[...] This extract from the Book of Genesis is perhaps the oldest recorded attempt to explain the thrilling diversity of languages in the western societies. Moreover, the tale of the Tower of Babel is probably the best-known story about language among ordinary citizens. Though virtually everyone has heard about Babel at some point, only few would link it to the concept of ‘multilingualism’ or be able to give an exact definition of the term. Scholars, on the other hand, have not come up with a universally accepted definition so far, either. The term ‘multilingualism’ is used here synonymously with ‘bilingualism’ and therefore applied in its broadest sense. For the time being, we consider as multilingualism / bilingualism the competence in more than one language or, in other words, we “encompass both the individuals who are fluent in two languages only and those whose linguistic repertoire consists of three or more languages”. Admittedly, this definition is rather inaccurate and vague. In the course of this work we will therefore seek for a much more elaborate understanding of bilingualism / multilingualism. But let us go back to the biblical story for a moment. Unfortunately, a negative attitude towards different languages, which is implicitly expressed in the curse of Babel, is nowadays still widely held when it comes to judging bilinguals and bilingualism. Even in this day and age many people see the simultaneous occurrence of several languages in one place not as a blessing but as an aberration. To them, monolingualism is the norm and hence the natural way of life. However, if we direct our attention to facts rather than fiction, it becomes immediately clear that multilingualism is neither abnormal nor unnatural. Instead, as BHATIA / RITCHIE veraciously state, “[b]ilingualism, – more generally, multilingualism – is a major fact of life in the world today.” For a start, let us consider the domain of economics. The process of globalisation as well as improved travel opportunities have been causing increased mobility throughout the world. It is thus becoming a smaller place and interactions between people of different nations and cultures are getting much more frequent than in the past. As a result, ever more individuals are required to speak two or more languages. Despite these recent developments, the need to communicate with people who do not speak the same language as oneself is probably as old as history itself. [...]
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
2. Individual Bilingualism
2.1 Defining Bilingualism
2.2 Key Concepts and Distinctions
2.3 Bilingual Ability vs. Bilingual Use
2.3.1 Bilingual Ability
2.3.2 Bilingual Use
2.4 Code-switching and Interference
3. Societal Bilingualism
3.1 Diglossia
3.2 Language Shift, Language Decline, Language Maintenance and Spread
4. Concluding and Summary Remarks
5. Bibliography
Objectives and Topics
This work provides an introductory overview of the study of bilingualism, addressing both the individual and societal dimensions of the phenomenon. It aims to clarify complex terminology, explore the functional use of multiple languages, and examine the linguistic and social factors influencing language maintenance, shift, and decline.
- Theoretical definitions of bilingualism and the continuum of proficiency.
- Assessment of bilingual ability versus actual bilingual language use.
- Mechanisms and types of code-switching and linguistic interference.
- Societal bilingualism, diglossia, and factors affecting language spread.
- Critical review of linguistic labels and their implications for bilingual speakers.
Excerpt from the Book
2.4 Code-switching and Interference
Njandini: Hak! Wafika Unjandini kwakhal’ abantwana kwasuk’ amaphepha! Hey let’s see your pass mfo. (Naledi turns to strike him. Stops)
Naledi: Abuti [Brother] I’m sorry.
Njandini: Sorry yamasimba [my arse]! What are you doing here?
Naledi: I’m looking for a job . . .
(Enter Constable Dupe, played by Zwelakhe, wearing blue police cap)
Dupe: Eh! Njandini wat gaan ann hierso! [What’s going on here?]
In this extract from South African playwright PERCY MTWA’s comedy ‘Bopha!’ the characters switch heavily between three languages. Njandini starts off with uttering a sentence in Zulu, then changes to English while the last word of his utterance is in Zulu again. Naledi and Njandini afterwards mix both languages systematically. At the end, Constable Dupe enters and asks Njandini a question in Africans.
In 1953, WEINREICH stated that “deviation from the norm of either language”, like in Njandini’s and Naledi’s speech, should be referred to as interference. In accordance with other early research, WEINREICH regarded such instances of languages as somehow abnormal and not ideal. Apart from that, it was often claimed that speakers switch mainly because they lack the linguistic competence to complete their utterances in one language. A closer look at the example as well as newer research proves this idea to be wrong. It is evident that not every switch from one language to another “results from the unwelcome intrusion which this term [interference; M.L.] suggests.” Naledi seems to prefer the Zulu word ‘abuti’ to the English ‘brother’ because he feels that it is more intimate. Njandini uses a Zulu curse word for the sake of emphasis.
Summary of Chapters
1. Introduction: This chapter contextualizes the study of bilingualism through the lens of language diversity and challenges the common misconception that monolingualism is the universal norm.
2. Individual Bilingualism: The chapter explores the definitions, classifications, and degrees of individual bilingualism, while distinguishing between language ability and actual language use.
3. Societal Bilingualism: This section investigates how bilingualism functions within communities, focusing on the concept of diglossia and the socio-political factors that drive language maintenance or shift.
4. Concluding and Summary Remarks: The author synthesizes the key findings, reiterating that bilingualism is a multifaceted, natural phenomenon and emphasizing the need for nuanced research approaches.
5. Bibliography: A comprehensive list of academic sources and literature utilized throughout the work.
Keywords
Bilingualism, Multilingualism, Code-switching, Diglossia, Language Maintenance, Language Shift, Semilingualism, Linguistic Competence, Lingua Franca, Functional Bilingualism, Language Ability, Interference, Sociolinguistics.
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary focus of this work?
The work provides an introductory overview of bilingualism, covering both individual-level language proficiency and usage, as well as the societal aspects of language contact and evolution.
What are the central themes discussed in the paper?
Key themes include the definition of bilingualism, the distinction between individual and societal bilingualism, the assessment of bilingual competence, language choice, and the processes behind language spread and decline.
What is the core research question?
The primary objective is to define what it means to be bilingual and to explore the complexities of a bilingual's linguistic repertoire, moving beyond simplistic definitions to understand the multifaceted nature of the field.
Which scientific methodology is applied?
The author employs a literature-based theoretical approach, reviewing academic definitions and sociolinguistic models (such as those by Baker, Fishman, and Weinreich) to critically analyze the topic.
What is covered in the main body of the work?
The main body examines individual bilingualism (definitions, proficiency, use), code-switching practices, and societal frameworks like diglossia and the various factors contributing to language maintenance or loss.
What are the key terms that characterize this research?
The research is characterized by terms such as individual/societal bilingualism, code-switching, diglossia, language maintenance, and linguistic competence.
How does the author define the relationship between bilingualism and diglossia?
The author, drawing on Fishman, notes that while they often co-occur, they are distinct phenomena, and it is possible for a society to exhibit one without the other, depending on institutional and functional language use.
Why does the author consider the term 'semilingualism' problematic?
The term is critiqued for focusing on deficits rather than achievements and for being used as a political tool to describe and potentially oppress linguistic minorities rather than as a neutral scientific concept.
- Quote paper
- Martin Lehmannn (Author), 2005, Exploring Bilingualism - Key Concepts and Basic Issues, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/39435
