Interventions Used To Reduce College Statistics Anxiety

Table of Contents

Introduction

Defining Statistics Anxiety

Distinguishing Statistics Anxiety from Math Anxiety

Antecedents of Statistics Anxiety

The Need for Intervention

Interventions for Reducing Statistics Anxiety in College Students

Use of Live Vicarious Experience Presentation

Value-Reappraisal

Use of Humor

Use of Instructor Immediacy

Religious Motivation

Use of Multifaceted Teaching Framework

In-Class Collaborative Problem Solving

Combined Instructional Strategies

Summary of Literature on Statistics Anxiety Interventions

References

Introduction

Statistics anxiety has become an issue of concern in higher education due to its implications on teaching and learning (Chiou, Wang & Lee, 2014; Macheski, Buhrmann, Lowney & Bush, 2008). In retrospect, the trends of statistics anxiety are quite alarming. This aspect is evidenced by Onwuegbuzie and Wilson (2003) who report that statistic anxiety affects 80% of behavioral and social sciences students. They also report that most degree programs require students to enroll in quantitative research and statistics courses as part of their training. These statistic courses are reported to evoke anxiety-provoking experiences among students (Onwuegbuzie & Wilson, 2003). Similarly, Macher et al. (2013) reaffirm that statistics courses have been found to be the major source of anxiety in student’s curriculum. Further evidence is provided by Dykeman’s (2011) study which investigated the levels of anxiety between students in statistic courses and those in other education courses. Results of this study revealed that statistics students had lower self-efficacy (p<.01) and higher levels of anxiety (p< .05) compared to other students. As such, research on statistics anxiety has focused on the causes, as well as the statistics anxiety-reducing interventions. In this context, it is worth noting that statistics anxiety, as a construct, is different from math anxiety, which has been discussed extensively by researchers. Factor analysis reveals that statistics anxiety comprises of six dimensions: fear of statistics teacher, interpretation anxiety, computational self-concept, worth of statistics, fear of asking for help, and test and class anxiety (Cruise, Cash & Bolton, 1985). In contrast, mathematics anxiety has one dimension: fear of mathematics (Hak, 2014). Therefore, this literature review aims at discussing the interventions that can reduce statistics anxiety among college students. To achieve this objective, a concise definition of statistics anxiety, as well as, the distinction between statistics anxiety and math anxiety is provided as the scientific rationale why the focus of this discussion is on interventions that reduce statistics anxiety, but not math anxiety in general.

Defining Statistics Anxiety

Over the decades, extensive research on the principal aspects anxiety in college students, especially in mathematics and statistics education has led to a consensus on the definition of these two phenomena (Cruise, Cash & Bolton, 1985; Fennema & Sherman, 1976). It is universally acceptable to define statistics anxiety as a form of anxiety resulting from encountering statistics at any time. In general, Cruise, Cash and Bolton (1985) summarize the definition of statistics anxiety as “the feelings of anxiety encountered when taking a statistics course or doing a statistical analysis; that is, gathering, processing, and interpret[ing]” (p. 92). As such, statistics definition appears to be different from that of mathematics anxiety. Fennema and Sherman (1976) defined mathematics anxiety as “the feelings of anxiety, dread, nervousness, and associated bodily symptoms related to doing mathematics” (p. 324).

Distinguishing Statistics Anxiety from Math Anxiety

From a critical perspective, statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety are two distinct constructs. Overall, it is apparent that mathematics anxiety, as a construct, which results from the manipulation of numbers depends solely on mathematics reasoning. In contrast, statistics anxiety is characterized by an array of emotional reactions arising from any form of encounter to statistics (Onwuegbuzie, 2004). As such, it implies that statistics anxiety is more cognitive in nature, meaning that it requires more verbal reasoning than mathematics reasoning (Zerbolio, 1999). This aspect is acknowledged by Baloglu (2004) whose review of literature showed that there are significant differences between statistics and mathematics based on the cognitive process.

A clear distinction between statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety is provided by one prospective study that was conducted recently by Malik (2014) to investigate whether these constructs are similar or different from one another. In principle, Malik (2014) sought to clear the old-age misconception among researchers, most of whom regard statistics anxiety as mathematics anxiety. As such, he wanted to substantiate that his point of view that these constructs are different; thus, they require to be dealt with in different perspectives.

In this study, the Malik (2014) used the highly validated instruments of Students’ statistics anxiety scale (SSAS) and students’ mathematics anxiety scale (SMAS) to investigate different variables which are associated with the levels of two constructs among college students, primarily the year of study, mathematics background, gender, and the major field of study. The study involved 309 undergraduate students who were enrolled in an introductory statistics course or a college algebra course in the spring 2013 when this study was carried out. According to the findings of this study, the level of anxiety and gender between the students in statistics introductory course and those in the algebra course exhibited demographic differences, primarily on the impact of statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety on male and female students.

Statistics anxiety did not show statistically significant differences between females and males, t (196) = -0.92, p = 0.36 (Malik, 2014). Similar results on the level of statistics anxiety on gender were obtained by Bui and Alfaro (2011) who used the Test of Science Related Attitudes (TOSRA) and Statistical Anxiety Rating Scale (STARS) to investigate the relationship between statistics anxiety and gender among college students. In this study which comprised of 104 undergraduates, both TOSRA and STARS did not show statistically significant differences, p > .05), between female and males. In contrast, mathematics anxiety was found to have a statistically significant difference between females and males, t (109) = -2.09, p = 0.04. Second, Malik (2014) found significant differences between the levels of statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety on the basis of the major field of study. In this context, the researcher investigated anxiety in STEM and non-STEM majors. Results of this study showed that statistics anxiety has a statistically significant difference between STEM and non-STEM majors F (2, 195) = 12.14, p < 0.05. In contrast, mathematics anxiety did not show statistically significant difference between STEM and non-STEM majors F (2, 108) = 1.71, p = 0.19. As such, these constructs differed on the two parameters; gender and the major field of study.

On the other hand, there were similarities in the study results on college year and mathematics background. College year did not show statistically significant difference in statistics anxiety between continuing students and freshmen, t (196) = -1.35, p = 0.18. Similarly, mathematics anxiety did not show statistically significant difference, based on college year, between continuing students and freshmen, t (109) = -0.30, p = 0.76 (Malik, 2014). Finally, anxiety and mathematics background in both groups showed statistically significant results in which the statistics group had F (1, 196) = 22.85, p < .0001, whereas the algebra group had F (1, 109) = 18.15, p < .0001. This implies that mathematics background serves as a significant predictor of both statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety.

Based on the four parameters of statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety, the differences of these constructs are conspicuous; thus, clearing the mainstream misconception. Of great importance are the results on anxiety and gender, as well as the field of study which showed significant differences between statistics anxiety and mathematics anxiety (Malik, 2014).

Antecedents of Statistics Anxiety

Over the past few decades, research on statistics anxiety has focused on the underlying causes of the construct (Baloglu, 2004; Zeidner, 1991; Onwuegbuzie, Daros & Ryan, (1997). Baloglu (2004) carried out a comprehensive review of literature that is related to the antecedents of statistics anxiety and noted that it is a multidimensional construct citing Onwuegbuzie, Daros and Ryan’s (1997) study that identified instrument anxiety, failure anxiety, interpersonal anxiety, and content anxiety as the main components of statistics anxiety. He identified the main antecedents of this construct as discussed by an array of researchers as environmental, dispositional and situational antecedents. He also found out that some studies regarded statistics anxiety as a bidimensional construct, meaning that it comprises of two dimensions: content anxiety and statistics test anxiety (Zeidner, 1991). However, this aspect was attributable to the fact that these studies did not use statistics anxiety instruments. Instead, they used versions of mathematics anxiety (Baloglu, 2004).

At present, research on the antecedents of statistics anxiety has shifted focus from the predisposing factors to the mechanism involved in the development of statistics anxiety (Macher, Paechter, Papousek & Ruggeri, 2012; Macher et al., 2013). This approach aims at creating advanced understanding on the process of statistics anxiety in order to develop appropriate interventions that will reduce the construct among college students. Recently, Malik (2015) provided an insight into the process of statistics anxiety in which she investigated the underlying factors and situations leading to negative experiences in statistics among college students. In her phenomenological study which involved 6 undergraduate students who were enrolled in an introductory statistics course (STAT 150: Introduction to Statistical Analysis), Malik (2015) was able to investigate the process that leads to negative experiences in statistics. As a methodological approach, the participants were from different fields of study including nursing and psychology, and they were aged 18 years and above. Additionally, this study used students’ statistics anxiety scale (SSAS) to carry out a purposeful sampling of participants with high levels of statistics anxiety. According to the findings of Malik’s (2015) study, there are situations that induce statistics anxiety among students. She also noted some factors that potentiate statistics anxiety. Other factors that were involved in the development of negative experiences of statistics included feelings of inadequacy, physiological symptoms and the students’ inability to conceptualize statistical symbols and terminologies. Based on the four themes, Malik (2015) developed statistics anxiety model of phenomenology that shows how these themes act in a synergistic manner to cause negative experiences on statistics.

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