GRAMMAR FOR THE FIRST CAMBRIDGE CERTIFICATE
(without the tenses)
Relative clauses
Defining relative clauses
My girlfriend who lives in Paris is very nice. without commas (who, which, that)
Non-defining relative clauses
My mother, who is 60 today, has just come back from Australia. (extra information) with commas (only who, which)
Adjectives
A confident voice. I began to feel nervous.
give information about nouns and are used before nouns ;
with certain verbs (be, seem, appear, look, feel sound, taste)
Adverbs
I had planned it very carefully. I began to feel terribly nervous. give information about verbs and adjectives
good / better / the best
bad / worse / the worst
far (distance) / farther / the farthest far (time) / further / the furthest
Adjectives - cheap / cheaper than / the cheapest
Adjectives - convenient / more convenient than / the most convenient Adverbs - easily / less easily than / the least easily
Modal (helping) verbs - ability Can, could and be able + infinitive
Present - I can drive but I can't ride a bike.
can is more commonly used than be able to
Past - Both Eric and Adam could cycle 20 miles. Last Sunday, only Eric was able to cycle that far.
was/were able to is used in cases of specific ability (fähig)
Present and Future tenses - I'll be able to visit you more next summer. He hasn't been able to solve the problem yet.
to be able to because can has no infinitive or past participle
Could have done - She could have been a model but she became a nurse instead. He was so rude I could have hit him.
Modal verb - obligation Must and have to + infinitive
You have to pay a month's rent in advance. (This is a general rule)
You must complete and return the enclosed form. (This is the agency's rule or for children to forbid them)
There was a bus strike last week so I had to walk to work.
If they move to the country, they'll have to buy a car.
in future and past have to is the only way of expressing obligation
Mustn't and Needn't/Don't have to
You mustn't drink alcohol while taking these tablets. (Verbot)
You don't have to have a license to own a cat. (no legal requirement) You needn't wash up. I'll do it later. (no obligation)
Should and Ought to (used when the obligation is not so strong)
You should write to your family more often.
I ought to stay in and work tonight.
Need (express weaker obligation than have to and must)
Need I really do it again?
In hot weather you need to water the grass every day.
Needn't have (done) and Didn't need to
He needn't have taken his umbrella.(an action was performed even though it wasn't necessary) I didn't need to pay by cheque because I had plenty of cash. (an action that wasn't necessary but, in this case, it wasn't performed)
Modal verb-permission Can, May, Could + infinitive
Can I ask you a question? He said I could borrow his car for the day.
Can and may are both used to talk about what is and isn't permitted in the present. Only can is used in questions. Could is used to express past permission.
Asking and giving permission.
Informal -> Can I ; May I , Could I ; Might I + possibility... Extremely formal -> I wonder if I could ...
I wonder if I might ...
(answers: Yes, (of course) you can/may. / No, (I'm afraid) you can't/may not.)
Modal verb - certainty / probability / possibility
Present/Future
Affirmative form: must (sure) + infinitive
can + infinitive
may + infinitive might + infinitive
could(less sure) + infinitive
Negative form: can't + infinitive
Interrogative form: can + subject + infinitive
might + subject + infinitive
could + subject + infinitive
If that is the 6 o'clock news, my watch must be slow. Food with plenty of fibre can be satisfying.
Past
Affirmative form: must + have + past participle (been)
may + have + past participle
might + have + past participle could + have + past participle
Negative form: can't have + past participle couldn't have + past participle
Interrogative form: can + subject + have + past participle
might + subject + have + past participle
could + subject + have + past participle
Can I have made a mistake?
I can't have made a mistake with the bill because I used a calculator.
Zero Conditional
Form: IF + present form + present form / imperative
If you press this button, an alarm goes off.
If you receive the application form, fill it in. (imperative) You get 5p back if you return the bottle.
Conditional I
From: IF + present form + future form
If you plan a walking holiday, you will need strong shoes. He will only get there in time if he leaves right now.
Conditional II
Form: IF + past simple + would, could, might + infinitive
If more people used recycled paper, fewer trees would be cut down. If I were you, I wouldn't carry my wallet around in my pocket.
Conditional III
Form: IF she (I) had(n't) + past participle. Would(n't) have + past participle
If I had told you the truth, you wouldn't have believed me.
If you had driven that car, you would/might/could probably have had an accident.
The passive voice
Active: Subject Verb Object Someone has stolen my car. Passive: New subject passive form My car has been stolen.
Tense Subject Verb to be Past participle
Present simple Dinner is served.
Present continuous The house is being built. Present perfect A stolen car has been found. Past simple The thief was caught.
Past continuous The room was being painted. Past perfect The decision had been taken. Future simple Your offer will be accepted. Future perfect The letter will have been posted.
Other structures
Going to His car is going to be serviced (by the mechanic). Modals (present) This machine can be mended.
(past) This box shouldn't have been opened.
Participles
Present Participle -> Form: verb + -ing (active meaning)
Past Participle -> Form: verb + (e)d or an irregular form (passive meaning)
I have been listening. An annoying problem is a problem which annoys you.
I was arrested by the police. An annoyed neighbour is a neighbour who has been annoyed by something.
Perfect Participle -> Form: one action was complete when another started.
Having reached the station, they found their train had left. (When they reached the station ...)
Compound adjectives formed with participles:
Describing people - well-spoken; well-dressed; kind-hearted; left-handed; well-brought-up; well-behaved; middle-aged; short-sighted.
Describing clothes and materials: hard-wearing; long-lasting; well-cut; short-sleeved; tight/loose-fitting; double-breasted.
The gerund or -ing form (is a verbal noun)
1) stand on their own as noun: Camping's fine for a couple of weeks.
2) following certain verbs: I enjoy camping very much. (admit, appreciate, avoid, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, finish/give up, can't help, imagine, involve, keep, mention, mind, miss, postpone/put off, practise, resist, risk, can't stand, suggest)
3) following prepositions: I like the idea of camping.
4) after expressions: It's no use crying. The exam isn't worth worrying about.
5) after possessives: She mentioned Mike's telephoning last night.
The TO infinitive
1) is used to express purpose: I know she did it to make a point.
2) after adjectives: He's unlikely to get the job.
3) after with too + adjective, and adjective + enough : This tea is too hot (for me) to drink. Are you strong enough to lift that by yourself?
4) after main verbs: Simon has managed to keep his room tidier. (TO with afford, agree, arrange, ask, begin, choose, expect, fail, happen, help, hope, intend, learn, offer, prefer, prepare, pretend, promise, seem).
5) after the object of a verb: I told him to tidy his room. (TO with advise, allow, ask, encourage, expect, forbid, force, get, help, intend, invite, leave, order, persuade, prefer, recommend remind, teach, warn)
6) after some auxiliary verbs: I had to look after Sarah. You need to take more care.
7) as the subject of a sentence: To try to escape would be foolish!
WITHOUT TO:
1) after modal verbs: Simon must be home at 10.30 p.m. I can swim.
2) after make and let: You can't make me do anything. Let the next patient come in now.
3) After would rather, had better and why not ...? : I would rather take a train than fly. You had better stay in bed. Why not come with us?
Gerund and infinitive
like, love, hate, prefer
Do you watch much TV? Well, I like watching / to watch the breakfast show. (=enjoy no difference)
begin, start
It's started snowing / to snow.
after continuous only the infinitive is used It's beginning to get dark.
remember/forget
I don't remember seeing you at the party. Were you there? (past action, event)
I'll never forget flying over the Alps for the first time (past action, remembered event)
Don't forget to feed the cat, will you? (future action, one event)
Did you remember to post that letter while you were out? (future, one action, event)
regret
He regrets stealing the money now. (past action, event)
I'll always regret not going to university. (past action, event)
regret as to say, to inform, to tell
I regret to say I lost my temper.
We regret to inform you that your flight has been delayed.
try
Try emptying your pockets (possible action - see if you succeeds in finding the keys)
Try to remember where you last put them. (one action may not be possible - see if you can do it)
need
The windows need cleaning (passive meaning: needs to be cleaned) I need to call the post office. (active meaning: have to call)
stop
Could you stop shouting? (to finish an action)
We had to stop to look at the map. (to interrupt one action in order to do something else)
Reporting statements
Direct speech Reported speech Direct speech Reported speech
present simple past simple now then
present continuous past continuous today that day present perfect past perfect tomorrow the next day simple past past perfect yesterday the day before past perfect past perfect this that
future / will would here there ago before
Always jump one tense and only if the sentence is introduced in the past tense.
Reporting verbs: explained, admitted, complained, argued, promised
I work here on Saturdays. She said (that) she worked there on Saturdays.
I am going to London tomorrow. He said he was going to London the next day. I have written a letter today. He said he had written a letter that day. I saw an old friend yesterday. She said she had seen an old friend the day before. I had forgotten to tell you. She said she had forgotten to tell me. I will ring you later this week. He said he would ring us later that week.
Present modal verbs normally change to past form:
I may join you later. He said he might join us later.
Past modal verbs normally don't change:
That could be our train. He said that it could be our train.
Reported questions
1) the word order is different from the original question. The verb follows the subject as in an ordinary statement.
2) the auxiliary verb do is not used
3) there is no question mark.
I asked where the post office was.
Comparatives: The ... the ...
Form: The + comparative word ... the + comparative word (more/less/-er) (more/less/-er)
The bigger you are, the harder you fall.
The more people I meet, the more I like my dog. The more, the merrier. The sooner, the better.
Expressing quantity
Countable Uncountable Both
too few too much a lot of
a large number of very little hardly any
a great many a large amount of not enough very many plenty of a lack of
no... at all
a great deal of
as...as
On average, we eat about twice as much protein as we need.
The club has only got half as many members as it had last year.
Expressing number
Each, both, either, neither and all can be used with a noun in the same way as a, the, etc. They can also be used as pronoun, in place of a noun.
They looked at each house carefully. Each had it advantages. You can ask either waiter for service. Either will serve you. Both my parents are still working.
They are both good. You can have either of them. I have got two brothers but neither lives here.
Every is never used on it own as a pronoun, but always with a noun. (everyone / everything) Every book on the shelf was a detective story.
None of is also used with a noun, but none is always a pronoun. None of the books was by A. Christie.
I looked at them all but none appeared very interesting.
Singular Plural
each both
every all (with countable nouns) either
neither none
all (with uncountable nouns)
Expressing time
Before Same time Later Sequence
before during (+noun) as soon as first(ly)
previously meanwhile immediately second(ly)
while once last(ly)
afterwards
First : before anything else - First check in your mirror that the road is clear, and then pull
out.
At first : at the beginning - I made a lot of mistakes at first, but now my typing is quite good.
Last : after everything else
At last : in the end
After followed by clause - After we had watched the film, we went to a restaurant. After followed by a noun - After the film, we
Afterwards: means after that - We watched the film and afterwards we had a Chinese meal.
Before, as, while, after, when, once, as soon as, until, by the time
When one of these words introduces a clause, they are followed by a verb in the present or present perfect tense, not the future tense.
Before he goes to the dentist, she brushes his teeth. As soon as she has finished the book, she will give it to you.
Expressing wishes and regrets
I wish.../ if only... -> referring to the present or future they are followed by a past time I wish I had a car. (I haven't got a car)
I wish he didn't have to go. (He does have to go)
If only I knew the answer. (I don't know the answer)
If only you weren't working tomorrow. (You are working then) If only I were rich!
referring to the past, they are followed by past perfect I wish I hadn't won the money.
If only I had listened to your advice.
Would rather + object : I would rather you didn't say anything about it.
As if/as though : You talk as though you knew a lot on the subject. (you don't) Suppose/supposing : Suppose somebody saw/had seen you. It's (about/high) time : It's high time we left.
Make (more creative)
make money, make war, make certain, make sure, make a journey, make a trip, make a complaint, make an inquiry, make an excuse, make an offer, make the bed, make a choice, make a mistake, make a charge, make a discovery, make use of, make fun of, make room for
Do (more physical work - work related)
do good, do harm, do damage, do business, do work, do homework, do housework, do one's best, do one's duty, do one's bit, do a favour, do a test, do an experiment, do the washing-up
No article Definitive article
meals (lunch, tea, supper, dinner) meals
We had breakfast at 8 o'clock. The breakfast on the train was awful
time of day (dawn, midday, noon) time of day
We left at sunrise. In the morning/in the afternoon/in the evening
methods of travel (boat, sea) methods of travel
by air, by boat, by sea We came by the early train/ the express coach
The order of adjectives
Age Shape Colour Origin Material + NOUN Size
Temperature Texture
A new white Chinese paper lampshade. A huge circular blue swimming pool.
Steal vs. Rob
You steal things (from people, organisations or places)
Thieves stole the radio from my car. My watch has been stolen.
You rob people or institutions (of things)
He tried to rob a bank once. Two men robbed her of her money.
The army robbed them of their youth. You have robbed me of my success.
Plural-form nouns
Plural-form nouns which take the plural form of the verb (are/were):
clothes, earnings, contents, goods, jeans, pyjamas, outskirts, scissors, shorts, trousers, surroundings - Clothes are wonderful.
Plural-form nouns which take the singular form of the verb (is/was):
crossroads, maths, news, physics, data
Articles
Definite article
Oceans, seas, waterways and rivers mountain ranges plural countries
The Pacific Ocean, The Sulu Sea The Himalayas The United States The Suez Canal, The Channel The Alps The Philippines The Mississippi River
No article
cities mountains countries streets, squares, circuses New York Mount Everest France Oxford Street Hong Kong Ben Nevis Argentina Picadilly Circus
Verbs of perception
See, watch, hear, notice, feel, observe
Followed by an object + -ing when they refer to part of an action
We watched the man mending the road. (we didn't wait until the job was done)
Frequently asked questions about GRAMMAR FOR THE FIRST CAMBRIDGE CERTIFICATE
What are defining relative clauses?
Defining relative clauses provide essential information about a noun. They are not separated by commas and often use the relative pronouns who, which, or that.
What are non-defining relative clauses?
Non-defining relative clauses add extra, non-essential information about a noun. They are always separated by commas and typically use the relative pronouns who or which.
How are adjectives used?
Adjectives give information about nouns and are typically used before nouns. They can also be used after certain verbs like 'be,' 'seem,' 'appear,' 'look,' 'feel,' 'sound,' and 'taste.'
How are adverbs used?
Adverbs provide information about verbs and adjectives. They modify these words to provide additional detail.
How are comparatives and superlatives formed?
Regular adjectives and adverbs form comparatives by adding '-er' or using 'more,' and superlatives by adding '-est' or using 'most.' Irregular forms like good/better/best and bad/worse/worst also exist.
How are modal verbs of ability (Can, Could, Be able to) used?
Can and could express general ability. 'Be able to' is used when 'can' is unavailable (e.g., in the future tense: 'I will be able to'). 'Was/were able to' is used for specific instances of success or ability in the past.
How are modal verbs of obligation (Must, Have to) used?
'Have to' indicates a general rule or external obligation. 'Must' is used for the speaker's own rule or a rule given by an authority. 'Mustn't' indicates prohibition, while 'Needn't/Don't have to' indicates a lack of obligation.
How are 'Should' and 'Ought to' used?
'Should' and 'Ought to' express weaker obligation or advice.
How is 'Need' used to express obligation?
'Need' expresses a weaker obligation than 'have to' or 'must'. 'Needn't have (done)' indicates an action that was performed unnecessarily, while 'Didn't need to' indicates an action that was not necessary and therefore not performed.
How are modal verbs of permission (Can, May, Could) used?
Can, May, and Could are used to ask for or give permission. 'Can' is commonly used in questions, while 'Could' is often used to express past permission.
How are modal verbs of certainty/probability/possibility used?
Modal verbs like 'must,' 'may,' 'might,' 'could,' and 'can' are used with infinitives (present/future) or with 'have + past participle' (past) to express varying degrees of certainty, probability, or possibility.
What are conditional sentences?
There are four types of conditional sentences: Zero Conditional (present + present/imperative), Conditional I (present + future), Conditional II (past simple + would/could/might + infinitive), and Conditional III (past perfect + would/could/might have + past participle).
How is the passive voice formed?
The passive voice is formed using 'be' + past participle. The tense of 'be' determines the tense of the passive sentence (e.g., 'is served,' 'was being painted,' 'has been stolen').
What are participles?
Participles are verb forms used as adjectives or parts of verb tenses. Present participles end in '-ing' and have an active meaning. Past participles usually end in '-ed' or have an irregular form and have a passive meaning. Perfect participles (having + past participle) indicate an action completed before another action.
What is the gerund or -ing form?
The gerund is a verbal noun ending in '-ing.' It can function as a noun itself, follow certain verbs, follow prepositions, or follow expressions like "it's no use."
What is the 'to' infinitive?
The 'to' infinitive is the base form of a verb preceded by 'to.' It's used to express purpose, after adjectives, after 'too' and 'enough,' after certain verbs, and as the subject of a sentence.
When is the infinitive without 'to' used?
The infinitive without 'to' is used after modal verbs, 'make' and 'let,' and after 'would rather,' 'had better,' and 'why not ...?'
How are gerunds and infinitives used with verbs like 'like,' 'love,' 'hate,' and 'prefer'?
With these verbs, both the gerund (-ing form) and the infinitive (to + verb) are often interchangeable, with little or no difference in meaning.
How is reported speech formed?
In reported speech, tenses are typically shifted one step back into the past (present simple to past simple, present continuous to past continuous, etc.). Pronouns and time/place expressions also often change.
How are reported questions formed?
In reported questions, the word order changes to that of a statement (subject + verb), the auxiliary verb 'do' is not used, and there is no question mark at the end.
How is "The ... the ..." structure used?
This structure uses two comparative forms to show that one thing increases or decreases in relation to another (e.g., "The bigger you are, the harder you fall").
How are quantity words and phrases used?
Words like 'too few,' 'a large number of,' 'very little,' 'a lot of,' and 'plenty of' are used to express quantity, with some being used for countable nouns, some for uncountable nouns, and some for both.
How are the words 'each,' 'every,' 'both,' 'either,' and 'neither' used?
These words are used to express number and distribution. 'Each,' 'both,' 'either,' and 'neither' can be used with nouns or as pronouns. 'Every' is always used with a noun, while 'none' is always a pronoun.
How are words used to express time?
Words like 'before,' 'during,' 'meanwhile,' 'afterwards,' 'as soon as,' and 'once' are used to indicate the sequence and timing of events.
How are wishes and regrets expressed?
'I wish...' or 'If only...' are used to express wishes and regrets. They are followed by a past tense form to refer to the present/future or by the past perfect to refer to the past.
What is the difference between "make" and "do"?
"Make" is generally used for creating something or taking an action that results in a product or outcome (e.g., make money, make a mistake). "Do" is typically used for actions, tasks, or work (e.g., do homework, do a favor).
How are articles used with meals and times of day?
No article is used for general references to meals (e.g., "We had breakfast"). The definite article "the" is used when referring to a specific meal (e.g., "The breakfast on the train"). Times of day usually do not require an article but specific ones do.
What is the typical order of adjectives?
The typical order of adjectives is: Age, Shape, Colour, Origin, Material + NOUN. Size, Temperature and Texture can go at the beginning.
What is the difference between 'steal' and 'rob'?
You steal things from people, organizations, or places. You rob people or institutions of things.
What is the correct verb form for plural-form nouns?
Plural-form nouns that take the plural form of the verb (are/were): clothes, earnings, contents, goods, jeans, pyjamas, outskirts, scissors, shorts, trousers, surroundings. Plural-form nouns which take the singular form of the verb (is/was): crossroads, maths, news, physics, data
Are articles needed with geographical names?
Oceans, seas, waterways and rivers, mountain ranges, and plural countries take the definite article 'the'. Cities, mountains, countries, streets, squares, and circuses do not take an article.
How are verbs of perception used?
Verbs of perception (see, watch, hear, notice, feel, observe) are followed by an object + -ing for part of an action and by an object + infinitive (without to) for a complete action.
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- Sally Schiller (Autor:in), 2000, GRAMMAR FOR THE FIRST CAMBRIDGE CERTIFICATE, München, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/98373
