early 20th century, framing the central conflict between different leadership ideologies and the influence of systemic racial prejudice.
2. PROGRESSIVE DEBATE ON NEGRO EDUCATION: This section explores how early 20th-century reformers used evolutionary theory to justify segregated and lower-tier educational tracks for Black students.
2.1. THOMAS JESSE JONES: This subsection analyzes the 1917 study by Thomas Jesse Jones, which advocated for manual and industrial training for Black students based on assumptions of Anglo-Saxon superiority.
2.2. W.E.B. DU BOIS: This subsection details W.E.B. Du Bois' strong opposition to industrial-only education, arguing instead for high academic standards and the development of a "Talented Tenth" of educated Black leaders.
2.3. BOOKER T. WASHINGTON: This subsection examines Booker T. Washington’s pragmatic approach to industrial education and his "Atlanta Compromise," which sought to avoid direct confrontation with segregation.
3. HARLEM RENAISSANCE SCHOOLING: This chapter investigates the impact of racial demographics and migration patterns on educational opportunities in Northern and Southern states.
3.1. CUMMING VS. RICHMOND COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION: This subsection discusses the Supreme Court case that legally cemented the separation of school funding and sanctioned de jure segregation.
3.2. NEW YORK: This subsection analyzes the unique educational environment of New York, which, despite prohibitions against exclusion, remained under white administrative control.
3.3. THE SOUTH: This subsection documents the devastating conditions of Southern Black schools, characterized by severe underfunding and lack of qualified teachers.
3.4. RESULTS: This subsection synthesizes the limited educational gains during the 1920s, highlighting persistent inequalities and the negative impact of the Great Depression.
4. CONCLUSION: The final chapter summarizes the findings, noting that the Harlem Renaissance and elite efforts for educational advancement were largely neutralized by systemic dependence on philanthropy and persistent racial barriers.
Keywords
African American education, Harlem Renaissance, W.E.B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, Thomas Jesse Jones, segregation, educational inequality, Plessy v. Ferguson, Talented Tenth, manual training, racial prejudice, Great Migration, civil rights, industrial education, educational policy.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary subject of this research?
The work provides a historical analysis of the struggle for equal educational opportunities for African Americans in the United States during the early 20th century.
What are the central thematic fields covered?
The study centers on the intersection of educational theory, systemic racial discrimination, the influence of progressive reform, and the legal frameworks of segregation.
What is the core research objective?
The research aims to contrast the different educational philosophies of leaders like Du Bois and Washington while evaluating the effectiveness of these strategies against the backdrop of an era defined by institutionalized racism.
Which scientific methods were employed?
The paper utilizes a methodology involving the revision of contemporary literature, examination of legal documents, analysis of demographic statistics, and a comparative study of educational surveys from the early 1900s.
What does the main body of the text discuss?
The main body evaluates the "progressive debate" surrounding Negro education, the legal impact of Supreme Court rulings, and the geographical differences in schooling between the North and the South.
What are the most significant keywords for this work?
Key terms include segregation, educational inequality, civil rights, institutionalized racism, and the ideological debate between industrial and academic training for Black students.
How did Thomas Jesse Jones influence early 20th-century education?
Jones advocated for manual training for African Americans, believing they were racially suited for domestic and agricultural roles rather than higher academic pursuits.
What was the stance of W.E.B. Du Bois regarding education?
Du Bois vehemently opposed the "industrial-only" model, arguing that African Americans required access to the same rigorous academic curriculum as whites to foster leadership and self-determination.
How did the Supreme Court decision in "Cumming vs. Richmond" affect education?
The decision dismissed the appeal against unequal school funding, effectively providing legal cover for the systemic neglect of Black schools throughout the South for decades.
Did the Harlem Renaissance succeed in closing the educational gap?
While the period fostered cultural growth, the author concludes that it failed to achieve long-term systemic educational equality, particularly as philanthropic funding collapsed during the Great Depression.
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- Nico Hübner (Autor:in), 2013, The Negro’s Struggle for Education in Early 20th Century America, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/232824
