Motivation in an international context

Content

Tables and Figures

1. Introduction

2. Motivation
2.1. What is motivation?
2.2. Basic motivation concepts
2.2.1. Hierarchy of Needs Motivation
2.2.2. Achievement Motivation Theory

3. Reward Systems

4. Motivation in China

4. Conclusion

Appendix

Bibliography

Tables and Figures

Figure 1: Basic Motivation Process

Figure 2: Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 3: Uncertainty Avoidance and Masculinity scale

Table 1: Values of the four indices for 50 countries with rank numbers

1. Introduction

Differences in external factors like culture, economy, history, political and management systems may lead to differences in employee job attribute preferences across countries. A motivation concept designed for one cultural context may be inappropriate when transferred to another.

Assuming, that this is true, managers and designers of motivation systems must understand the preferences of local employees. Therefore, in an international context it is required to examine the differences in motivation from country to country.

2. Motivation

In the following the term ‘motivation’ will be explained and basic motivation concepts regarded. Most of these concepts were developed by Americans and about Americans. Therefore, each theory will be considered with regard to its cross-cultural applicability.

2.1. What is motivation?

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Motivation can be explained as the willingness of individuals to do something for satisfying a need. A need is a psychological or physiological deficiency, which makes the attainment of specific outcomes attractive. Unsatisfied needs lead to drives which generate a search for particular goals. If these goals are attained the need will be satisfied (Robbins, 2000, p. 44).

Figure 1: Basic Motivation Process

(Source: Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003, p. 382)

2.2. Basic motivation concepts

The basic motivation concepts can be divided into process theories and content theories. Process theories “explain work motivation by how employee behavior is initiated, redirected, and halted” (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003, p. 381) whereas content theories “explain work motivation in terms of what arouses, energizes, or initiates employees behavior” (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003, p. 381).

Content theories are more useful to create a detailed picture of work motivation in a specific country because they regard motivation in more general terms (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003, p. 381). For that reason, the focus is set on the content theories of Maslow and McClelland.

2.2.1. Hierarchy of Needs Motivation

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Abraham Maslow has divided the human needs into five classes. With these classes he built a hierarchy, which is illustrated in Figure 2. Every class is based on the lower level class.

Figure 2: Hierarchy of Needs

(Source: Robbins, 2001, p. 156)

Physiological needs are needs, which people must satisfy to keep alive, like food, sleep and clothing. Applied to the work environment, these physiological needs are often satisfied through basic salary.

Safety needs include the desire for security. In the work environment, these needs involve ensuring personal safety and income.

Social needs include the desire to interact with other people as well as receive and give friendship. On the workplace this can be obtained in informal or formal groups.

Esteem needs are for example the need for status. At work this could be fulfilled through a company car or an important position.

Self-actualization needs are desires to make the fullest use of one’s potential and to develop oneself. In the work environment this class seems to be hard to satisfy. The persons who are most likely to satisfy this are for example skilled workers or managers (Graham & Bennett, 1998, p. 62).

According to Maslow, as each of these needs is substantially satisfied, it is no longer motivating and the next class of needs becomes dominant. This means, that a higher need will only become active, if the lower needs are satisfied.

Applicability for cross-cultural management

Experts do not agree in the point if to support or to refute Maslow’s Theory. Some studies found that Maslow’s hierarchy was the same or at least very similar in other cultures, while others found significant differences in the hierarchy across cultures.

On the one hand, Haire, Ghiselli and Porter undertook a study to examine the importance of Maslow’s four highest-level needs. Therefore, they surveyed managers from 14 countries. The only modification of Maslow’s hierarchy was, that the esteem need was split up in esteem, which included prestige and self-esteem, and autonomy, which included independent thoughts and actions as well as the importance of authority. They found, that for these managers the upper-level needs like self-actualization and autonomy were the most important needs (Hodgetts & Luthans, 2003, p. 382).

On the other hand, Hofstede suggests that Maslow’s theory does not apply in all other cultures. According to his uncertainty avoidance and masculinity scale (see Figure 3) the investigated countries are divided in 4 quadrants.

The countries in the first quadrant score low on uncertainty avoidance and high on masculinity, which means, that performance and risk are important for them.

Countries in the second quadrant are countries with strong uncertainty avoidance and masculinity. This is characterized by performance and security motivation.

The countries in quadrant 3 and 4 are both on the feminine side. They distinguish themselves from those in quadrant 1 and 2 by a focus on relationships between people and quality of life rather than on performance, achievements and money. It can be expected that employees in countries in the third quadrant will be motivated by quality of life and security, while employees in the fourth quadrant will emphasize quality of life and risk.

According to Hofstede’s investigations, the United States are situated in the first quadrant. This explains why Maslow puts self-actualisation (achievement) and esteem above social and security needs, because his theory is based on the value system of Americans.

Hofstede suggests, that employees in countries in different quadrants should be motivated in different ways. Therefore, the order in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has to change for each quadrant. For countries, which belong to the second quadrant, security needs should be at the top of the pyramid, whereas for countries in the fourth quadrant social needs are more important and therefore situated at the top. For countries in the third quadrant both, security and social needs should be on top of the pyramid (Hofstede, 1980, pp. 55-56).

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