The Living Conditions Monitoring Survey (LCMS) conducted in 2015 revealed that rural poverty stood at 76.6 percent and 23.4 percent for urban poverty respectively. To this effect, rural poverty still remains high and predominantly a rural phenomenon. This study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of the out-grower schemes on reducing poverty and answer the general research question on how effective were the out-grower schemes in reducing poverty in rural Zambia.
Pragmatism was the philosophical view that underpinned the study and it applied to the mixed research method approach for this study. The convergent parallel strategy of the mixed research method approach was used. The target population was 50,000 smallholder farmers and a questionnaire with open ended questions (qualitative) and closed questions (quantitative) was administered to a sample size of 396 smallholders farmers. Simple random sampling was used to select smallholder farmers.Qualitative data was analyzed by using the inductive process of building from the data to broad themes and then to interpretation. Quantitative data was analysed by using the Chi-square tests to ascertain association between critical variables measured by categories of out-grower farmers and independent farmers. The T-tests compared the treatment and control groups on variables of interest. The coefficient of variation (CV) was used to gauge the level of respondents’ disagreement (dissention) in responses while coefficient of consensus (CC) was used to gauge the level of respondents’ agreement (consensus) in responses, applied to the Likert scale and any other ordinal responses.
The findings from the study revealed that the out-grower schemes implementation has contributed to a positive change in poverty reduction to smallholder farmers participating in the out-grower scheme. Further, out-grower farmers have improved their knowledge in understanding the operation of the out-grower scheme. Subsequently, the out-grower schemes have benefited the communities. In this regard, the study concluded that the out-grower schemes have been effective in reducing poverty in the rural areas of Zambia. The study recommended that there was need to address the issue of power imbalance between the out-grower farmers and the out-grower firms.
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Background of the Study
1.2.1 Revised Zambia National Agriculture Policy 2012 - 2030
1.2.2 Out-grower Schemes in Zambia
1.2.2.1 Out-grower Companies in the Eastern Province
1.2.3 Types of Out-grower Models
1.2.3.1 The Centralized Model
1.2.3.2 The Nucleus Model
1.2.3.3 The Tripartite Model
1.2.3.4 The Informal Model
1.2.3.5 The Intermediary Model
1.2.4 Poverty Profile in Zambia
1.2.4.1 Poverty Trends
1.2.4.2 Shared Prosperity Trends
1.2.4.3 Inequality Trends
1.2.4.4 Population and Poverty by Province
1.3 Statement of the Problem
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.4.1 General Objective
1.4.1.1 Specific Objectives
1.5 Research Questions of the Study
1.5.1 General Research Question
1.5.1.1 Sub Research Questions
1.6 Significance of the Study
1.7 Scope of the Study
1.7.1 Profile of the Eastern Province
1.8 Thesis Structure
1.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
2.2 History and Extent of Out-grower Schemes
2.3 Literature Review at World Level
2.3.1 The United States of America
2.3.1.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.3.1.2 Poverty Trends in the USA
2.3.1.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.3.1.4 Effect of Out-grower Scheme on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.3.1.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.3.2. Brazil
2.3.2.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.3.2.2 Poverty Trends in Brazil
2.3.2.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.3.2.4 Effect of Out-grower Scheme on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.3.2.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.3.3 China
2.3.3.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.3.3.2 Poverty Trends in China
2.3.3.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.3.3.4 Effect of Out-grower Schemes on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.3.3.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.4 Literature Review at Africa Level
2.4.1 Nigeria
2.4.1.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.4.1.2 Poverty Trends in Nigeria
2.4.1.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.4.1.4 Effect of Out-grower Scheme on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.4.1.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.4.2 Kenya
2.4.2.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.4.2.2 Poverty Trends in Kenya
2.4.2.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.4.2.4 Effect of Out-grower Scheme on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.4.2.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.5 Literature Review at Southern Africa Development Community - SADC Level
2.5.1 Malawi
2.5.1.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.5.1.2 Poverty Trends in Malawi
2.5.1.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.5.1.4 Effect of Out-grower Schemes on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.5.1.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.5.2 South Africa
2.5.2.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.5.2.2 Poverty Trends in South Africa
2.5.2.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.5.2.4 Effect of Out-grower Schemes on Reducing Poverty Rural Poverty
2.5.2.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.5.3 Zambia
2.5.3.1 Agriculture Sector Overview
2.5.3.2 Poverty Trends in Zambia
2.5.3.3 Poverty Reduction Strategy
2.5.3.4 Effect of Out-grower Schemes on Reducing Rural Poverty
2.5.3.5 Out-grower Scheme Support to the Community at Large
2.6 Knowledge Gap
2.7 Conclusion
CHAPTER THREE – THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Contract Enforcement Theory
3.2.1 Theoretical Framework of the Contract Enforcement Theory
3.3 Geographical Disparities Poverty Theory
3.3.1 Theoretical Framework of the Geographical Disparities Poverty Theory
3.4 Failure Theory
3.4.1 Theoretical Framework of the Failure Theory
3.5 Critical Review of the Theories
3.5.1 Contract Enforcement Theory
3.5.2 Geographical Disparities Poverty Theory
3.5.3 Failure Theory
3.6 Conceptual Framework
3.6.1 Conceptual Framework through which the Study aims at explaining the Problem
3.7 Operationalization of Variables
3.7.1 Independent Variables
3.7.1.1 Market Price
3.7.1.2 Extension Services
3.7.1.3 Loan Default
3.7.1.4 Unequal Power Relation
3.7.1.5 Exclusion of Marginal Groups
3.7.1.6 Indebtedness
3.7.1.7 Land Availability and Tenure
3.7.1.8 Income
3.7.2 Intervening Variables
3.7.2.1 Risk Sharing Mechanism
3.7.2.2 Contextual Factors
3.7.2.3 Institution Innovation
3.7.2.4 Political and Legal
3.7.2.5 Contract
3.7.2.6 Social Services
3.7.3. Dependent Variables
3.7.3.1 Poverty Reduction
3.7.3.2 Economic Growth
3.7.3.3 Employment Creation
3.7.3.4 Improved Food Security
3.8 Hypotheses and Operationalization
3.9 Conclusion
CHAPTER FOUR – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Philosophical Assumptions
4.2.1 Epistemology
4.2.2 Ontology
4.2.3 Axiology
4.2.4 Phenomenology
4.2.5 Methodology
4.3 Research Design
4.4 Target Population
4.4.1 Description of the Sample and Sampling Procedure
4.4.1.1 Selection of Smallholder Out-grower Farmers
4.4.1.2 Selection of Smallholder Independent Farmers
4.4.1.3 Selection of Key Informants
4.5 Data Collection Techniques
4.5.1 Personal Interviews
4.5.2 Document Review
4.5.3 Questionnaire
4.6 Data Analysis Techniques
4.7 Pilot Study
4.7.1 Pilot Study Data
4.7.2 Pilot Study Data Analysis
4.7.3 Pilot Study Conclusion
4.8 Validity of the Study
4.8.1 Criterion Validity
4.8.2 Content Validity
4.8.3 Construct Validity
4.9 Credibility/trustworthiness
4.10 Reliability of the Study
4.10.1 Stability Reliability
4.10.2 Representative Reliability
4.10.3 Equivalence Reliability
4.11 Ethical Considerations
4.11.1 Veracity
4.11.2 Privacy
4.11.3 Confidentiality
4.11.4 Fidelity
4.12 Conclusion
CHAPTER FIVE – DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND RESULTS
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Demographic Data
5.2.1 Sex
5.2.2. Type of Respondent
5.2.2.1 Cross tabulation on Sex by Type of Respondent
5.2.3 Age
5.2.3.1 Cross tabulation on Age by Type of Respondent
5.2.4 Level of Education
5.2.4.1 Cross tabulation on the Education Level of Respondents
5.2.5 Marital Status
5.2.6 Number of Children
5.2.6.1 Cross tabulation on the Number of Children by Type of the Respondent
5.2.7 Household Size
5.2.8 Children Going to School
5.2.8.1 Cross tabulation on Children Going to School
5.2.9 Children Completed Secondary School
5.2.9.1 Cross tabulation on Children Completed Secondary School by Type of Respondent
5.2.10 Children up to Tertiary Level of Education
5.2.10.1 Cross tabulation on Children reached Tertiary education Level by Type of Respondent
5.3 Changes in Poverty Reduction to the Smallholder Out-Grower Farmers
5.3.1 Meals taken per Day
5.3.2 Type of House Owned
5.3.3 Main Source of Income
5.3.4 Income per Year
5.3.4.1 Cross tabulation on Income by Type of Respondent
5.3.5 Source of Energy for Lighting
5.3.6 Household Income and Assets
5.3.6.1 Change in Income in the Last Five Years
5.3.6.2 Assets Owned such as Cash at the Bank by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.2.1 Cross tabulation on the Change in the Assets Owned such as Cash at the Bank by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.3 Assets Owned such as Cattle by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.3.1 Cross tabulation on the Change in the Assets Owned such as Cattle by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.4 Cross tabulation on change in the number of Goats by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.5 Cross tabulation on Asset Owned such as the Bicycle by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.6 Cross tabulation on Asset Owned such as the Motor bike by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.7 Cross tabulation on Asset Owned such as Car by Type of Respondent
5.3.6.8 Asset Owned such as Phone Set
5.3.6.9 Asset Owned such as Television Set
5.3.6.10 Asset Owned such as Radio Set
5.3.6.11 Cross tabulation on Asset Owned such as Ox-cart by Type of Respondent
5.3.7 Sourcing of Farming Inputs
5.3.8 Description of the Process to Source Inputs
5.3.9 Crop Marketing
5.3.9.1 Cross tabulation on the Accessibility of Crop Market by Respondent Type
5.4 Knowledge by Out-grower Farmers on the Operation of the Out-grower Schemes
5.4.1 Years as an Out-grower Farmer
5.4.2 Out-grower Farmers benefit in Comparison to Independent Farmers
5.4.3 Out-grower Farmers’ Knowledge on the operation of out-grower schemes
5.4.4 Information Dissemination by the Out-grower Scheme on its Operations
5.4.5 Contracting with the Out-grower Schemes
5.4.6 Understanding the Contents of the Contract
5.4.7 Understanding the Language in which the Contract is written
5.4.8 Preference of the Language for the Contract to be written in
5.4.9 Announcement of Crop Price by the Out-grower Company
5.4.10 Effect of Price Announcement on decision to do farming with the out-grower scheme
5.4.11 Opinion of the Out-grower Farmers on the Agricultural Commodity Pricing system by the Out-grower Scheme
5.4.12 Participation in the Pricing of Agricultural Commodities
5.4.13 Stakeholders Participating in the Agricultural Commodity Pricing
5.4.14 Control on negotiations of setting Commodity Prices
5.4.15 Effect of the Current Pricing Mechanism on Profit
5.4.16 Opportunity for the Out-grower Farmers to sell the Commodity Elsewhere
5.4.17 Loan Repayment Management by the Out-grower Firms
5.4.18 Disclosure of the Loan Amount by the Out-grower Firm at the time of Collecting Inputs
5.4.19 Equivalence of the Loan Amount to the prevailing value of Inputs on the Market
5.4.20 Loan Insurance
5.4.21 Loan Repayment
5.4.22 Factors Making Loan Repayment difficulty
5.4.23 Management of Loan Repayment Failure by the Out-grower firms
5.4.24 Adequacy of Information dissemination by the Out-grower firms to assist the Out-grower Farmers in Decision Making
5.5 Benefits of the Out-grower Scheme to the Community
5.5.1 Extension Services provided by the Out-grower Firms
5.5.2 Community Development by the Out-grower Schemes
5.5.3 Attributing Change in Community Development to the Out-grower Schemes
5.5.4 Rating Performance of the Out-grower Schemes
5.6 Findings from Key Informants
5.6.1 Out-grower schemes operating in Eastern Province
5.6.2 Success Recorded by Out-grower Schemes in Zambia
5.6.3 Challenges faced by the Out-grower Farmers and Out-grower Firms
5.7 Proposed changes that would result in both the out-grower farmers and out-grower firms to benefit from the out-grower schemes
5.8 Conclusion
CHAPTER SIX – DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Change in Poverty Reduction to Smallholder Farmers Participating in Out-grower Schemes
6.3 Smallholder Out-grower Farmers Understanding of the Operations of the Out-grower Schemes
6.4 Benefits to the Communities where the Out-grower Schemes are implemented
6.5 Results Relating to Tested Hypotheses
6.6 Conclusion
CHAPTER SEVEN – FINDINGS
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Discussion of the Main Findings
7.2.1 Answering the Research Questions
7.2.2 Gaps Identified in the Centralized Model Type of the Out-grower Scheme
7.2.2.1 Bias in the Selection and Recruitment of the Out-grower Farmers
7.2.2.2 Unequal Power Sharing
7.2.2.3 Lack of Transparency in the Pricing Mechanism
7.2.2.4 Exclusion of the Third Parties
7.2.2.5 Unfair Contracts
7.2.2.6 Lack of Insurance on the Loans
7.2.3 Knowledge Advancement on Out-grower Schemes to Reduce Poverty
7.2.3.1 The Framework of the Out-grower Scheme Management Model by the Author
7.2.4 Operationalization of the Out-grower Scheme Management Model
7.2.4.1 Partnership
7.2.4.1.1 Establishing Partnerships
7.2.4.1.2 The Out-grower Firm
7.2.4.1.3 The Smallholder Farmer
7.2.4.1.4 External Facilitators
7.2.4.2 Contract
7.2.4.3 Risk Sharing
7.2.4.4 The Enforcement
7.2.4.5 Equal Power Sharing Relationship
7.2.4.6 Sustainable Out-grower Performance
7.2.4.7 Household Income
7.2.4.7.1 Household Food Security
7.2.4.7.2 Improved Wellbeing
7.2.4.7.3 Consumption Expenditure
7.2.4.8 Poverty Reduction
7.2.5 Outcome Areas that Result from the Out-grower Scheme Management Model
7.2.5.1 Framework of the Concepts in the Outcome Areas
7.2.6 Operationalization of the Concepts in the Outcome Areas
7.2.6.1 Immediate Outcomes
7.2.6.2 Intermediate Outcomes
7.2.6.3 Ultimate Outcomes and Development Impact
7.3 Conclusion
CHAPTER EIGHT – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDETIONS
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Conclusions
8.3 Recommendations
8.4 Areas for Further Research
8.5 Limitations of the Study
Research Objectives and Themes
The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the effectiveness of out-grower schemes as a tool for poverty reduction in the Eastern Province of Zambia. The research aims to answer the core question of how these agricultural arrangements impact the livelihoods of smallholder farmers and whether they serve as a successful model for sustainable rural development.
- Evaluating the changes in poverty levels for smallholder farmers participating in out-grower schemes.
- Assessing farmers' understanding of the operational mechanisms, contractual obligations, and pricing systems of out-grower models.
- Analyzing the broader socio-economic benefits provided to the communities where these schemes are implemented.
- Comparing the performance and welfare outcomes between out-grower participants and independent farmers.
- Identifying potential improvements and management frameworks to optimize the sustainability and fairness of out-grower arrangements.
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1.2.3.1 The Centralized Model
The centralized model entails a firm contracting with farmers, to produce agricultural commodities and sell to the contractor (Torvikey et al., 2017; Eaton & Shepherd, 2001). The study focused on the centralized model because the out-grower firms, supporting out-grower farmers in the Eastern Province, used the centralized model concept shown in Figure 1.1. Critics of the centralized model were of the view that out-grower firms often offered unattractive packages to farmers (Ramprasad, 2018; Navarra, 2018; Kaur & Kaur, 2018; Ton et al, 2018; Kunte et al., 2017; Vicol, 2017; Actionaid, 2015). In this situation, farmers were often seen as laborers on their own farms for the out-grower firms.
Summary of Chapters
CHAPTER ONE – INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND: This chapter introduces the study's scope, the research problem concerning the effectiveness of out-grower schemes in Zambia, and outlines the research objectives and questions.
CHAPTER TWO – LITERATURE REVIEW: This chapter provides an extensive review of existing knowledge on out-grower schemes globally, in Africa, and specifically in the SADC region, identifying critical knowledge gaps.
CHAPTER THREE – THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK: This section discusses the core theoretical frameworks, including contract enforcement and geographical disparities, and presents the conceptual model guiding the study.
CHAPTER FOUR – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: This chapter outlines the pragmatist philosophical approach, the convergent parallel mixed-method design, and the sampling procedures used to collect data in the Eastern Province.
CHAPTER FIVE – DATA ANALYSIS, INTERPRETATION AND RESULTS: This chapter presents the statistical results from the field surveys, focusing on demographic profiles, poverty indicators, and respondent perceptions of out-grower operations.
CHAPTER SIX – DISCUSSION OF RESULTS: This chapter critically analyzes the findings, comparing results between out-grower and independent farmers to evaluate the overall impact of the schemes.
CHAPTER SEVEN – FINDINGS: This chapter synthesizes the main findings and discusses the gaps identified within the centralized model of out-grower schemes.
CHAPTER EIGHT – CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDETIONS: This chapter summarizes the study's conclusions and offers practical recommendations for stakeholders to improve the efficiency and equity of out-grower arrangements.
Keywords
Out-grower scheme, Out-grower firm, Out-grower farmer, Independent farmer, Poverty reduction, Rural Zambia, Contract farming, Smallholder farmers, Eastern Province, Economic performance, Household income, Sustainable development, Agricultural productivity, Commodity pricing, Contract enforcement
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the core purpose of this research?
This research evaluates the effectiveness of out-grower schemes as a poverty reduction tool for smallholder farmers in the rural areas of Zambia's Eastern Province.
What are the primary thematic areas covered?
The work covers themes such as agricultural development policies, poverty trends, contract farming models, rural livelihoods, and the socio-economic impacts of out-grower schemes on both participating and independent farmers.
What is the main research question?
The general research question is: How effective were the out-grower schemes in reducing poverty in rural Zambia?
Which scientific methodology is employed?
The study utilizes a convergent parallel mixed research method, combining quantitative survey data (using Chi-square tests and T-tests) and qualitative insights from key informant interviews to ensure comprehensive data analysis.
What topics are discussed in the main body of the thesis?
The main body covers a comprehensive literature review, the theoretical and conceptual framework, research methodology, detailed data analysis of socio-economic variables, and a discussion of the practical challenges faced by farmers.
Which keywords best describe the work?
Key terms include: Out-grower scheme, Poverty reduction, Contract farming, Smallholder farmers, Rural development, and Agricultural productivity.
How is the "Centralized Model" viewed by the author?
The author notes that while the centralized model is the dominant approach in the Eastern Province, it is often criticized for offering unattractive packages to farmers, who are sometimes perceived as laborers on their own land.
What major challenges to loan repayment does the study identify?
The study identifies factors such as poor rainfall (crop failure), sickness, pest and crop diseases, and the late supply of farming inputs as significant hurdles that make it difficult for farmers to repay loans.
- Citar trabajo
- Sunday Silungwe (Autor), 2020, Evaluating the Effectiveness of Out-grower Projects in Reducing Poverty in Rural Zambia. A Case of the Eastern Province, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/742051
