State and military power have been formally fused in Myanmar since the military coup of 1962. Colonial and pre-colonial experiences prior to this had ensured the creation of a national narrative that emphasised unity and the survival of the regime above all else. This led to the slow infiltration of military rule in the years following independence in 1948 and ultimately to the decades of authoritarian rule and economic mismanagement, exacerbated by economic sanctions. As the rest of the region began its post-colonial transition towards democracy and prosperity, brutal military crackdowns and reprisals following populist uprisings in 1988 and 2007 seemed only to confirm Myanmar’s resilience. Following the suppression of the 2007 uprising, it appeared that the hold of the military junta was absolute.
The announcement in 2008 by the ruling State Peace and Development Council (SPDC) of wide-ranging reforms as part of the ‘roadmap to democracy’ thus represented the greatest hope of democratic reform for half a century. Following the enactment of constitutional reforms and trumpeted elections in 2010, the state now represents an ostensibly democratic, constitutional system. Throughout early 2011 the newly formed ‘civilian’ government released over 700 political prisoners, oversaw a relaxation of media censorship and legalised the right to unionisation in conjunction with a re-emergence of opposition politics.
This essay examines how the cross over between the issues of 'ethnicity' in Myanmar and the perceived role of the military among the military establishment as the sole protectors of the unity of the Union of Myanmar act to create political stagnation in the country. By conducting the political process on their terms, the military is ensuring that opposition politics is robbed of the political space with which to address the ethnic nationalities head on. The NLD is now the only group that has the cultural and political capacity to do this. In its continuous failure to do so it may yet plunge Myanmar into a period of political instability once again.
Table of Contents
I. Introduction
1.1. Contextualising Myanmar
1.2. A ‘Burmese Spring’: The New Light of Myanmar?
1.3. Establishing the military-ethnic dynamic
1.4. Problems of research methodology
2. Myanmar & Democracy: a conceptual approach
2.1 Democracy and democratic consolidation
2.2. Civil-military relations
2.21 Endogenous and exogenous factors in military withdrawal
2.22 Historical factors and the establishment of military culture
3. The Military in Myanmar’s politics: from independence to the present day
3.1 The ‘reserved domain’: establishing the Tatmadaw tradition
3.2 From direct rule to “disciplined democracy”: the guiding hand of the Tatmadaw in contemporary Myanmar
5. Summary. ‘Jobs for the boys’: how ethnic conflict perpetuates the military’s role in politics
6. Conclusion: looking to the future
Research Objectives and Core Themes
This work examines the complex interplay between ethnicity, military power, and the democratic transition in Myanmar. It explores how the military has maintained its political influence despite reforms and investigates the extent to which the military’s obsession with state unity and ethnic conflict has hindered a genuine transition to a fully civilian-led democracy.
- The historical role of the Tatmadaw as a political force.
- The impact of ethnic diversity and conflict on civil-military relations.
- Theoretical approaches to democratic transition in hybrid regimes.
- The challenges posed by the 2008 constitution to democratic consolidation.
Excerpt from the Book
1.1. Contextualising Myanmar
Myanmar’s strategic and political influence in the region throughout its history has been instrumental in the formation of the modern state. The classical Kingdom of Bagan commanded authority over an area stretching across Irrawaddy Delta, the Upper Mekong and into present day India and Thailand. This cultural and political power was supported in turn by military might, culminating in the sacking of Ayutthaya in 1569, in modern day Thailand, and marking the beginning of centuries of dominance over Siam and the region.
By the early colonial period Myanmar was the ‘rice basket’ of Asia, the world’s largest exporter of rice with the world’s busiest immigrant port, Yangon, as its capital. Military rule following independence from Ne Win’s era to the dictatorships’ of Than Shwe and Thein Sein were as oppressive as they were resilient. By the mid 2000s, scholars were rewriting the ‘rule books’ in an attempt to explain the continued existence of military rule; they rationalised this resistance through an appreciation of a complex interplay of cultural, religious and historical factors. Political developments today are trumpeted a sign that Myanmar has begun an inevitable transition to full civilian control and democracy.
The almost continual struggle to establish a Bamar nation across the centuries still informs political decision making in Myanmar today. The dynastic struggles of Bagan era; the annexation of Myanmar as part of British India for over 100 years; the subsequent struggle for self-determination; Japanese occupation during WWII; the ensuing civil war and ethnic conflicts, and more recently the neo-colonial ambitions of China and the West in their competition over resources.
Summary of Chapters
I. Introduction: This chapter provides a historical context for Myanmar, outlining its evolution from the Kingdom of Bagan to a state currently undergoing a tenuous democratic transition while highlighting persistent challenges.
2. Myanmar & Democracy: a conceptual approach: This section establishes the theoretical framework for analyzing democratic transitions, civil-military relations, and the factors that influence whether an military will withdraw from political life.
3. The Military in Myanmar’s politics: from independence to the present day: This chapter traces the historical development of the Tatmadaw, explaining how it established a ‘reserved domain’ over political power and how it has managed to maintain control through various regimes and reform programs.
5. Summary. ‘Jobs for the boys’: how ethnic conflict perpetuates the military’s role in politics: This summary reflects on the persistence of military involvement, arguing that the unresolved ethnic question serves as the primary justification for the army to retain its central role in the state.
6. Conclusion: looking to the future: The conclusion evaluates the ongoing political trajectory, suggesting that without addressing the fundamental ethnic questions, Myanmar risks remaining a ‘two-speed’ state with the military continuing to act as the ultimate arbiter of power.
Keywords
Myanmar, Tatmadaw, Democratisation, Civil-military relations, Ethnicity, Bamar, Democratic consolidation, Military intervention, Political reform, Hybrid regimes, Ethnic conflict, State-building, Nation-building, Transition, Constitution.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core focus of this publication?
The book analyzes the complicated relationship between the military in Myanmar (the Tatmadaw) and the country's recent attempts at democratisation, specifically focusing on how ethnicity and military history influence political developments.
What are the primary themes discussed in the work?
The key themes include the institutional history of the Tatmadaw, the nature of civil-military relations, the challenges of democratic consolidation in a post-authoritarian state, and the central role of ethnic conflict in shaping national politics.
What is the central research objective?
The primary aim is to explain why the military remains the dominant political actor despite formal democratic reforms and to investigate how the unresolved ethnic question acts as a mechanism for the military to retain power.
Which methodologies are employed in this analysis?
The author uses a historical approach to analyze internal and external factors influencing military behavior, combined with a theoretical framework of civil-military relations and transition studies to contextualize Myanmar’s current political reality.
What topics are covered in the main body of the work?
The main body examines the conceptual framework of democracy, the historical trajectory of the Tatmadaw from independence to the current 'disciplined democracy,' and the significant impact of the colonial legacy and ethnic diversity on current governance.
Which keywords best characterize this research?
The work is best defined by terms such as Myanmar, Tatmadaw, Democratisation, Ethnicity, Civil-military relations, and democratic consolidation.
How does the author define the military's role in contemporary Myanmar?
The author argues that the military uses the fear of secession and national disintegration as a ‘reserved domain’ to justify its continued political interference and to maintain its position as the ultimate arbiter of power.
What is the significance of the ethnic question in this study?
The ethnic question is presented as the primary obstacle to true democratisation; the author contends that by failing to resolve this issue through non-military means, the current political process remains limited and potentially unstable.
What does the author conclude about the ‘road to democracy’ in Myanmar?
The author concludes that the transition is currently a 'choreographed' process by the military to institutionalize its power rather than a complete withdrawal, noting that a real democratic future depends on the ability to move beyond ethnocentric Bamar political structures.
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- Findley Penn-Hughes (Autor:in), 2013, A Fool's Paradise? Ethnicity, Military and Prospects for Democratisation in Myanmar, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/280409
