There are several theories on how African American Vernacular English (AAVE) may have come into existence, however the creolist hypothesis has been the most prominent one. It states that AAVE is based on a creole and was brought to the United States by slaves from West Africa or the West Indies.
However, the oppositional theory, called the Anglicist or dialectologist hypothesis, considers AAVE to be influenced by traditional English dialects. Most important seems to be the influence of the Scots-Irish from northern Ireland. As they make up the largest group of settlers in the American colonies in the 18th century their language must have had an enormous impact on the emergence of several American English dialects, and probably also on AAVE. This would claim AAVE to be an English dialect as well, influenced by the features of Southern American English. But this is a subject of controversial debate.
Some linguists are of the opinion that the Southern American accent was actually influenced by the language of African Americans. Still, there are several linguistic features of the Scots-Irish' language that can also be found in the United States, especially in the Appalachian and Southern dialect; and it is a “[...] fact that in the New World, i.e. in the United States as well as in the Caribbean, black slaves had extensive contact with people from Ireland” (Ewers, 1995). Thus it is also possible that the American English varieties, primarily the southern one, could have had an impact on AAVE.
At a glance
- Examines Ewers’ criteria for identifying Scotch-Irish influence on American English
- Uses Charleston, South Carolina, as a language-contact case study
- Compares Scots-Irish features with features of earlier AAVE
- 14 sources in the bibliography
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Origin and language of the Scots-Irish
3. Scots-Irish’ Migration to America
4. Planters and Slaves in Charleston, South Carolina
5. Gullah
6. African American Vernacular English
6.1 Earlier AAVE
6.2 Unique Features of AAVE
6.3 Corresponding Features
7. Conclusion
Objectives and Topics
This work examines the Anglicist hypothesis concerning the origins of African American Vernacular English (AAVE), asking whether the migration and language of the Ulster Scots could have contributed to its development. It considers historical language contact alongside comparisons of dialect features and competing explanations.
- Scots-Irish origins, language and migration
- Settlement patterns in Pennsylvania, Appalachia and South Carolina
- Language contact involving enslaved people, planters and overseers
- Gullah and the creolist hypothesis
- Historical and contemporary features of AAVE
- Correspondences between Ulster Scots and American dialects
Excerpt from the Book
3. Scots-Irish’ Migration to America
When the Ulster Scots migrated from Northern Ireland to the colonies of America they did not only escape from religious oppression but also from “poor harvests, slumping linen sales, and rising rents and tithes” (Griffin, 2001: 66). From 1718 to 1729 thousands of Ulster Presbyterians moved to America and “[...] Pennsylvania appeared to men and women of the north as a perfect Ulster [...]” (ibid). As many other European migrants came to this region the population was of diverse heritage: English, Dutch, Germans, Irish and Scots distributed in Pennsylvania. They did even have different beliefs, as there were Roman Catholics, Presbyterians and Quakers to name only some (cf. ibid.: 101). However, the different groups of migrants lived in clusters and “[a]ccording to contemporaries the Irish could not be 'restrained...from settling any where from among themselves,' and did not 'mix in their settlements.'” (ibid.: 104) It is also stated that they were “quick witted as well as quick tempered, rather visionary, imperious, and aggressive” (Dillard, 1985: 74). It can be assumed that they were a solitary group of people and therefore their culture and language must have been relatively stable.
As “the Germans had already claimed much of the prime farming land in Pennsylvania” (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, 1998: 99) the Scots-Irish began to move westwards to Appalachia by the 1730s (cf. Schneider, 2008: 428). They used the Cumberland Gap and “[... fanned out into the Carolinas, Kentucky, and Tennessee […]” (Wolfram & Schilling-Estes, 1998: 99). Many people of Scots-Irish origin settled in the highlands of South Carolina and established farming there, as “[...] the underpopulated and relatively isolated mountains provided them the refuge that they were looking for” (Dillard, 1985: 74).
With regard to the total number of US inhabitants in 1790 it may be assumed “[...] that the influence of their [i.e. immigrants from Ulster] speech should be strongest in Georgia and South Carolina, especially in the upland areas of these two states, and in Pennsylvania” (Ewers, 1995: 78). The language of the southern Appalachian regions showed several interesting features, such as invariable is, invariable was, invariable don't, multiple negatives, the use of ain't, nonstandard past participle, 3rd person singular + ø, or there's + NP plural (cf. Ibid: 84). The use of invariant be was also found in those areas: “It occurs in sentences such as I think you be right” (Ewers, 1995: 79). What could also be found was the use of ourn, theirn, yourn, hern and hisn for possessive pronouns, as in I thought hern was prettier than mine (cf. Schneider, 2008: 447). Personal pronouns + all as in Well, I’ll see you all later were also frequently used in the Appalachian regions (cf. ibid.). Third person reflexive pronoun consisted of a possessive + -self or –selves, as in He was just up there by hisself (cf. ibid.).
Chapter Summaries
1. Introduction: The introduction presents the Anglicist and creolist hypotheses and outlines the historical and linguistic evidence examined in the work.
2. Origin and language of the Scots-Irish: This chapter traces migration from Scotland to Ulster and describes features of the language spoken by the Scots-Irish.
3. Scots-Irish’ Migration to America: This chapter follows settlement from Pennsylvania into Appalachia and the South and discusses linguistic features associated with these regions.
4. Planters and Slaves in Charleston, South Carolina: This chapter considers plantation society and possible language contact among enslaved people, planters, overseers and indentured servants.
5. Gullah: This chapter examines Gullah in relation to the creolist hypothesis and compares selected features with other varieties of English and Atlantic creoles.
6. African American Vernacular English: This chapter discusses earlier AAVE, features described as unique to AAVE, and features corresponding to Scots-Irish and southern American dialects.
7. Conclusion: The conclusion brings together the historical and linguistic arguments and considers their implications for the Anglicist hypothesis.
Keywords
Ulster Scots, Scots-Irish, African American Vernacular English, AAVE, Anglicist hypothesis, creolist hypothesis, language contact, migration, Gullah, Appalachian English, Southern American English, Charleston, historical sociolinguistics
Frequently Asked Questions
What is this work about?
It examines the possible influence of Ulster Scots on the development of African American Vernacular English.
What are its central topics?
The work covers Scots-Irish migration, historical language contact, Gullah, earlier AAVE and comparisons of dialect features.
What is the main research question?
The central question is whether Scots-Irish migration and linguistic features support an Anglicist explanation of AAVE’s origins.
What method does the author use?
The author examines published historical and linguistic research, using migration patterns, contact situations and comparisons of language features to assess the hypothesis.
What does the main body discuss?
It traces Scots-Irish settlement, considers plantation society and Gullah, and compares features of Scots-Irish, southern American dialects and AAVE.
Which keywords characterize the work?
Key terms include Ulster Scots, AAVE, the Anglicist hypothesis, language contact, Gullah and Appalachian English.
Why does Charleston receive particular attention?
Charleston provides a historical setting for examining potential contact among speakers of different varieties in a plantation economy.
How does Gullah relate to the discussion?
Gullah is considered in debates over whether AAVE developed from a creole; the work also distinguishes Gullah from AAVE and examines their linguistic contexts.
Which linguistic features are compared?
The discussion includes vowel mergers, invariant be, copula absence, negation, pronouns and forms such as “I seen.”
- Quote paper
- Marie Nemitz (Author), 2014, The Language and Migrations of the Ulster Scots. An Examination of the Anglicist Hypothesis, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/356875
