In the history of English, the language came into contact with different speech communities. Influences of Celtic, Latin, Scandinavian and French left their mark from the beginning in Anglo-Saxon times onwards, and the colonial expansion of the British Empire in the last three centuries resulted in the contact with even more speech communities.
Through these language contacts, English changed a lot – it showed the tendency to incorporate foreign influences, especially lexical ones, more likely in the first place; its grammar changed from being and analytic one towards being synthetic; and in terms of the lexicon, it changed from being a Germanic to a partly Romanic influenced language. In this essay, I want to examine the influence of the Scandinavian language on English and to what extent it was responsible for the general changes mentioned above. 45 per cent of the commoner words and 25 per cent of the general lexis1 in the present day English lexicon are a result of the language contact between Old English and Old Norse during the period of Scandinavian invasions and settlement in the eighth and ninth century – but the lexical influences are only one result of the language contact and I will try to show the other effects the Scandinavian influence had on English as well. Abbreviations
The Abbreviations I will use in this paper are “EME” for Early Middle English, “ModE” for Modern English, “ON” for Old Norse, “OE” for Old English and “PDE” for Present Day English.
Table of Contents
0 Introduction
1 Historical background
2 The general influences
3 Specific influences
3.1 Place names
3.2 Borrowing
3.2.1 General situation
3.2.2 Tests for borrowed words
3.2.3 Doublets
3.2.4 Late incorporation of the borrowings
3.3 The loss of inflections
3.3.1 General situation
3.3.2 Two examples of inflectional change
3.4 The influence on closed class words
3.4.1 Third person pronouns – They, their, them
3.4.2 Second person pronouns – She
3.4.3 Prepositions
3.4.4 Conjunctions
3.4.5 Adverbs
3.4.6 Present plural of to be
4 Conclusion
Objectives and Research Focus
This study aims to examine the extent and nature of the Scandinavian influence on the English language during the Anglo-Saxon period, specifically investigating how language contact between Old English and Old Norse led to significant lexical and grammatical changes.
- Analysis of the historical context of Scandinavian invasions and settlements.
- Examination of lexical borrowing and the impact of Old Norse on everyday vocabulary.
- Investigation of morphological shifts, particularly the acceleration of the loss of inflections.
- Evaluation of the influence on closed class words, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions.
Excerpt from the Book
3.2.1 General situation
After the Scandinavians had begun to settle down peacefully, a widespread lexical influence began. It can not be said that this influence was limited to certain domains of the lexicon or confined to certain registers. This was very different from the introduction of Christianity bringing Latin words into the language for a limited, specialised range of usage or the later borrowings of French words which were restricted to the ruling class and its issues at first. Because the “[…] civilization of the invaders was very much like that of the English themselves […]”, the contact happened on an everyday life basis with its wide variety of topics and registers.28 The massive borrowing of loan-words did not only incorporate such basic words as the nouns bank, egg, skin; the adjectives angry, odd, tight, ill or the verbs get, want, take; but also closed-classed words like till, though, they, their, them, she, both, same and against derive either directly or indirectly from Scandinavian.29 The fact that not only lexical, but also function words were borrowed, shows that the Norse influence was “[…] not simply the rather distant cultural influence of an elite group, but a much more intimate cultural and linguistic mixing.”30
It is difficult to tell exactly which of the Scandinavian borrowings are of Danish and which are of Norwegian origin. In general, the Danish forms made their way into standard English, because the area of the Danelaw was located in the East Midlands, the region from which the EME standard arose; the Norwegian forms remained more in dialect use in the north and west.31 Thus, in much of northern England we still find words like kirk, “church” and laik, “play”, which never made their way into standard usage.32
Summary of Chapters
0 Introduction: Sets the stage by highlighting language contact as a driver of change and defining the scope of Scandinavian influence on English.
1 Historical background: Provides an overview of the Viking Age and the political events, such as the Treaty of Wedmore, that enabled Scandinavian settlement in England.
2 The general influences: Discusses the sociolinguistic context, including bilingualism and the development of simplified forms to facilitate communication.
3 Specific influences: Details the concrete linguistic impacts of Old Norse, categorized by place names, lexical borrowing, grammatical simplification, and changes to closed class words.
4 Conclusion: Summarizes the findings, emphasizing that the Norse influence was profound because it affected fundamental, everyday vocabulary and grammar.
Keywords
Scandinavian influence, Old Norse, Old English, Middle English, language contact, lexical borrowing, Danelaw, Viking Age, linguistic assimilation, inflections, closed class words, place names, pidginisation, etymology, language change
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the primary subject of this academic paper?
The paper focuses on the linguistic impact of the Scandinavian language on the English language, resulting from the invasions and subsequent settlements by Northmen during the 8th and 9th centuries.
What are the central themes covered in the text?
The core themes include historical interaction, the nature of language contact, lexical acquisition, morphological simplification, and the integration of Old Norse function words into English.
What is the research goal of this work?
The goal is to determine the extent of Scandinavian influence on English and to explain why it differed from other linguistic influences, such as Latin or French.
Which scientific methodology is employed?
The study relies on a historical-linguistic approach, utilizing previous scholarly literature (such as Baugh and Leith) to analyze etymological evidence and historical documentation.
What does the main body address?
It covers the historical background of the settlements, the general sociolinguistic context, and specific linguistic phenomena such as place-name evidence, loanwords, the loss of inflections, and changes in pronouns and conjunctions.
Which keywords best characterize this research?
Key terms include Scandinavian influence, Old Norse, language contact, lexical borrowing, Danelaw, and grammatical simplification.
Why was the influence on closed class words particularly significant?
It is highly unusual for grammatical function words (like pronouns) to be borrowed; the fact that Scandinavian replaced native English forms indicates an extremely deep and intimate level of cultural and linguistic mixing.
How does the author explain the delay of borrowing into written language?
The delay occurred because early contact was primarily oral and based on everyday life, while the West Saxon writing standard acted as a formal barrier until the Norman Conquest caused the system to break down.
What is the significance of the "Danelaw" in this context?
The Danelaw was the area of heavy Scandinavian settlement; it served as the source for many loanwords and grammatical innovations that eventually spread to standard English.
- Quote paper
- Johannes Huhmann (Author), 2005, The Scandinavian influence on the English language, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/44813
