Increasing weather variability and climate change are contributing to land and natural/environmental resource degradation by exposing soils to extreme conditions and straining the capacity of existing land management practices to maintain resource quality. Integrating watershed management in managing natural resources management concepts for managing natural resources in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner show in encouraging impacts, if it will be applied on a large scale and over a long period. Integrated Watershed management (IWM) implies the judicious use of natural resources such as land, water, biodiversity and overall ecosystem to obtain optimum production and productivity with minimum disturbance to the environment. The concept of integrated watershed management it is play an important role for localcommunities to adapt the impacts of climate change. The scaling up of IWM practices; increasing soil fertility and land productivity while in overall to make balanced the ecosystem. Protected soil ecosystems with its organisms are very important for soil organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling under natural ecosystem. Thus, soil fertility maintained and productivity increases. Policies and strategies can play a decisive role through IWM practices among which is the most popular as underlines awareness creation at individual land user and community level. Opportunities could be utilized for success of management practices such as recognition of the problems by the entire progressive new rural development policies, skilled man power and vast experience in IWM practices are very notable.
Table of content
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABBREVIATIONS
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and justification
1.2 General Objective
1.3 Specific Objective This Papers at:
2 THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED WATERSHED MANAGEMENT (IWM)
2.1 WATERSHED ECOSYSTEM
2.2 Vital signs of a healthy, resilient watershed
2.3 Soil Ecosystems and Erosion Mitigation efforts of IWM
2.4 Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
2.5 Importance of IWM in Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
2.6 CHALLENGES OF integrated WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE COUNTRY
2.7 OPPORTUNITIES of ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT AT THE Watershed
3 CONCLUSIONS
4 RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Above all I thank the LORD GOD for giving me the strength to start and go through with my Re view paper. I would particularly like to extend my heartfelt thanks and appreciation to may advisor MirMusa Abdullah Ibrofor his devotion of his precious time, valuable suggestions,and constructive comments and systematic guidance to improve the content of th is paper.He also deserves my utmost gratitude for his encouragement, on time responses.I am most deeply grateful to my parents, for helping me strive towards the realization of my pot entials, initiation, encouragement and moral support.Finally, I would like to express my gr atitude to friends who were directly or indirectly involved to add their efforts, encouragem ent and moral support for the accomplishment of this review.
Abbreviations
- MoARD - Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
- MoWR - Ministry of Water Resource
MoA) =Ministry of Agriculture
IWM = Integrated watershed Management
FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
Definition of terms
Ecosystem. : A dynamic complex of organisms and their associated non-living environment, interacting as an ecological unit composed of primary producers,consumers and decomposers.
Ecological resilience:refers to the capacity of natural ecosystems, social resilience to the capacity of human communities to cope with change.
WatershedAn area of land that drains water, sediment and dissolved materials to a common receiving body or outlet. The term is not restricted to surface water runoff and includes interactions with subsurface water. Watersheds vary from the largest river basins to just acres or less in size.
Watershed Ecology.The study of watersheds as ecosystems, primarily the analysis of interacting biotic and abiotic components within a watershed’s boundaries.
Abstract
Increasing weather variability and climate change are contributing to land and natural/environmental resource degradation by exposing soils to extreme conditions and straining the capacity of existing land management practices to maintain resource quality. Integrating watershed management in managing natural resources management concepts for managing natural resources in a sustainable and environmentally sound manner show in encouraging impacts, if it will be applied on a large scale and over a long period. Integrated Watershed management (IWM) implies the judicious use of natural resources such as land, water, biodiversity and overall ecosystem to obtain optimum production and productivity with minimum disturbance to the environment. The concept of integrated watershed management it is play an important role for localcommunities to adapt the impacts of climate change. The scaling up of IWM practices; increasing soil fertility and land productivity while in overall to make balanced the ecosystem. Protected soil ecosystems with its organisms are very important for soil organic matter decomposition and nutrient cycling under natural ecosystem. Thus, soil fertility maintained and productivity increases. Policies and strategies can play a decisive role through IWM practices among which is the most popular as underlines awareness creation at individual land user and community level. Opportunities could be utilized for success of management practices such as recognition of the problems by the entire progressive new rural development policies, skilled man power and vast experience in IWM practices are very notable.
1. Introduction
1.1. Background and justification
Because of its topographic nature, removal of the living land cover brings about soil degradation (Girma, 2000). Environmental degradation, high population growth in developing countries, and the need to enhance sustainable agricultural productivity are now interlocked issues that constitute a triple of global challenge due to Green house Gass emission in the atmospher currently. These human equity and environmental issues can be tackled by improved integrated systems as a foundation for improving economic growth and environmental protection because it has the potential to increase the production of food, fuel wood, building materials, and fodder while arresting soil erosion and soil fertility decline(Girma, 2000).
Watershed Natural resources in Ethiopia are under extreme stress. Land degradation, deforestation, soil erosion and biological soil degradation are rampant throughout the country. It is available on line URL (http://www.colorado.edu/;(Kumar,2009): Integrated watershed management approach is the process of formulating and implementing a rational utilization d of action that is involving natural resources in a watershed, taking into account the social, political, economic, and institutional factors operating within the watershed and the surrounding river basins and other relevant regions to achieve specific social objectives and is generally recognized as the most practical and efficient way to improve water quality , and quantity through recharge to ground water table without exclude the others environmental indicators while maintaining regional economic viability properly (Http://www.epa.gov/watertrain).
The major impacts in watershed development programmes have been outlined as biophysical, environmental, socio-economic d institutional, and developmental access with gender equity. Convergence of various rural development programmes around the watershed could be ensured to promote holistic development of watersheds. For its continued success; the programme should be economically efficient, financially viable, technically feasible and socially acceptable. (Endalkachew, 2007) watershed management means putting in place systems that ensure land resources are preserved, conserved, and exploited in sustainably base nowdays and future generations. In more general saying, watershed management is being seen as a major component for soil, water and vegetative conservation, rural community’s living standards improvement and the better environmental conditions. Since from the begun of 1990s up to nowadays, watershed management operations typically targeted as a resource use in productivity without overexpliotation, livelihood improvements, and poverty reduction by considerning as reality of the objectives beyond the resource conservation(Endalkachew, 2007).
The application of targeted conservation of natural buffer systems as a strategy for adapting to climate change offers several potential co-benefits: Biodiversity conservation, Poverty alleviation and enhanced carbon dioxide sink capacity into soils. A number of environmental management-based adaptation activities can also serve as climate change and mitigation measures with integrated watershed management. Enhancing natural resource management is playing a great role in helping communities at all decision-making to address the sources of disaster (Arnold, 2003; IDNDR, 1994).
The most vulnerable areas (sectors) to climate change include small-scale rain farming, pastoralists, coastal fishing & aquaculture communities, forest-based economy, the urban poor, coastal areas and floodplain settlements of watershed (Anonymous, 2009). Hurni (1993satated that Ethiopian economy is depend on agricultural economy and the most environmentally trouble country in the shale region due to severity of soil erosion and land degradation problems in the world. Today, the Ethiopian highlands become, is one of the largest areas of ecological degradation in Africa, (Mulugeta, 1988 cited in__). The major manifestations of Land degradation are severe soil degradation, loss of soil fertility, decline of biodiversity,which is in ultimate resulted in reduction of land productivity either temporarily or permanently. and also so many others. Much of the today’s problems of soil degradation in Ethiopia are attributed to the past exploitive social and economic system which permitted very intensive use of the natural resources, to the limits of productivity (FAO, 1984). Causes for vulnerability of Ethiopia to climate variability and change include very high dependence on rain fed agriculture which is very sensitive to climate variability and change, under-development of water resources, low health service coverage, high population growth rate, low economic development level, low adaptive capacity, inadequate road infrastructure in drought prone areas, weak institutions, lack of awareness, etc (NMA, 2007).
1.2 General Objective
this seminar paper is to review incontribution of the watershed management in ecological servise and contribution
1.3 Specific Objective This Papers at:
- examined the importance of watersheds and how the diverse ecosystems within these areas provide a range of ecosystem services.
- To review watershed ecosystem functions and services.
- To review the Identifition of the main stakeholders and the relationships in watershed management
2. The Concept of Integrated Watershed Management (IWM)
IWM is a process of conservation, development and optimal utilization of the available natural resources in a watershed on a sustained basis and is an effective means for the conservation and development of land, soil, forest, aquatic natural resources and water resources. It is the processes which a multidisciplinary approaches while people in the watershed serve as chief functionaries’ decision -makers and main actors in the processes (Winnege, 2005;Zoebisch et al,2005).
The purpose of IWM can be achieved through the active involvement of people, the empowerment of people to take informed decisions and act accordingly and through ensuring people’s ownership of the process by using local material and skills (Winnege, 2005). communities living in the watershed on the basis of the available watershed natural resources components include the conservation, development and optimal utilization of the natural resources within a watershed area i.e. soil and land management, water management, afforestation, pasture development; agricultural development, livestock management; rural energy management; enable people to build institutions for the management of the watershed with the mandate of decision making, knowledge sharing and executive powers to act according to the decisions made. This requires balancing their economic needs and expectations with environmental concerns; so as to avert degradation of the natural resources from the base, in particular soil and water components (Winnege, 2005;Zoebisch et al,2005).
2.1 WATERSHED ECOSYSTEM
Watershed ecology is the essential knowledge for watershed managers because watersheds have structural and functional characteristics that can influence how human and natural communities coexist within
Basically, this includes structure of flowing waters (mainly rivers and streams with associated riverine wetlands and riparian zones), still waters (lakes and associated basin-type wetlands and shorelands), and upland areas of watersheds. (Rosgen 1993 and 1996, Montgomery and Buffington 1998).
“Still” (Lentic) Waters
Lentic systems generally include lakes and ponds. A lake’s structure has a significant impact on its biological, chemical, and physical features.(Rosgen 1993 and 1996, Montgomery and Buffington 1998)
Flowing (Lotic) Systems
Longitudinal (in an upstream and downstream direction)- Flowing water systems commonly go through structural changes en route from their source to mouth. Three zones are usually recognized - headwaters, where flow is usually lowest of any where along the system, slope is often steepest, and erosion is greater than sediment deposition; transfer zone, the middle range of the stream where slope usually flattens somewhat, more flow appears, and deposition and erosion are both significant processes; and the downstream end’s depositional zone, where flow is highest but slope is minimal and deposition of sediment significantly exceeds erosion most of the time.Lateral (across the channel, floodplains and hillslopes)- Again, significant variation occurs among stream types, but a common pattern includes the channel, the deepest part of which is called the thalweg; low floodplains that a re flooded frequently, and higher floodplains (e.g., the 100-year or 500-year) that are rarely inundated; terraces, which are former floodplains that adowncutting stream no longer floods; and hillslopes or other upland areas extending up- gradient to the watershed boundary.downcutting stream no longer floods; and hillslopes or other upland areas extending up-gradient to the watershed boundary(after Ward, 1989) ,(hllp:www.epct.govwctlerlrctin).
The gross structure of a watershed its headwaters area, side slopes, valley floor, and water body, as well as its soils, minerals, native plants and animals are, in one sense, raw material for all the human activities that may potentially occur there. The watershed’s natural processes are rainfall, runoff, groundwater recharge, sediment transport, plant succession, and many others that are provide beneficial services and goods when functioning properly, but may cause disasters when misunderstood and disrupted Although forests naturally supply a steady flow of watershed services, long-term provision of these services is not guaranteed.The amount and quality of these services depend on the condition of the forest—when watershed conditions are stressed or degraded, critical services can be threatened or compromised. Today, essential watershed services are threatened by a variety of human impacts on watersheds and aquatic ecosystems. In many areas, these systems have suffered from significant alterations of natural flow patterns, water pollution, and habitat degradation and fragmentation (Postel and Richter 2003) . It is crucial for people to understand watersheds and how they work before they make decisions or take actions that may affect the important watershed structural and functional characteristics available online (http://www.epa.gov/watertrain; Calder, 1998; Hayward, 2005).).
2.2 Vital signs of a healthy, resilient watershed
healthy, resilient watershed provides a sustained flow of desired ecosystem services over the long term. It resists and quickly recovers from disturbances such as floods, fire,and insect outbreaks.watershed processes and functions, such as the following, occur at the desired rates and in the desired locations:Capture and storage of rainfall; Recharge of groundwater reservoirs; Minimization of erosion and protection of soil quality; Regulation of streamflows; Storage and recycling of nutrients;Provision of habitat for native aquatic and riparian species(Sprague et al. 2006)
2.3 Soil Ecosystems and Erosion Mitigation efforts of IWM
Brady and Weil (2001) identified five key roles of soils: ; soil supports the growth of higher plants, mainly by providing a medium for plant roots and supplying nutrient elements that is essential to the entire plant development. Properties of the soil to determine the nature of the vegetation present, and indirectly the number and types of animals (including) people, and vegetation that can be supported;; soil properties are the principal factors controlling the fate of water in the hydrology systems, water loss, utilization, contamination and purification are all affected by the soil; the soil function nature’s (natural recycling systems). Within the soil, waste products and dead bodies of plants, animals and people are made available for re-use by next generation of life; The past study done by Ludi (2004); argued that economic development should be in such a way that as to meet the needs of the present generation without completing the ability of future generation. The discover carried out by Panda (2006) in the past was to achieved the welfare of mankind depends on the wise use of our soil and water resources. Gupta (2005) found increasing land degradation contributes to temperature rise and become major cause for soil carbon loss and argued that the decrease in soil carbon content may result in slow organic matter recycling.
2.4 Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
2.5 Importance of IWM in Carbon Sequestration to Mitigate Climate Change
Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, have caused a substantial increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere. Increasing atmospheric CO2 —from about 280 to more than 380 parts per million (ppm) over the last 250 years which is causing measurable global warming. Potential adverse impacts include sea-level rise; increased frequency and intensity of wildfires, floods, droughts, and tropical storms; changes in the amount, timing, and distribution of rain, snow, and runoff; and disturbance of coastal marine and other ecosystems. Rising atmospheric CO2 is also increasing the absorption of CO2 by seawater, causing the ocean to become more acidic, with potentially disruptive effects on marine plankton and coral reefs. Technically and economically feasible strategies are needed to mitigate the consequences of increased atmospheric CO2 (IPCC, 2007; Logan et al, 2007; NMA, 2007).
—carbon cycle maintained a near balance between the uptake of CO2 and its release back to the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007; Logan et al, 2007; NMA, 2007).
Terrestrial sequestration (sometimes termed —biological sequestration) is typically accomplished through forest and soil conservation practices that enhance the storage of carbon (such as restoring and establishing new forests, wetlands, and grasslands) or reduce CO2 emissions (such as reducing agricultural tillage and suppressing wildfires). In addition to the impacts on agricultural productivity, climate change is expected to bring both long-term structural changes to the water cycle and increased variability and unpredictability. It would also increase the vulnerability of communities in many watersheds through higher-intensity rainfall and greater frequency of floods, landslides, and wildfires. The impact of climate change on agricultural productivity is likely to stem not only from changes in water availability and quality, but also from temperature increases, which will cause ecosystems to shift over space and will hence change the suitability of crops to the different latitudes. It is expected that mid- to high-latitude countries could well benefit from the warming, while countries in the subtropical and tropical regions (low latitude) may experience deleterious impacts, and some marginal areas may go out of production (Mendelsohn et al, 2006).
In the uplands, runoff will increase and will exacerbate soil losses and land slips and slides. Increased downstream sedimentation is likely to result. Moreover, climate variability in the form of typhoons, floods, and droughts is expected to cause production losses. The rural poor are the most vulnerable, since they bear the brunt of natural disasters and declining local agricultural productivity. In addition, climate change is expected to bring an increase in stream flow in high latitudes and in Southeast Asia and a decrease in stream flow in central Asia, the area around the Mediterranean, and southern Africa. In other parts of the world, the direction of change is uncertain (IPCC, 2001). Among scientists there is also “high confidence” that in many areas where snowfall is currently an important component of the water balance, peak stream flow will move from spring to winter and that water quality generally will be degraded by higher water temperatures. Flood magnitude and frequency are likely to increase in most regions, and low flows are likely to decrease in many regions.
2.6 CHALLENGES OF integrated WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN THE COUNTRY
In the past and present, there were different challenges, and constraints as well as controversies that negatively affect the quality of interventions and scaling up of successful practices for sustainable watershed natural resources management in Ethiopia (Adugnaw, 2014).
2.6.1. Inadequate community participation:
The top-down and rigid planning approach was ignored and local communities participation would focused on technical and physical works alone without giving attention to the economic viability and social acceptability. Lack of awareness and lack of proper integration of introduced practices with indigenous knowledge was limited farmers’ willingness to participate and less sense of responsibility over assets created (source of references). Due to the fact, during the political changes a large scale of forest areas; soil and water conservation structures were highly removed and destroyed by local communities in the country (Meshesha & Birhanu, 2015; Simeneh, 2015 and Waga(et al, 2007).
2.6.2. Policy, legislation and implementation constraints:
Historically, Ethiopia has been designed a number of important policies and strategies though it was not an end by itself. They must be valued if and only if properly implemented. The poor implementation of policies and strategies remains a major constraint and they are hindering proper implementation of effective and sustainable practices for resource management inEthiopia (Bekele et al, 2015; Tesfa &Tripathi, 2015and Amogne, 2014).
2.6.3. Weak linkages among various disciplines and concerned institutions:
There was single medium focus and sector driven approach they could not be integrated and multi-sectoral approachThere was also poor coordination among researchers, extension centers and educational institutions that adversely affected the development and transfer of technologies from researchers to local experts and local communities, particularly the farmers. In addition, frequent restructuring of government institutions causes staff turnover, wastes institutional capacity and discontinuity of activities and initiatives. In this regard, MoARD and World Bank also suggested that these all undermines the proper implementation and up-scaling of successful sustainable environmental management practices in the country(Bekele et al, 2015; Tesfa &Tripathi, 2015and Amogne, 2014).
2.6.4. Lack of professional and technical standards:
The technical interventions were not supported by dialogue/negotiation processes. Construction of physical soil and water conservation structures was considered as the only main solution to halt land degradation. Even the selection criteria and design parameters of SWC structures were not considered as per of required. Unfortunately, attention is mostly given to the number/quota of interventions but not their quality, standard, sustainability, and integration with other soil and land management practices (Adugnaw, 2014). Besides this, there is an indication in non-professionals those have been assigned to initiate activities in natural resources management.
2.6.5. Socio -economic and bio-physical challenges:
There are many socio economic and bio-physical constraints that hinder decision making to invest and sustain the appropriate practices for overcoming land degradation in Ethiopia. Among the others poverty, population growth, land use change, land shortage, deforestation, climate change such as drought and floods, and the others have often negatively affects the sustainability of watershed management practices in the country (Adugnaw, 2014).
2.7 OPPORTUNITIES of ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT AT THE Watershed
Positive examples of integrated management of ecosystems at the landscape level exist from a variety of geographical and ecological contexts, ranging from coastal zones to watersheds and river basins or mountain ranges. Initiatives that explicitly try to accommodate mitigation and adaptation goals are still a relatively recent development. Positive examples of integrated management of ecosystems at the landscape level exist from a variety of geographical and ecological contexts, ranging from coastal zones to watersheds and river basins or mountain ranges. Initiatives that explicitly try to accommodate mitigation and adaptation goals are still a relatively recent development ,(Scherr et al. (2012)).analyze existing case studies of such ‘climate-smart’ landscape initiatives and conclude that results from these early-stage initiatives can already inform future efforts in their development of stakeholder and institutional capacities.According to Gadisa (2016) Ethiopia has also the opportunities helping to improve watershed management interventions and to scaling up successful practices. These opportunities can be the followings: Existence of good policies and strategies (environmental and land tenure policy); Good start and experiences in community based watershed
management;Better institutional setup and research systems; Integration of concerned organizations;Availability of indigenous knowledge and scientific technologies; Existence of donor support and development partners.Therefore, in addition to implementing these ambitious climate resilient green economy strategies through watershed management practices; it must be capitalizing these opportunities in the country (Tesfa &Tripathi, 2015and Adugnaw, 2014). 3. CONCLUSION and recommendation
3. Conclusions
Integrated watershed management approach to manage and improves natural resource management at the watershed level would ideally address the complex system dynamics in watersheds, and achieve the global environmental benefits where feasible. There are multiple interacting factors which have been caused land and soil degradation in Ethiopia. Watershed land use change, extensive deforestation, overgrazing, inappropriate land use, infrastructural expansions, burning of dung and crop residues are among the proximate which are causes the problems; whereas ever rapid population growth, poverty, land tenure insecurity and climate changes are among the main indirect causes of land degradation. The natural phenomena of the country also highly exposed to land degradation because it has rugged mountains, deep gorges and incised river valleys, rolling plains, a wide range of temperature and rainfall events. On the other hand, highly concentrated mode of life on the highland areas and rain-fed agricultural dependency has made the country highly susceptible to land degradation and subsequent problems.
4. Recommendation
Any interventions aimed to implement in a watershed should be in an integrated, flexible, multi-sectoral and multi-disciplinary approach; both scientific and indigenous knowledge should be equally paid attention; strengthening awareness creation, capacity building, real community participation and equitable benefit sharing are also requiring attention. In general, the effectiveness of watershed management practices must be evaluated in terms of environmental soundness, economic viability and social acceptability. Then, the success and sustainability of national food independency strategies will be realized.
Countries should assess the extent and drivers of processes leading to ecosystem degradation and conversion, as well as opportunities for the restoration and sustainable use of ecosystems, and act on identified opportunities for integrated land use management providing benefits for the climate, biodiversity and ecosystem services. Possibilities to transfer lessons learned from forest-based mitigation efforts to other ecosystems should be explored.
review of the incentives (and disincentives) that are in place for different land uses should be carried out to identify opportunities where reforms could make a transition to more sustainable management approaches economically viable and enable positive contributions to local and national economies. Other possible policy options include regulatory approaches such as land use zoning orpermitting requirements, the establishment or improved management of protected areas, and demand-side measures for agricultural products. review of the incentives (and disincentives) that are in place for different land uses should be carried out to identify opportunities where reforms could make a transition to more sustainable management approaches economically viable and enable positive contributions to local and national economies. Other possible policy options include regulatory approaches such as land use zoning or permitting requirements, the establishment or improved management of protected areas, and demand-side measures for agricultural products.
References
Adugnaw B., 2014. Environmental Degradation and Management in Ethiopian Highlands: Review of Lessons Learned. International Journal of Environmental Protection and Policy, Vol. 2, No. 1, 2014, pp. 24-34. DOI:10.11648/j.ijepp.20140201.14.
Akalu Teshome, Graaff J. and Menale Kassie, 2016. Household-Level Determinants of Soil and Water Conservation Adoption Phases: Evidence from North-Western Ethiopian Highlands: Environmental Management; 57: 620-636. DOI 10.1007/s00267-015 0635-5.
Alemu Mekonnen and Abebe Damte, 2011. Private Trees as Household Assets and Determinants of Tree- Growing Behaviour in Rural Ethiopia: Environment for Development,Discussion Paper Series. EfD DP 11- 14.
Amogne A., 2014. Forest resource management systems in Ethiopia: Historical perspective. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, Vol. 6 (2), 121-131.
and capacity building priorities for Ethiopia.Proceedings of a and Mitigation, 1994. http://hoshi.cic.sfu.ca/~idndr/yokohama/yokohama.html:
Anderson J.M., and Ingram J.S., 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. A Hand Book of methods. Second Edition. A. B. International.
Bekele M., Gebre Y., Mohammed Z., Zewdie S., Tebikew Y.,Brockhaus M. and Kassa H.,2015. The context of REDD+ in Ethiopia: Drivers, agents and institutions, Occasional Paper 127. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.
Belay T., 1992. Farmers’ Perception of Erosion Hazards and Attitude towards Soil Conservation in Gununo,Wolaita. Ethiopian Journal of Development Research, 14(2), 32 P.
Berhan Gessesse,Woldeamlak Bewket, and Brauning A., 2016. Determinants of farmers’ tree-planting investment decisions as a degraded landscape management strategy in the central highlands of Ethiopia:Solid Earth, 7, 639-650, 2016.
Berhanu Gebremedhin and Swinton S. M., 2003. Investment in soil conservation in northern Ethiopia: the role of land tenure security and public programs. Agricultural Economics 29 (2003) 69-84.
Brady N. and Weil R., 2001. The Nature and Properties of soils. Thirteen Edition. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.Calder, I. R., 1998. Water-Resource and Land-Use Issues. SWIM Paper 3. Colombo, Sri Lanka:International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
Brady N., 2000. The Nature and properties of soils. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River. New Jersey.
Daniel Danano, 2010. Sustainable Land Management Technologies and Approaches in Ethiopia:The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; EthiOCAT 2010, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. eastern African highlands. Agricultural Systems 94 (2007) 189-204.
Endalkachew Kissi, 2007.Teaching Manual on Soil and Water Conservation (unpublished), Jimma Univerisity;Jimma, Ethiopia.
FAO, 1984. Ethiopia,Land Use Production Regions and Farming Systems Inventory, Rome, Italy.
FAO,2015. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015: Country report, Ethiopia.
FDRE, 2007. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Federal Negarit Gazeta, A proclamation to provide for the development conservation and utilization forests: Proclamation No. 542/2007. 13th year, no. 56,September 2007. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FDRE, 2011. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Ethiopia’s Climate-Resilient Green Economy strategy. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia September 2011.
FDRE, 2015. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: The Second Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II) (2015/16-2019/20) (Draft). National Planning Commission, September 2015, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Förch G., 2009. IWM; A successful tool for adaptation to climate change.Siegen, Germany.
Forman R., and Godran M., 1986. Landscape Ecology. John Wiley and Sons. Canada.
Gadisa Chimdesa (2016b). Ecosystem Approach for Sustainable Natural Resources Management: Journal of
Gadisa Chimdesa,2016. Historical Perspectives and Present Scenarios of Watershed Management in Ethiopia.
German L., Hussein Mansoor, Getachew Alemu, Waga Mazengia, T. Amede and A. Stroud,2007. Participatory
Girma Kelboro, 2000. A Participatory Approach to Agroforestry in Watershed Management, MSc thesis, case study at Yannasie, SNNPR, Ethiopia, Wagenin, the Netherlands
Gupta P., 2005. Methods in Environmental Analysis. Agricultural and Technological University of Maharama Pratap. Agrobiots, India.
Hayward, B., 2005. From the Mountain to the Tap: How Land Use and Water Management Can Work for the Rural Poor. London: DFID.
Http://www.colorado.edu/research/cires/banff/pubpapers/128/).Internet document available at 13/01/2010
Http://www.epa.gov/watertrain): EPA’s Watershed Academy Web http://www.rural21.com/uploads/media/rural_eng_22-25_03.pdf.
Hurni, H., 1993. Land Degradation, Famines & Resource Scenarios in Ethiopia. In: Pimental, D. (Ed). World Soil Erosion and Conservation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
IDNDR, 1994. Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World: Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness integrated watershed management: Evolution of concepts and methods in an ecoregional program of the International Journal of Natural Resource Ecology and Management. Vol. 1, No. 3, 2016, pp. 115-127. doi:10.11648/j.ijnrem.20160103.17
IPCC, 1995. Climate Change 1995, Synthesis Report. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
IPCC, 2007. Climate Change 2007.Synthesis Report. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.
IPCC,2001. “Climate Change 2001: Synthesis Report. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Third Assessment Report.” Geneva: IPCC.Available at http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/assessments-reports.htm.
Johnson and Van Hook, 1989. Analysis of biogeochemical cycling processes in Walker Branch Watershed.Springer-Verlag, New York.
Jonse B., Sisay N., and Alemu M., (editors), 2008. Policies to increase Forest cover in Ethiopia. Proceedings of a Policy Workshop held at Global Hotel, September 18-19 September 2007.
Kumar, S., 2009.Impacts of Watershed Development Programmes: Experiences and Evidences from Tamil Nadu.URL: http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/18653/1/MPRA_paper_18653.pdf.
Locatelli B., 2016. Ecosystem Services and Climate Change. In: Routledge Handbook of Ecosystem Services. M. Potschin, R. Haines-Young, R. Fish and R. K. Turner (eds). Routledge, London and New York, pp. 481-490. ISBN 978-1-138 02508-0 https://www. routledge. com/products/9781138025080
Logan J, Venezia J & Larsen K., 2007. Opportunities & Challenges for Carbon Capture & Sequestration. WRI,USA.
Ludi. E., 2004. Economic Anlaysis of soil conservation: case studies from the highlands Amhara Region,Ethiopia. University of Beme. Switzerland.
Madely J., and Stalton S., eds., 1992. Land Reform and sustainable Agriculture. Inter Mediate Technology Publication in association with foundation for Development and Peace. 0 Stiftung. Entwick lung and Friede (SEF) Bonn 1992.
McCornick P.G., Kamara A.B. and Girma Tadesse. (eds)., 2003. Integrated water and land management research
McKenzie, D., Z. Gedalof, D. L. Peterson, and P. Mote. 2004. “Climatic Change, Wildfire, and Conservation.”Conservation Biology 18(4):890-902.
Mearns and Leach, 1998. Beyond the wood Fuel crisis. People, Land and Tress in Africa. Earth scan publications. Ltd. London.
Melaku Bekele, 2003. Property Rights. Institutional Exigency and the Role of Government. University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala, Sweden.
Melaku Bekele, 2009. Natural Resource Law and Policy. Wondo Genet College of forestry & Natural Resource.
Mendelsohn, R., A. Dinar, and L. Williams., 2006. “The Distributional Impact of Climate Change on Rich and
Meshesha Y. B. and Birhanu B. S.,2015. Assessment of the Effectiveness of Watershed Management Intervention in Chena Woreda, Kaffa Zone, Southwestern Ethiopia: Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 7, 1257-1269.
MoFED, 2006. PASDEP, plan for accelerated sustainable development to end poverty. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Mulugeta, T., 1988. Soil Conservation Ex Poor Countries.” Environment and Development Economics 11(2006):1-20.
pp.179-195. Adaptation to climate change: setting the agenda for development policy and research’.Symposium hosted by the Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research and International Institute for Environment and Development, Royal Society, London, 25 Oct/2001.
Resources Development and Management. A Review Article; Vol.19, 2016.
Frequently asked questions about the Language Preview
What is the main topic of this language preview?
This language preview focuses on Integrated Watershed Management (IWM), specifically examining its application in Ethiopia. It covers concepts, challenges, opportunities, and its role in carbon sequestration and climate change mitigation.
What are the key themes covered in the Table of Contents?
The table of contents highlights the following key themes: Introduction to IWM, the concept of IWM, watershed ecosystems, vital signs of a healthy watershed, soil ecosystems and erosion mitigation efforts, carbon sequestration to mitigate climate change, challenges of IWM in the country, and opportunities for ecosystem management at the watershed level. It also includes a conclusion and recommendation.
What are the objectives of the paper, as outlined in the introduction?
The general objective is to review the contribution of watershed management in ecological services. Specific objectives include: examining the importance of watersheds and their ecosystem services, reviewing watershed ecosystem functions and services, and identifying the main stakeholders and their relationships in watershed management.
What challenges to Integrated Watershed Management are identified?
The challenges include: inadequate community participation, policy, legislation and implementation constraints, weak linkages among various disciplines and concerned institutions, lack of professional and technical standards, and socio-economic and bio-physical challenges.
What opportunities are available for improving watershed management?
Opportunities identified include: existence of good policies and strategies (environmental and land tenure policy), a good start and experience in community-based watershed management, better institutional setup and research systems, integration of concerned organizations, availability of indigenous knowledge and scientific technologies, and the existence of donor support and development partners.
What is the importance of IWM in carbon sequestration?
IWM plays a role in carbon sequestration by promoting forest and soil conservation practices that enhance the storage of carbon or reduce CO2 emissions. This helps mitigate the consequences of increased atmospheric CO2, which causes global warming.
What are the recommendations provided in the paper?
The recommendations emphasize that interventions should be integrated, flexible, multi-sectoral, and multi-disciplinary, paying equal attention to scientific and indigenous knowledge. Strengthening awareness creation, capacity building, real community participation, and equitable benefit sharing are also required. The effectiveness of watershed management practices must be evaluated in terms of environmental soundness, economic viability, and social acceptability.
What is the definition of a watershed used in this preview?
A watershed is defined as an area of land that drains water, sediment, and dissolved materials to a common receiving body or outlet, including interactions with subsurface water. Watersheds range from the largest river basins to areas of just acres or less in size.
What ecosystem services are provided by healthy watersheds?
Healthy watersheds provide services such as: capture and storage of rainfall, recharge of groundwater reservoirs, minimization of erosion and protection of soil quality, regulation of streamflows, storage and recycling of nutrients, and provision of habitat for native aquatic and riparian species.
- Citar trabajo
- Mammedsani Aliyyi (Autor), 2021, The contribution of watershed management for ecosystem balance and climate change, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1452709
