In this paper, I want to explore why and how Hijras are driven from their existence as religious sacred beings to sex-workers and how this leads to even more stigmatizing and exclusion, as well as a loss of agency to escape this mechanism.
In the first chapter, I explain what a Hijra is and show that defining Hijras is difficult due to their diverse (self-)perceptions. Furthermore, I give more information on the way Hijras live in communities, and their religious meaning and practices. The second chapter elaborates on their exclusion from social, cultural and economic life and health care systems. The third chapter explains how this exclusion forces many Hijras into prostitution and how this affects their image and (mental) health on the one hand, and how this leads them into a vicious circle of stigmatization on the other hand, in which they have no agency. The conclusion summarizes how all this comes together to deconstruct Hijras from within and without.
Most of this paper will be based on Nanda’s work since she was one of the first to research and write about this topic. Her work is thorough and much of newer literature regarding this topic is based on Nanda’s work. This also makes it difficult to find literature that offers new information, and monographies on social exclusion and the health of Hijras are yet to be written. The social exclusion and its effects on Hijras still seem an important topic to me. Therefore, I decided to face the challenge and work with many shorter scientific articles and bring their content into a context with Nanda’s and similar work.
Inhaltsverzeichnis (Table of Contents)
- Introduction
- Hijras - the Third Gender of India
- Who are the Hijras?
- The Dharma of a Hijra as Performer of Religious Ceremonies
- The Hijra Community - New Family and Caste
- Exclusion of Hijras and its Effects
- Between Blessings, Curses and Westernization
- Growing Up Outside of the Gender Binary
- Outside of the Government's Scheme
- Exclusion from Work Opportunities
- Discrimination in Old Age and Death
- Self-Perception
- Shifting to Forced Prostitution
- The Excluded of the Excluded
- Compensation of Damaged Mental Health with Risky Behaviour
Zielsetzung und Themenschwerpunkte (Objectives and Key Themes)
This paper explores the complex journey of Hijras in India, tracing their transition from respected religious figures to marginalized sex workers. It aims to understand the factors driving this shift and the resulting consequences for their lives, agency, and self-perception.
- The multifaceted identities and self-perceptions of Hijras.
- The socio-religious role of Hijras in Indian society and the erosion of their traditional status.
- The impact of social exclusion and discrimination on the lives of Hijras.
- The correlation between marginalization and the increasing prevalence of sex work among Hijras.
- The cyclical nature of stigma and its effect on the agency and mental health of Hijras.
Zusammenfassung der Kapitel (Chapter Summaries)
Introduction: This introductory chapter establishes the central theme of the paper: the complex and multifaceted lives of Hijras in India. It highlights the paradox of their elevated religious status juxtaposed with significant social exclusion. The introduction sets the stage by emphasizing the difficulty in defining "Hijra," due to diverse self-perceptions within the community and the evolving societal views on their identities. It further introduces the paper's core objective: to investigate the transition of Hijras from religiously significant figures to sex workers and the ensuing consequences of this shift, including the loss of agency and increased marginalization. This is framed within the broader context of westernization and urbanization's impact on traditional social structures and their impact on the Hijra community.
Hijras - the Third Gender of India: This chapter delves into the definition and complexities of Hijra identity. It explores the diverse perspectives on what constitutes a Hijra, ranging from those born intersex to those who undergo emasculation or identify as Hijras despite not undergoing these procedures. The chapter also discusses the cultural ideals surrounding Hijras versus the reality of their lived experiences. It examines the fluidity and ambiguity of Hijra gender, demonstrating its resistance to simple categorization within the male/female binary. The chapter highlights the importance of the Hijra's traditional role in performing religious ceremonies, which contrasts sharply with the societal perceptions and the subsequent marginalization they face.
Exclusion of Hijras and its Effects: This chapter comprehensively details the pervasive exclusion experienced by Hijras within Indian society. It examines the consequences of this marginalization, spanning social, cultural, economic, and healthcare systems. The chapter likely explores the challenges Hijras face in accessing employment, healthcare, and safe housing. It also analyzes the complex interplay of societal prejudices, cultural stigma, and the impact of modernizing forces on their traditional roles and livelihoods. The section likely uses examples to illustrate these points, demonstrating the everyday realities of discrimination and its profound implications for the well-being of Hijras.
Shifting to Forced Prostitution: This chapter directly addresses the causal link between social exclusion and the unfortunate involvement of many Hijras in sex work. It analyzes this transition as a consequence of limited opportunities and widespread discrimination. The chapter likely highlights the vicious cycle of marginalization: exclusion leads to limited economic prospects, which in turn leads to sex work, further reinforcing social stigma and hindering escape from this precarious situation. This section is expected to explore the psychological impact of this forced transition and how it affects the Hijra's self-perception and agency in their own lives.
Schlüsselwörter (Keywords)
Hijras, third gender, India, social exclusion, religious identity, sex work, marginalization, gender identity, cultural stigma, westernization, urbanization, self-perception, agency, mental health.
Frequently Asked Questions: A Comprehensive Study of Hijras in India
What is the main topic of this paper?
This paper explores the multifaceted lives of Hijras in India, focusing on their complex journey from respected religious figures to marginalized sex workers. It investigates the factors contributing to this shift and its consequences on their lives, agency, and self-perception.
What are the key themes explored in the study?
Key themes include the multifaceted identities and self-perceptions of Hijras; their socio-religious role and the erosion of their traditional status; the impact of social exclusion and discrimination; the correlation between marginalization and sex work; and the cyclical nature of stigma and its effects on agency and mental health.
Who are the Hijras?
The paper explores the diverse perspectives on Hijra identity, encompassing individuals born intersex, those who undergo emasculation, and those who identify as Hijras without undergoing such procedures. It highlights the fluidity and ambiguity of Hijra gender, challenging simple categorization within the male/female binary.
What is the traditional role of Hijras in Indian society?
Historically, Hijras held a significant socio-religious role, particularly in performing religious ceremonies. The paper contrasts this traditional status with the contemporary societal perceptions and the resulting marginalization they face.
How does social exclusion affect Hijras?
The study comprehensively details the pervasive exclusion experienced by Hijras, examining its consequences across social, cultural, economic, and healthcare systems. It explores challenges in accessing employment, healthcare, and safe housing, analyzing the interplay of societal prejudices, cultural stigma, and the impact of modernization on their traditional roles.
What is the connection between social exclusion and sex work among Hijras?
The paper directly addresses the causal link between social exclusion and the involvement of many Hijras in sex work, analyzing this as a consequence of limited opportunities and widespread discrimination. It highlights the vicious cycle where exclusion leads to limited economic prospects, forcing sex work, further reinforcing stigma and hindering escape.
What is the impact of this marginalization on the mental health of Hijras?
The study explores the psychological impact of forced transitions into sex work and its effects on Hijras' self-perception and agency. The cyclical nature of stigma and its contribution to mental health challenges are significant aspects of the analysis.
What is the role of westernization and urbanization in the changing circumstances of Hijras?
The paper considers the impact of westernization and urbanization on traditional social structures and their influence on the Hijra community, highlighting how these forces interact with existing societal prejudices and contribute to the marginalization experienced by Hijras.
What are the main findings or conclusions of this study?
The study concludes by emphasizing the complex interplay of factors contributing to the marginalization of Hijras in India, highlighting the need for addressing systemic issues to improve their lives, agency, and well-being. The transition from respected religious figures to marginalized sex workers is presented as a direct consequence of societal exclusion and discrimination.
What are the keywords associated with this study?
Keywords include Hijras, third gender, India, social exclusion, religious identity, sex work, marginalization, gender identity, cultural stigma, westernization, urbanization, self-perception, agency, and mental health.
- Arbeit zitieren
- Antonia Helesic (Autor:in), 2018, Shifting Religious Sacredness to Forced Prostitution. The Deconstruction of Hijras from Without and Within, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/462214
