This book examines the Indian coal industry in the nineteenth century, its early stages, upgrading techniques, and post-independence status. It emphasizes coal mining's impact on local economies, geo-morphological analysis, vegetation, and agricultural land.
The Raniganj Coalfield, India's oldest and most prominent coal mine, is a significant area of research aimed at promoting prosperity and sustainable development in the region. The book highlights the reduction in tree and shrub species composition, reduced density of vegetation, and the impact of mining on surface and groundwater resources. The book also discusses the hydrological state of abandoned pit lakes in the Raniganj coalfield, recommending a water footprint assay to develop a comprehensive plan for sustainable use of alternate water sources. It also discusses the increasing greenhouse gas emissions from mining operations and proposes a comprehensive strategy for carbon sequestration and bioremediation that centers on co-cultivating aquatic plants and algae.
The book also explores alternative livelihood opportunities in the Raniganj Coalfield, focusing on sustainable development and socio-environmental resilience. It assesses the potential for mining tourism in the region, highlighting the connections between mining tourism and other travel opportunities, well-preserved mines, infrastructure challenges, and other local issues.
This work advocates for minimizing adverse consequences of mining, optimizing resource use, and decreasing the influence on ecosystem services. It also emphasizes the necessity of clean and green coal mining to fulfill the "Clean India Mission." The venture aims to achieve sustainability in the Raniganj Coalfield by maintaining a balance between environment and commercial anthropogenic ventures.
Contents
Preface
About Authors
Acknowledgment
Abbreviation
Chapter 1. Rise of the coal industry through the ages
1.1 Abstract
1.2 Background of Global Coal Exploration
1.3 Pre-independence scenario
1.4 Post-independence scenario
1.5 Inadequate transportation facilities initially hampered the coal industries in the RCF
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 Bibliography
Chapter 2. Geo-morphological analysis
2.1 Abstract
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Methodology
2.4 Results and Discussion
2.4.1 Geographical Position
2.4.2 Climate
2.4.3 Geology Study
2.4.4 Influence of RCF’s coal mining activities on the several rivers
2.4.5 Topography
2.4.6 Slope
2.4.7 Soil Type
2.4.8 LULC
2.4.9 Drainage density
2.4.10 Curvature
2.4.11 Geomorphology study
2.4.12 Topography Wetness Index
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 Bibliography
Chapter 3. Excavating: Revealing the Reality of Coal Mining
3.1 Abstract
3.2 Introduction
3.3 An overview of various types of coal
3.4 Types of coal mining methods
3.5 Global scenario of coal mining
3.6 National scenario of coal mining
3.7 Focus on the RCF region’s coal mining
3.8 A step towards sustainability in the future of coal mining in RCF
3.9 Conclusion
3.10 Bibliography
Chapter 4. The consequence of coal mining on vegetation
4.1 Abstract
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Global overview
4.4 National overview
4.5 Study sites
4.6 Methodology
4.7 GIS methodology
4.8 Results
4.8.1 Floristic composition
4.8.2 Species diversity
4.9 Discussion
4.9.1 Distribution of density and circumference at the breast height
4.9.2 Distribution pattern
4.9.3 Vegetation degradation
4.9.4 Soil degradation
4.9.5 Deforestation
4.9.6 Destroying habitats
4.9.7 Air contamination
4.9.8 Water contamination
4.9.9 AMD
4.9.10 Indirect impact
4.10 Conclusion
4.11 Bibliography
Chapter 5. The effects of coal mining on agricultural land and sustainability
5.1 Abstract
5.2 Introduction
5.3 Mining soil and the process of coal reclamation
5.4 Agricultural lands affected by subsidence
5.5 Contamination of irrigated water due to mining
5.6 Contamination of irrigated soil due to mining
5.7 PTEs proceed from the soil into the crops
5.8 Bioaccumulation of PTEs
5.9 PTE bioaccumulation and magnification in the food chain associated with humans
5.10 Effects of PTEs on human health
5.11 Impact of mining on agriculture and human health in RCF
5.12 Sustainable mining and agricultural balance through sustainability
5.13 Conclusion
5.14 Bibliography
Chapter 6. Investigation of the water quality of abandoned coal mine pit lakes
6.1 Abstract
6.2 Introduction
6.3 Materials and Methods
6.3.1 Study site
6.3.2 GIS Study
6.3.3 Limnological Study
6.3.4 Statistical Analysis
6.3.5 WQI
6.4 Results and Discussion
6.5 Conclusion
6.6 Bibliography
Chapter 7. Relevance of Water Footprint Evaluation: Focusing on Coal Mining and Associated Industries
7.1 Abstract
7.2 Introduction
7.3 Global scenario overview
7.4 National scenario overview
7.5 RCF: A short introduction on the status of freshwater
7.6 Relevance of water footprint in RCF
7.7 Strategies and Management
7.8 Future perspectives
7.9 Conclusion
7.10 Bibliography
Chapter 8. Pit lakes, a legacy of coal mining: A holistic strategy for rehabilitation, utilitarianism, and sustainability for communities
8.1 Abstract
8.2 Introduction
8.3 Global scenario overview
8.4 National scenario overview
8.5 Status of PLs in RCF
8.6 Water quality of abandoned PLs
8.7 Abandoned PL’s effects on the ecology and sustainability
8.8 Rehabilitating, replenishing, procurement, and utilitarian perspectives of abandoned coal mine PLs
8.9 Water scarcity in coal mining district
8.10 Retain the coal mining area’s groundwater table
8.11 Stakeholders’ engagement
8.12 Extended maintenance and management
8.13 Tourism potential
8.14 Comprehensive strategy for sustainable environmental practices and procurement goals
8.15 Development of infrastructure
8.16 Research, investigation, and innovation
8.17 Challenges
8.18 The action plan that needs to be implemented
8.19 Conclusion
8.20 Bibliography
Chapter 9. The need for a suitable assay of the carbon footprint in this coalfield is crucial
9.1 Abstract
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Emergence of CF
9.4 Global scenario overview
9.5 National scenario overview
9.6 Need of CF assay in RCF
9.7 Potential possibilities
9.8 Conclusion
9.9 Bibliography
Chapter 10. The emergence of a comprehensive approach to carbon sequestration and bioremediation
10.1 Abstract
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Mechanism of bioremediation by aquatic plants
10.4 Aquatic plants as agents of bioremediation
10.5 Algae as agents of bioremediation
10.6 Mechanism of bioremediation by algae
10.7 Enhancement in the level of bioremediation through co-cultivation /co-association of aquatic plants and algae
10.8 Paris Accord and the emergence of C sequestration
10.9 Algae as efficient agents of C sequestration
10.10 Utility of bioremediation and C sequestrating approaches in RCF
10.11 Strategies and management
10.12 Electrocatalytic Conversion: A revolutionary innovation in the pathway of CO2 conversion
10.13 Challenges
10.14 Future prospects
10.15 Conclusion
10.16 Bibliography
Chapter 11. The carbon market is essential and has to be implemented as an exigency
11.1 Abstract
11.2 Introduction
11.3 Global scenario
11.4 National overview
11.5 C market needs to be implemented in RCF
11.6 Strategies
11.7 Future prospects
11.8 Challenges
11.9 Conclusion
11.10 Bibliography
Chapter 12. Alternative livelihoods in this coalfield: an exploratory study
12.1 Abstract
12.2 Introduction
12.3 Global scenario overview
12.4 National scenario overview
12.5 The RCF offers various alternative livelihood opportunities
12.5.1 Coal mining-related small-scale industries
12.5.2 Construction industry
12.5.3 Agriculture and Horticulture
12.5.4 Fisheries and Aquaculture
12.5.5 Dairy farming, Poultry farming, and Goat farming
12.6 The author proposes various alternative livelihood resources in the RCF
12.7 Conclusion
12.8 Bibliography
12.5.5 Dairy farming, Poultry farming, and Goat farming
12.6 The author proposes various alternative livelihood resources in the RCF
12.7 Conclusion
12.8 Bibliography
Chapter 13. The potential assessment of mining tourism is being explored
13.1 Abstract
13.2 Introduction
13.3 Global scenario overview
13.4 National scenario overview
13.5 Potential locations for Mining Tourism
13.6 In RCF, unfold mining tourism
13.7 Infrastructure and logistical efficiency need to be improved
13.8 The growth of mining tourism
13.9 Conclusion
13.10 Bibliography
Chapter 14. Clean and Green coal mining is necessary to achieve the Clean India Mission
14.1 Abstract
14.2 In global perspectives
14.3 Various aspects of environmental deterioration and the necessity for CCTs in Indian coal mining regions
14.4 Concerning RCF
14.5 Implementation of CTT
14.6 A viewpoint on CCT
14.7 Moving forward with CCTs to promote sustainable mining practices
14.8 Exploring possibilities for green mining
14.9 Conclusion
14.10 Bibliography
Preface
The Raniganj Coalfield, India's oldest and most prominent coal mine, is a significant area of research in this endeavor to promote prosperity and sustainable development in the region. The first element in this approach is an examination of the Indian coal industry in the nineteenth century, including its early stages, upgrading techniques, concurrence with English coal, early hurdles, and post-independence status in this coal mining region. It, then, emphasizes coal mining's impact on local economies, geo-morphological analysis, vegetation, and agricultural land. In the book, attempts are made to investigate how coal mining affects vegetation and agricultural land. It draws attention to the reduction in the species composition of trees and shrubs, which results in a reduced density of vegetation in mined regions. It also denotes the impact of mining on surface and groundwater resources, examines the episodes of the summertime water crisis, and highlights the region's dependence on a single supply network. The book talks about the surface-cut mining leaves behind enormous pits. The pits become pit lakes during the monsoon season due to precipitation, groundwater leaching, and surface runoff; after that, they are often abandoned. Emphasizing the rehabilitation, sustainability, and utilitarianism of abandoned pit lakes for the safety and welfare of the surrounding community and socio-eco-developmental activities, the book assesses the hydrological state of abandoned pit lakes in the Raniganj coalfield by evaluating their limnological properties. It also recommends a water footprint assay in the area to delve into a comprehensive plan for the sustainable use of alternate water sources. The increasing greenhouse gas emissions from mining operations are also discussed in the book, along with how the region can employ carbon footprint assessment to evaluate sustainability efforts and manage vulnerability. It proposes a comprehensive strategy for carbon sequestration and bioremediation that centers on co-cultivating aquatic plants and algae to enhance both processes. The study emphasizes the significance of the establishment of a carbon market and its expansion to regional, national, and global levels to fetch economic upliftment for the commercial ventures of the region by trading their carbon emission limits. It explores alternative livelihood opportunities other than mining in the Raniganj Coalfield, focusing on sustainable development and socio-environmental resilience, aiming to build stronger, healthier, and more inclusive communities in the area. At the same time, the book assesses the potential for mining tourism in the Raniganj Coalfield, highlighting the connections between mining tourism and other travel opportunities, well-preserved mines, challenges with infrastructure, and other local issues. It also emphasizes the potential of developing the tourism industry in the region. The book advocates for minimizing adverse consequences of mining, optimizing resource use, and decreasing the influence on ecosystem services, all of which coal mining enterprises in the Raniganj coalfield may include in their coal mining strategies. Along with reducing environmental effects and promoting sustainable and profitable coal consumption in the area, it also emphasizes the necessity of clean and green coal mining to fulfill the "Clean India Mission." To conclude, the venture aims to achieve sustainability in this coal mining region of India, holistically, by maintaining a balance between environment and the commercial anthropogenic ventures.
About Authors
Dr. Dibyendu Saha, Ph.D, M.Sc, B.Ed
Dibyendu Saha is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Botany at the University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India. He has been working with a range of student groups as a teacher for more than eighteen years. He has been exploring the sustainability of coal mining for the past six years, concentrating on the Raniganj coalfield, the oldest and largest mine in India, where he has resided for more than 20 years. His areas of interest in study are aquatic toxicology, crop genetics, crop breeding, environmental sustainability, and sustainable coal mining development. Dr. Saha possesses an outstanding academic record, with more than 20 research articles included in respected publications. He has also written a book for graduate students that covers a number of important subjects.
Amongst the noteworthy pieces in this book are "The Coal Industry's Evolution Across Time," "The Mining Tourism Industry's Prospects," and "The Clean and Green Coal Mining's Crucial Role in Fulfilling the Clean India Mission." Apart from authoring, he has been involved in the conception, organization, and editing of this book, which culminated in a well-edited effort.
Md Nazir, M.Sc, B.Ed
Md. Nazir, a student of Dr. Dibyendu Saha, graduated with a Botany Honours degree from Vivekananda Mahavidyalaya under The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India, and completed his M.Sc. in Botany and also did a Bachelor of Education from the same university. He has qualified GATE in life science. As a CSIR-UGC JRF, he is pursuing a Ph.D in the Department ofBotany at the University of Burdwan.
His contributions to this book are substantial, including the preparation of chapters such as “Investigation of the Water Quality of Abandoned Coal Mine Pit Lakes”, “Pit Lakes: A Legacy of Coal Mining - A Holistic Strategy for Rehabilitation, Utilitarianism, and Sustainability for Communities,”, “Excavating: Revealing the reality of coal mining”, and “Alternative Livelihoods in This Coalfield: An Exploratory Study.” Additionally, he assisted with the photography for the book.
Ayan Saha, M.Sc, B.Ed
Ayan Saha, student of Dr. Dibyendu Saha, completed a Bachelor of Science in Botany and a Master of Science in Botany with a specialization in Plant Genetics and Biotechnology at The University of Burdwan in West Bengal, India. He also did a Bachelor of Education from the same university. He is currently a Ph.D. research scholar in the Department of Botany, the University of Burdwan, getting funding from the West Bengal government through the S.V.M.C.M fellowship and also qualified GATE in life science. In the context of coal mining, he is extremely interested in the sustainability of the Raniganj coalfield.
He contributed to three chapters in this book: "The Consequences of Coal Mining on Vegetation," "Geo-morphological Analysis," and "Coal Mining's Impact on Prime Agricultural Land." In addition, he assisted with data collecting, statistical analysis, and photography.
Kushal Roy, M.Sc
Kushal Roy is a student of Dr. Dibyendu Saha. He has completed his graduation in Botany Honours and M.Sc. in Botany from Ramakrishna Mission Vivekananda Centenary College in Rahara which is affiliated to West Bengal State University, West Bengal, India. After that, he worked as a Guest Lecturer at Bangabasi Morning College, which is under The University of Calcutta, West Bengal, India. He has also qualified CSIR UGC NET in life science. In the context of coal mining, he is extremely interested in the sustainability of the Raniganj coalfield.
"Excavating: Revealing the Reality of Coal Mining", "Investigation of the Water Quality of Abandoned Coal Mine Pit Lakes", "Relevance of Water Footprint Evaluation: Focusing on Coal Mining, and Associated Industries", “The need for a suitable assay of the carbon footprint in this coalfield is crucial”, "The Emergence of a Comprehensive Approach to Carbon Sequestration and Bioremediation", and "The Carbon Market is Essential and Has to Be Implemented as an Emergency" are just a few of the chapters he prepared for this book. In addition, he assisted with data collection, statistical analysis, and photography.
Acknowledgment
We express our heartfelt gratitude to the Head, Department of Botany in The University of Burdwan, West Bengal, India, for invaluable support.
Our sincere thanks extend to Shree Tapas Banerjee, the Chairman of Asansol and Durgapur Development Authority, West Bengal, India whose kind assistance has been instrumental.
We are also deeply grateful to Shree Badal Mishra, Assistant Surveyor at Kalipahari (R) Colliery, Satgram-Sripur Area, Eastern Coalfield Limited, for his invaluable cooperation.
Our appreciation also goes to The District Planning Officer, Paschim Bardhaman, West Bengal, India, for their kind support and cooperation.
We acknowledge the thoughtful assistance provided by the Industrial Development Officer, MSME and T, District Industries Centre, Paschim Bardhaman, West Bengal, India.
We also like to thank Mr. Uday Das, Assistant Teacher, Asansol, West Bengal, India, who deserves special acknowledgement for his kind assistance for GIS map-related services.
We are grateful for the assistance provided by the Block Development Officer and Additional Block Development Officer of Raniganj block, Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India.
We extend our heartfelt gratitude to the Assistant Director of Agriculture of Raniganj Block in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India, for providing insightful information regarding local agriculture in the area.
We appreciate Amrasota GP, Ballavpur GP, Egara GP, Jemari GP, Ratibati GP, and Tirat GP, the Panchayat Pradhans of Raniganj Block in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India, for their cooperative efforts.
I, Dr. Dibyendu Saha, am incredibly thankful to every one of my students and my son Deeptanshu Saha, who is a constant source of encouragement and inspiration.
We are deeply indebted to my family for their constant love, support, and sacrifices, which have served as the cornerstone for building our goals.
We would want to conclude by deeply acknowledging the Almighty for everything in our lives and for enabling us to complete this project successfully.
Abbreviation
Abb. in Leseprobe nicht enthalten
Chapter 1. Rise of the coal industry through the ages
1.1 Abstract
Raniganj, India's birthplace of coal mining, played a significant role in early industrialization. The coalfield has produced jobs and aided in the local economies' growth thanks to its large coal reserves, cutting-edge mining methods, and considerable economic influence. The Industrial Revolution's advancements relied heavily on coal as fuel, making it crucial for modern companies' growth in the 19th century. India's coal industry emerged in the latter half of the 19th century, competing with European nations like England. Coal mining has been practiced since 1000 BC. in China, England, and Scotland, and gained value during Britain's Industrial Revolution. Improving transportation is essential for fostering the industry's growth. This study explores the early development of coal operations in Bengal at RCF, its evolving process, and competition from British coal, early-stage challenges, and its status following independence.
Keywords
Early-stage challenges, Economic influence, India's coal industry, Industrial Revolution, RCF
1.2 Background of Global Coal Exploration
The Chinese have been using coal since 1000 BC, but there is no information about its extent technology, or growth. Historical accounts indicate that knowledge of coal mining was widespread in England in the 13th century. From the 16th century onward, the industry witnessed remarkable improvements in output; between 1551 and 1560, yearly output reached 210, 000 t, and between 1681 and 1690, it exceeded 2.9 Mt. In 1781, the British produced 10.30 Mt of coal annually, a significant rise. The industry, which was mostly centered in Durham and Northumberland, Scotland, was valued greatly throughout Britain's Industrial Revolution (Golding et al., 2017; Harris 1976; Ashton and Sykes 1964). John Nef, on the contrary, argues that this abundance of coal was overstated, claiming that there seems to have been a revolution in fuel consumption at this moment in history. Prior to the 19th century, coal industries emerged in Germany, France, and Russia. The domestic consumption of France exceeded the country's needs, forcing a low annual production of 75,000 t by 1789. Following the Napoleonic Wars, the output of coal reached 1 Bt. The coalfields of Russia were found in the 18th century; they included the coalfields of Donets, Kapustin, Moscow, Kuznetsk, and Kizel. In the 1740s, salt manufacturers in Dunbas began mining coal to refine salt. The Ural, Siberia, and the Far East saw the beginning of the mining boom in the middle of the 19th century. In Russia, coal was mostly utilized for domestic purposes. Germany made an effort to mine coal in the 16th century, but the Thirty Years War made it difficult (Pacey and Bray 2021; Turnbull 2021; Ray and Paul 2000; Evans and Ryden 2017).
1.3 Pre-independence scenario
In Bengal, particularly in the areas of Burdwan and Birbhum, coal has long been known to exist and be used, but it was not until 1774 that attempts were made to use it commercially. That year, Summer and Heatly, two East India Company officers, pleaded with Governor-General Warren Hastings for a coal mining license in Bengal*. They offered to "furnish the Honourable Company with 10 thousand maunds of pit coal every year for 5 years to come (depending on the digging) at the price of two Arcot rupees and three quarters per maund, (of 80 Sicca weight to the Seer) and after the expiration of 5 years; they would annually, at the market price of sale furnish the like quantity, and they desire liberty to sell in Bengal, of whatever quantity the Hon'ble Company may seek. The Board of Revenue approved a proposal for a firm to deliver coal to the Military Storekeeper for testing. Despite delivering 36.50 t in 1775, the coals were not examined until 1777¥. Lord Hastings raised the matter, and the Board resolved to examine the coals before receiving them. Bengal coal was determined to be inferior to British coal by Commissioner of Store John Green, who also proved that one maujid of British coal could accomplish the same task in less time and with less iron waste than two maunds of Century coal. The owners were instructed to receive their coal back from the Military Storekeeper but suggested that they look further for it. The government's encouragement of deeper seam mining and conciliatory stance toward the sector was advantageous. The issue resurfaced again, and in 1808 the Court of Directors proposed moving the ordnance works to England to voice their displeasure with British coal shipments into India. The Burdwan Collector was ordered to deliver samples of local coal, as the Earl of Minto requested the opinion of a military board over coal mining in India. Nevertheless, the Military Board's report on coal from Bengal performed poorly, which hindered the establishment of the coal industry in Bengal§©®(Ray and Paul 2000).
Despite Hardwicke's unfavorable report, the government continued to be interested in Bengal coal mining. A professional could examine the nature and condition of the coal, so on June 6, 1809, the Board decided to postpone making final decisions regarding Pachete coal specimens. It was anticipated that surface coal would not succeed, but in 1814 Warren Hastings saw promise for military coal in Bengal. To conduct a study of Bengal's coalfields, he engaged seasoned mining engineer William Jones. The objective of Jones was to assess different facets of coal mining and establish the sector on a commercial basis.
Jherria coal from India was first chosen by William Jones for his coal experiment because it had a similar depth to English coal. However, commercial mining was hindered by unsafe transit connections to Calcutta. The river rendered it impossible to cross, therefore he relocated to Raniganj in Burdwan, Bengal. Jones was hesitant to commit to regular mining in the Raniganj field because he thought a partial failure may cause commercial disruption. He finally settled on Mudgeah after much thought, and there he found a coal bed that was twenty feet thick. He thought the coal was better than most English coal, clear, and useful for smiting and cooking. Jones, who was a government agent at first, understood that a mining project needed to be financially feasible. He asked for and was granted a soft-term loan of ?40,000 despite the government's disapproval (Rungta 1970).
The government asked Jones' security company, M/S Alexander and Company, to repay the loan after Jones failed to do so for a botched project. They acquired complete ownership of the colliery by 1820. M/S Alexander and Company nearly stopped the industry's expansion in its early years. Every time a new company wanted to start mining in Raniganj, they took their case to court using a variety of arguments. In this field, just one mine could be effectively brought to work during the twenties. Bett created it in Chinacoori in 1823. M/S Jessop and Company started mining at Damulia in 1824 but received instructions to stop. Following the six years, they started three mines at Narayankuri (Figure 1. 1), Chanchi, and Nuchibad. Rogers then opened two mines in Chaukidanga and Mahmudpur for a total of six mines between 1820 and 1834.
*John Summer wrote a letter to Warren Hastings, President of the Council of Revenue, on August 11, 1774. Reproduced in S.G.T.Heatly, 'Contribution towards a history of the development of mineral resources of India', Journal of Asiatic Society, XI, Pt. II (1842), pp.81 1-8.
¥John Summer wrote a letter to Warren Hastings on November 15, 1777. Quoted in J.Homfray, 'A description of the coal field of the Damoodah Valley, and the adjacent countries of Beerbhoom and Poorooleah, as applicable to the present date 1842', Journal of Asiatic Society, II, Pt.II (1842), pp 72.
§Letter from the Court of Directors dated April 8, 1 808. Quoted in Heatly, op. cit.
©letter to Captain A. dated September 5, 1808. Greed, Secretary to the Military Board by T. Thornhill, Quoted in Heatly, op. cit., p. 824.
®The enclosed copy of the April 8, 1809, letter from C. Tower, Burdwan's collector, to B. Crish, President of the Board of Revenue (written by T. Marriott).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 1.1. Present image of Narayankuri mines in RCF
Prince Dwarkanath Tagore (Figure 1. 2), a pioneer in Indian industrialist, was the grandfather of Rabindranath Tagore and father of Debendranath Tagore, the scion of the Calcutta Tagore family, paid £7000 for Alexander's Raniganj mines and coal stockpile, which totaled 9, 500 tons, amid a difficult fiscal year in 1835 (Figure 1. 3). After that, in 1837, the firm took over Betf's Chinakuri mine and in 1840, it began digging new mines. The acquisition of Jessop's Chanchi and Nuchibad mines by M/S Gilmore, Homfrey, and Company was another noteworthy transaction. The Bengal Coal Company, the largest company of the century, was created in 1843 by the merger of these two titans. There was a spike in mining activity in this field during the years 1844 -1845. During this time, several mines were established. These include the Siarsole mine owned by Govind Prasad Pandit, the Nimcha Sanga Mahal, Gopinathpur, and Kastoa mines by M/S Grob, Durrschmidt and Company, the Sitaram mine owned by M/S Apcher and Company; all in 1846; the Topassi mine owned by M/S East India Coal Company in 1848; the Kasta mine owned by M/S Nicholas and Sage in 1849; and the Ninga (Figure 1. 4) and Jameri mines (Figure 1. 5) owned by Govind Prasad Pandit in 1852 and 1854, respectively (Wolpert 2009; Chakrabarti, 1989).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 1.2. A bust of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore in RCF
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 1.3. a-c: Remains of the coal mine of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore; d-e: The location of riverside Jetty of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore used for transportation of coal
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 1.4. Ninga Coal mines in RCF
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 1.5. Jameri Coal mines in RCF
In 1855, a passenger train from Howrah to Raniganj began rolling, followed by a coal-loaded goods train from Raniganj to Howrah. The railway track was temporarily interrupted by the Santal Rebellion and Sepoy Mutiny. In 1863, it was extended to Serasol, Barakar, and Asansol. Significant disruptions to the coal mines in southwest Bengal following the Sepoy Mutiny led to an increase in steamboats and the emergence of new enterprises. Between 1858 and 1860, the amount of coal produced rose from 10 lakh mounds in 1839 to 78,08,566 mounds. There were 50 operational mines within the roughly 500 mi[2] extraction area. To move extracted deep-ground coal, the Bengal Coal Company built a 725-foot railway track, which resulted in a 25% increase in mine labor. 1,30,000 coal heaps were produced in 1859 by the Bengal Coal Company. The RCF region was a major economic hotspot between 1870 and 1875. Extraction was started in several locations by American businesses including Apcar and Co., Birbhum Coal Company, Belorikhatriya, Equitable Coal Company, Madhu Roy, Prasanna Dutta, and Bengal Coal Company. As mining moved closer to Asansol, the administrative structure changed, and the subdivision headquarters moved from Ranjganj to Asansol. These coal barons' central administrative hub became Asansol.
The Bengal Coal Company stretched its coal trade from Raniganj to Palaumu in Bihar while Andrew Yule was in charge, and this continued until the nationalization of coal mines in 1909a Until 1900, the business was very important to the coal trade, along with Equitable Coal Company, New Birbhum Coal Company, and Raniganj Coal Association. Afterward, Morrison and Bird Company assumed command of the mining operations in these regions. Upendranath Mondal, who went from being an employee to an owner, began the individual coal trade at the beginning of the 20th century. Because of the increased demand for railroads following World War I, coal extraction from deep mines moved to underground mining. At Kulti, close to Asansol, bi-products of coke plants were opened when the price of coal reached its height. British traders controlled 50% of 50 jute mills and 86% of 849 tea plantations in Eastern India before World War I. Major coal mines were joint-stock companies, primarily owned by British Managing Agencies in Europe, who held 89% of the shares. Carrying coal from the pit head to the internal business hub was a common practice for Marwaris and Gujaratis seeking admission to the coal industry in India. 7 collieries with an average paid-up capital of more than ?3 million were owned and operated by Bengali companies, including Nibaran Chandra Sircar. Significant contributions to coal production were made by Bengalis such as R.N. Baghchi, S.B. Raha, and K.B. Seal; British businesses accounted for one-fifth of pit outputs (Gupta 1998; Goswami, 1989; Chakrabarti, 1989; Investors India Year Book, 1918; Simmons et al., 1976).
In the Jharia and Raniganj districts, 300 small-scale mines and leased collieries had to close by 1928 due to economic unrest. 30 of the 45 new joint-stock businesses founded by Europeans and Indians between 1918 and 1924 had to be repaid. The largest Indian coal baron, N.C. Sircar lost a lot of money and gave Messer's H.V. Low his possessions. The proprietors of collieries took use of the richest coal seams to boost production. The Gujarati and Marwari communities established new collieries despite the economic downturn; by 1925, there were at least 30 owners in the Raniganj and Jharia region, producing 4, 00, 000 t annually. Several coal mines in the Jharia area were owned by the Agarwalla Brothers, a Marwari family that was pioneering in the field (Investors India Year Book, 1928-29, Goswami, Omkar, op.cit, p. 238, Simmons, C. P., op.cit, p. 197).
After the Great Depression, the coal industry was resurgent in the 1930s due to rising demand and market expansion. In 1945, the CRO was established by the Indian government as a means of preserving the labor supply. As a result, in 1945, a record 29 million pounds were produced. But between 1942 and 1945, European-controlled coal businesses saw a 24 percent drop. Coal businesses like Birds, McNeill, and Berry prospered despite this even after independence. OveraHazra, D., Ouponibeshik Sasaner Abarte Koyla Shilper Prathamik Store Koyekjon Bharatiya Shilpodoygi, BardhamanJela Sankha, Paschimbanga, 1403. time, several corporations that mined in the area have held RCF (Chatterjee 2021; Lahiri-Dutt 2016; ECL 1950)
1.4 Post-independence scenario
Coal mining in India has always been a private-sector industry. This changed in September 1956, when the Government of India founded the NCDC. Railway-run collieries served as the foundation for NCDC. This was done to meet the country's rapidly increasing energy needs in support of rapid industrialization under the government's Five-Year Plans (CIL 2018). In 1971, the Government of India, led by Prime Minister (then) Smt. Indira Gandhi, nationalized all 214 coking-coal mines and 12 coke ovens in the private sector, except those owned by TISCO and IISCO for captive use. On January 1, 1972, a new government firm, BCCL, was established to assume ownership of the nationalized mines and coke ovens (CIL 2023). On January 30, 1973, the country's remaining 711 non-coking coal mines in the private sector were nationalized. 184 of these mines were given over to BCCL, while the rest 527 were handed over to the newly established Coal Mines Authority. 4 months later, on June 14, 1973, this agency was reorganized as a distinct government entity called CMAL. NCDC, established in 1957, was amalgamated with CMAL, and the Central Government's 45% stake in Singareni Collieries Company Ltd was also transferred to CMAL (CIL 2023; 2018). CMAL began operation with four divisions: ECL, CCL, WCL, and the CMPDI. By 1973, all coking coalmines were under BCCL, which was a subsidiary of the SAIL under the Department of Steel of the Ministry of Steel and Mines, and all non-coking coalmines were under CMAL, which was under the Department of Mines of the same Ministry. On October 11, 1974, both BCCL and CMAL were transferred to the Department of Coal (now a separate Ministry) of the newly constituted Ministry of Energy for greater management. CIL, a new public-sector firm, was established on November 1, 1975, to improve organizational and operational efficiency in the coal business. All four CMAL divisions were granted company status and brought under CIL alongside BCCL. CIL also acquired a 45% stake in Singareni Collieries Company, and the latter was dissolved. Thus, CIL began operations in 1975, with 5 subsidiary firms. These were BCCL, ECL (Figure 1. 6), CCL, WCL, and CMPDIL. CIL eventually launched three additional firms by separating out particular portions of CCL and WCL. These included NCL, SECL, and MCL (CIL 2023; 2018; ECL 2023). Thus, in 1975, ECL acquired all of the former private collieries in RCF (ECL 2023).
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Figure 1. 6. ECL office in Satgram area of RCF
1.5 Inadequate transportation facilities initially hampered the coal industries in the RCF
The growth of the coal industry in Bengal during the first half of the 19th century was hindered by inadequate transportation facilities. The coal market was primarily located in Calcutta, 150 miles away from the coalfield. The stretch between Raniganj and Calcutta was served by water transportation on the Damodar River (Figure 1. 3 d-e), a mountain torrent navigable only for 10 weeks a year. Coal was stored on the riverbank for months, ready for shipment at short notice. The transport by the Damodar was precarious and dangerous, with frequent and numerous boat losses during passage. These difficulties increased in the higher reaches of the river, making it more difficult, expensive, and risky to discharge boats from the river near Barakar than near Raniganj'. Coal was carried to Ampta, close to the confluence of the Ganges and Damodar, during the wet season, and stored in depots for distribution. As a consequence of this, supplies were erratic and outcrops were stacked along riverbanks. Upper Ganges stations were disappointed when the Coal Committee noticed this problem in 1836 since supplies for their depots were not received until much later than needed. J. Homfray, highlighted the transportation issue in the industry. The rivers Barracar, Damoodah, and Adji are only accessible for boats for 10 weeks, and only when rain causes floods. To keep boats laden, collieries must have a ghaut, a deep-water pond, where they can remain until torrents leave.
According to the Coal Committee's analysis of transportation concerns for the coal trade on the Damodar River, industrial advancement is impeded by floods and other dangers in the upper portion of the river. Since the Damodar is the only delivery point, there isn't much initiative towards the Burdwan mines. If the upper river above Burdwan could be improved by railroad, they proposed linking the Damodar with the Hoogly at Calcutta or constructing a canal on the Adji to facilitate access to the area. The Ajoy River, once known as Adji, connected Birbhum's district boundaries to the Ganges near Katoya. Numerous mines were established on or near this river, including those of M/S. Erskin and Co., Hallings, and Dhoba and Co., which were situated in a more advantageous location for their connection to Calcutta compared to collieries on the Damodar. Coal was shipped by boat from Narayankarni Ghat, Searsole, Raniganj to Calcutta by M/S Car-Tagore and Company in the middle of the 19th century. But because of the erratic levels of the water, the supply was irregular. The EIR established lines up to Raniganj in 1855 in order to win this lucrative business. These lines were later extended to Asansol in 1863 via Searsole and Kalipahari. Train movements rose as the coal industry prospered. Due to its coal mines, Raniganj was selected as the EIR. required large land areas for infrastructure. But out of worries about pollution and health problems, the Searsole Raj family declined to donate enough land (Chatterjee 2021; Ray and Paul 2000; Oldham, 1859).
1.6 Conclusion
The RCF in Bengal, a major coal-producing region, is experiencing subsidence due to underground mining. The issue is primarily due to a dense coal seam at shallow depths. The industry stabilized in the 19th century, with European entrepreneurs exploiting black diamond resources until 1912. However, the two world wars increased demand, leading to poor working conditions and fatal pulmonary diseases. The industry experienced significant changes, with pre-independence coal prices fluctuating but increasing post-independence. Inadequate transportation infrastructure limited the industry's early expansion, affecting effective distribution and increasing transshipment prices. Improving transportation is crucial for fostering the industry's growth. Beyond its status as a significant coal-producing region, the RCF continues to play a crucial role in India's coal mining history.
1.7 Bibliography
Ashton, T. S., and Sykes, J. (1964). The coal industry of the eighteenth century. Manchester University Press.
Chakrabarti, P. K. (1989). Coal Industry in West Bengal. Northern Book Centre.
Chatterjee, A. (2021). Colonial South-West Bengal. Journal of People's History and Culture Vol, 7(1).
Coal India Limited. (2018). History and Formation of Coal India Limited. https://www.coalindia.in/. https://www.coalindia.in/history. (Retrieved on 16 February 2024)
Coal India Limited. (2023). About the company. https://www.coalindia.in/. https://www.coalindia.in/about-us. (Retrieved on 16 February 2024)
Eastern Coalfields Limited. (2023). About the company. https://www.easterncoal.nic.in/. https://www.easterncoal.nic.in/about-us. (Retrieved on 16 February 2024)
Eastern Coalfields Limited. (1950). Annual Report and Accounts 1949-50.
Evans, C., and Ryden, G. (Eds.). (2017). The industrial revolution in iron: the impact of British coal technology in nineteenth-century Europe. Taylor and Francis.
Golding, B., Golding, S. D., Golding, B., and Golding, S. D. (2017). Copper and Coal Through the Ages. Metals, Energy and Sustainability: The Story of Doctor Copper and King Coal, 37-155.
Goswami, O., op.cit, p. 238.
Goswami, O. (1989). Sahibs, babus, and banias: Changes in industrial control in eastern India, 1918-50. The Journal of Asian Studies, 48(2), 289-309.
Gupta, A. K. (1998). Kalo Koylar Kotha, Nandadulal Acharya, ed., Asansoler Itibritto, Kolkata
Harris, J. R. (1976). Skills, coal, and British industry in the eighteenth century. History, 61(202), 167-182.
Investors India Year Book, 1918.
Investors India Year Book, 1928-29.
Lahiri-Dutt, K. (2016). Introduction to coal in India: energising the nation. In The Coal Nation (pp. 1-35). Routledge.
Pacey, A., and Bray, F. (2021). Technology in World Civilization, revised and expanded edition: A Thousand-Year History. Mit Press.
Ray, I., and Paul, K. (2000). Beginnings of Coal Industry in Bengal. In Proceedings of the Indian History Congress (Vol. 61, pp. 836-847). Indian History Congress.
Rungta, R. S. (1970). The rise of business corporations in India, 1851-1900 (No. 8). CUP Archive.
Simmons, C. P. (1976). Indigenous enterprise in the Indian coal mining industry c. 1835-1939. The Indian Economic and Social History Review, 13(2), 189-217.
Simmons, C. P. , op.cit, p. 197
Oldham, T. (1859). Report on the Raneegunge Coal Field, with special reference to the proposed extension of line of railway: By Thomas Oldham. OT Cutter.
Turnbull, T. (2021). Energy, history, and the humanities: against a new determinism. History and Technology, 37(2), 247-292.
Wolpert, Stanley (2009) [First published 1077]. A New History of India (8th ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 221. ISBN 978-0-19-533756-3.
Chapter 2. Geo-morphological analysis
2.1 Abstract
RCF resides in West Bengal, which is part of the typical environmentally sensitive dry and semi-arid region of eastern India. This area's ecological environment and geological elements exhibit significant geographic distribution variations. On the other hand, extensive coal mining operations will unavoidably worsen the already delicate ecological and geological (eco-geological) environment, making recovery more challenging. In order to choose the best mining techniques and achieve coordinated coal resource exploitation and environmental protection prior to coal exploitation, it is crucial to examine the various aspects of the eco-geological environment and categorize its various types. Using geographic information system technologies, this study investigated DEMs, regional geological data, and Landsat8 remote sensing images. Additionally, the NDVI, surface elevation, terrain slope, surface lithology, geomorphic type, and hydrographic net were chosen as the primary control factors to classify the eco-geological environment type, resulting in the classification of the study area's eco-geological environment. ArcGIS, the computational platform, was used to quantify each control component in the eco-geological environment of the study site. The current work analyzes the RCF, profile, in India in a comprehensive fashion. Numerous aspects, including topography, geological structure, weathering depth, slope, drainage pattern, LULC, Topographic wetness index, soil type and curvature, influence the geographical research of a given area. Mines, unique and widespread geomorphic forms, have received less investigation compared to natural geomorphology. They are viewed as potential risks in urbanized areas, leading to specialized techniques for finding abandoned underground mines. Geomechanical monitoring and reclamation are growing interdisciplinary topics with a geomorphological foundation. Mines' geomorphic processes, including weathering, erosion, and accumulation, are crucial for biodiversity preservation.
Keywords
ArcGIS, Biodiversity preservation, DEMs, Eco-geological environment, Topography
2.2 Introduction
The RCF, part of the Permian-age Gondwana group, is a major coal-producing region in India, supplying high-quality non-coking coal. Before mining, the coalfield and its surrounding areas were covered in the dense "Jungal Mahal" forest (Singh and Yadav 1995, Paterson 1910). The RCF region, rich in natural resources, has faced social and environmental issues since its founding, worsening with population density. Over 245 years of excavation have exacerbated these issues, causing fly ash, coal dust, fugitive dust, heavy metals, wastewater, toxic fumes, coal fires, and noise pollution (Guerre et al., 2017, Goswami, 2015, Adhikari et al., 2013, Gogopadhyay et al., 2006). The area is facing health hazards from subsidence, informal coal extraction, and subsurface gaps, posing a death trap for local inhabitants. Habitat relocation, livelihood loss, and mining-related activities threaten local inhabitants. Land losers face inhumane terms and move homes, and the situation is exacerbated by informal coal extraction (Community Issues in Coal Belts, Environics Trust 2016). Monitoring dynamic changes in the earth's surface and natural resources can be effectively accomplished by combining remote sensing with geographic information systems, as has been generally accepted (Nascimento et al., 2020, Buczyuska, 2020). Spatiotemporal examination of changes in land cover brought about by mining operations has been made possible by the widely available Landsat series data (Zhang et al., 2019). In the RCF, thermal anomalies have been effectively deciphered through the use of Landsat thermal bands to identify coal fires. Using nighttime ASTER datasets, Guha and Kumar (2012) identified the coal fire zones and discovered that the open-cast coal mining areas of RCF were extremely susceptible to a coal fire. To determine vegetation dynamics in the Shengli open-cast mining area of China, time-series MODIS-NDVI datasets and multitemporal Landsat data have been used (Xu et al., 2018). Li et al., (2015) evaluated the evolution of mines and the ensuing change in land use and cover in northern China using Land sat data from various years. Modern geospatial approaches and satellite-based datasets have proven useful in monitoring mining activities and their effects on conservation units (Rudke et al., 2020), as well as in the exploitation of coal resources (Xu et al., 2018). Converting land into open-pit mining regions may result in a variety of issues, including plant loss, topsoil removal, soil loosening, and overall degradation of soil quality (Joshi et al., 2006). In addition, it affects runoff, soil infiltration capacity, evapotranspiration, and the extent of soil erosion (Moreno-de las Heras et al., 2009). Strong excavation and the dumping of waste materials have altered the surface hydrology in the area, according to a different research Manna and Maiti (2016). Studies on the spatiotemporal evolution of Raniganj's coal mines and landscape alteration, however, are lacking. In order to properly manage and restore land resources, mapping and tracking the dynamic changes in land use and land cover patterns is beneficial. Sustainable development is one which satisfies current needs without jeopardizing the capacity of future generations to satisfy their own. Environmental management can be used from the very beginning of mining operations. Ecological indicators can be used to track the protective measures a mining business has taken as well as to show stakeholders the results of such corrective actions.
The study aims to understand the impacts of landslides on land, including topsoil loss, human fatalities, and land topography changes. It uses GIS-based spatial multicriteria methods to create maps of landslide susceptibility. The study uses characteristics such as height, slope, aspect, soil type, land use land cover, curvature, and drainage density to identify susceptibility. AHP is used to assign weights to each element based on their impact on landslide incidence. The maps are classified into five prone ranks: very low, low, moderate, high, and very high.
2.3 Methodology
MCE techniques, based on GIS, are crucial in supporting environmental decision-making by using Figure 2.s and spatial analysis of geographic data to assign superiority among options and define a decision. Evaluation involves implementing decision rules and assessing multiple parameters to achieve precise objectives. Multi-criteria evaluations, involving the integration of GIS and assessment methodologies, help overcome constraints and provide a promising tool for achieving appropriateness or sensitivity maps and selecting sites for fussy mobility (Desalegn et al 2021). GIS offers a suitable foundation for multi-criteria estimation methods that cannot handle geographical data. Seven geomorphological layers were extracted from the DEM using ArcGIS 10.8. The layers in dispute are slope aspect, elevation, soil type, LULC, drainage density, and geomorphology TWI. The likelihood of landslides is likely to be impacted by altitude, which is controlled by a variety of geological and geomorphological processes (material types, wind action, rainfall, and erosion) (Youssef et al., 2016). Figure 2.1 highlights a flowchart of the methodology.
2.4 Results and Discussion
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Figure 2.1. Flow chart of the methodology
2.4.1 Geographical position
The RCF region is defined by latitudes 23046' to 23089' and longitudes ranging from 86078' to 87043'. The Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal's Asansol and Durgapur subdivisions are home to the semi-elliptical, elongated RCF. It extends to the Jharkhand district of Dhanbad in the northwestern as well as the nearby districts of Bankura, Purulia in the south, Birbhum in the north, and Purba Bardhaman in the east. The Paschim Burdwan District, which makes up its entirety of 1,600 km[2], is where the coalfield shows the most promise. Significant areas of the Andal, Pandabeswar, and Jamuria blocks have also been designated as areas needing further care because they are at risk from mine fires and changes in land cover (Mishra et al., 2016, Karfa and Tah 2019). The study region's borders are defined by the rivers Barakar in the west, the Ajay in the north, and the Damudar in the south (Figure 2.2, 2.3, 2.4).
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Figure 2.2. Location map of RCF
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Figure 2.3. a. Administrative map, b. Area map of RCF
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Figure 2.4. a. Surrounding cities of RCF, b. Rivers in RCF
2.4.2 Climate
The study area generally has a dry tropical environment. Three distinct seasons are observed in the area: summer (from mid-March to mid-June), monsoon rains (from mid-June to mid-October), and winter (from November to February). The average summertime temperature varies in temperature from 39 to 44[0]C, with occasional spikes to 48[0]C. The region experiences between 1240 to 1500 mm of yearly rainfall on average (Kumar et al., 2018, Karfa and Tah 2019). The study site is in a tropical region with subhumid conditions. Rehman et al., 2020 state that the RCF receives 995 mm of rain on average and maintains an average temperature of 25°C. The greatest temperatures ever recorded were 8°C in the winter and 44°C in the summer. Along the coal strip, the soil's nutrient levels are incredibly low.
2.4.3 Geology study
The discovery of previously unidentified volcanic activity in the RCF area is a highly significant addition. In the eastern fringe area, it has been established that Rahmahal volcanic rocks and related intertrappean sediments are present. These sediments are hidden beneath Tertiary strata and cover Panchet/supra Panchet rocks. Widespread deposition of Talchir Formation glacial and periglacial sediments brought about Gondwana sedimentation in the RCF basin. There was a widespread perception that the Talchir sedimentation domain was primarily limited to the bedrock depressions located in the northern region of the coalfield (Table 2.1 and Figure 2. 5). The Barakar Formation is a thick sequence of coal measures that succeeded the Telchir sediments. But there isn't much evidence supporting the Karharbari Formation's presence in the RCF. Conversely, the Karharbari rocks are thought to be the fundamental component of the Barakar Formation composition. Many workers think that this area lacks a distinct Karharbari horizon. This coalfield, or coal belt, is certainly the model region for the same; it is the basin where the RCF formation reaches its maximum expansion. This formation covers a larger area than the other formations due to its thicker beds and moderate bed dips. Alluvium covers the Paschim Barddhaman district, except the Asansol subdivision, where exposed Gondwana rocks can be found. The deposits that cover the vast alluvial plain of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and their tributaries are partially part of an older alluvial formation that is typically made up of massive argillaceous beds with a rather pale reddish-brown hue that frequently weathers to a yellowish (Guha et al., 2012). Kankar and pisolitic ferruginous concretions are scattered throughout the formation. Large expanses of the soil are found in the beds of the Damodar and Ajoy Rivers. The soil is made of partially altered Literite clay and partially reddish-colored, coarse-grained sands that are typical of the eastern ranges of the Vindhya formation (Arif et al., 2020). The above geological map indicates that the RCF is covered with laterite, but there are no specific classes listed. Instead, the area is covered in allurium, barakar, conglomerate, laterite, ironstone shales, peridotite intrusions, metamorphic rocks, and punchet alone. Geological Survey of India data shows that the Ajay and Hinga Nadi rivers are located in the upper part, while the Damodar River is located in the lower part (Mondol et al., 2016).
Table2.1. RCF geology
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Figure 2.5. Geology map of RCF
2.4.4 Influence of RCF's coal mining activities on the several rivers
The Ajoy, Damodar, and Barakar are the three key rivers that watered the RCF. There are also several smaller tributaries of these three rivers. The principal rivers in this interfluve zone are the Tumuni (a tributary of the Ajoy River), the Khudia, the Singaran, and the Nunia (all tributaries of the Damodar River) (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018). Damodar River originates close to the Kamarpet hills in the Palamou region of the Chotanagpur plateau, the Damodar River traverses the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal (Mondal et al., 2018). The river is 540 kilometers long overall, and its basin covers 21,500 km[2]. The Damodar River drains the southern portion of the coalfield near Raniganj. A significant portion of the Damodar River channel is negatively impacted by the RCF open-pit mining zone (Figure 2.6 and 2.7). Numerous miners dumped their waste along the bed of the Damodar River. Because of this, the materials that these open cust mines have spilled are intruding on the Damodar riverbed. Materials have been deposited in the riverbed as a result of dumping in the bed. The overburden from the coal mines at Damalia and Narankuri is deposited along the Damodar River's bed. As a result, the riverbed becomes sedimentary due to the eroded debris from the mine waste. Additionally, the shape of the river's bank and bed is altered by dumping (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018).
The Barakar River has a tributary called Khudiya. The Khudiya River drains a large portion of the RCF. The Khudiya River is also heavily impacted by mining. The Khudiya stream is where the Basantimata mine disposed of its waste products. Dumping has resulted in a reduction of the channel width and a significant volume of extra-fluvial silt in the riverbed. The road development along the coal transit channel has an impact on the Khudiya River. The Khudiya River's channel width along the A-B cross-section has decreased from 130.04 meters in 2004 to 67.05 meters in 2016. Coal mining also affects the Khudiya and Pusai river channels. A large portion of the rivers' channels have been deformed as a result of coal extraction and dumping from the riverbed dumping (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018) (Figure 2.6). Nunia is a river that flows into the Damodar River. The basin area is 321.253 km[2], and the river is 40.81 km long overall. It joins the Damodar River close to New Egara and the Raniganj Block settlement of Damalia. One of Nunia River's main tributaries is the Garui River dam (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018). An additional tributary of the Damodar River is the Singharan River. The river's entire length is 33.07 km, and the basin's area is 145.73 km[2]. Figure 2.7 illustrates how an abandoned mine hole developed within the Singhan River channel as a result of the open-cast method of coal extraction. The Singharan River's altered channel morphology and ensuing channel deformation are caused by the construction of a mine pit along the channel (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018). Ajoy River's tributary is the Tumuni River. The river is 41.08 km long overall, and the basin is 166.05 km[2]. Additionally, a significant portion of the Tumuni channel is destroyed by open-cast mining. The development of open-cast mines has caused the upper portion of the river to deteriorate. Because of this, the river's lower portion experiences a shortage of water. Moreover, a sizable portion of the river is diverted to extract the coal using the open-cast method (Mukherjee and Pahari 2018).
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Figure 2.6. Map displaying RCF's rivers
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Figure 2.7. shows the presence of three rivers in the RCF. a. Damodar in the southern part, b. Ajoy in the northern part, and c. Barakar in the western part.
2.4.5 Topography
The study site’s digital elevation model was used to create RCF Elevations and other topographically relevant variables. A subject's vulnerability to landslides is sometimes evaluated using elevations. Elevation differences may be connected with dissimilar environmental conditions such as plant species and rainfall (Dou et al., 2015). To generate elevation, the GIA gated the DEM. The elevation value of this location varies between 225 to 36 km (Figure 2. 8)
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Figure 2.8. Digital Elevation map of RCF
2.4.6 Slope
Slopes and other topographically relevant variables were created in the study area's DEM.
Because slopes have a direct impact on the formation of landslides, they are assumed to be a prominent factor in landslide susceptibility maps. As a result, slopes are frequently included in these maps (Ntelis et al., 2019). Since slope angles organize shear pressures acting on the slope, they are typically thought to be the major causes of landslides (Kalantar et al., 2018). The research region's slopes were generated using 10-meter contour intervals, which provided a feature class that was digitalized from the DEM degree by additional GIS setup adjustments
(Figure 2.9).
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Figure 2.9. Slope map of RCF
2.4.7 Soil type
The RCF comprises two primary soil categories (Figure 2. 9). These four types of fine, fine loamy, fine loamy-coarse, and gravelly loam loam. This soil was formed from almost equal parts clay, silt, and sand (Chakrabortty1 et al., 2018). The spatial differences between the soil series and the soil series association are negligible. A certain area's landforms and many topographic elements are the most important influencing factors for groundwater potentiality. Surface water is one of the key components of developing and defining an area's landscape, hence hydrogeomorphic planning is required for groundwater exploration planning (Das, 2017). There is a strong correlation between the lithology and geological formation of the study and its geomorphology (Table 2.2 and Figure 2. 10).
Table 2.2. RCF soil type
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Figure 2.10. Soil-type map of RCF
2.4.8 LULC
LULC is a main factor that is accountable for activating the happening of landslides. In general, slopes with no plant cover along with troubled tree plants are extra exposed to landslides within different planting regions which approach to decrease action of climatic driving forces like precipitation, consequently controlling attrition because of the natural waterfront afforded with tree roots. The settlement, forest, and agriculture practice were the major land use/land cover ranks within the research area, but, increasingly urban have intruded with a wooded region since additional lands were removed and rendered to climatic constituents. In general, gradients through impenetrable plantation cover could have fewer exposed incidences of low landslide rather than infertile gradients, whereas each constraints continue invariable (Gbadebo et al., 2018).
The system of land use in an area significantly influences the pattern and rate of landsliding. On the other hand, several ecological factors, such as geological structures and lithology, can cause land use and land cover to change seasonally or quickly due to weights from both nature and human activity (Reichenbach, 2014). Diverse land use and land cover types may influence steadiness gradient because they can alter the hydrological operation of hill slopes, rainfall partition, penetration characters, and run-off invention in addition to the shear strength of soil characteristics (Chen et al., 2019) (Table 2.3 and Figure 2.11).
Table 2.3. LULC of RCF
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Figure 2.11. LULC covers map of RCF
2.4.9 Drainage density
The drainage networks were also generated from DEM with hydrology tools in ArcGIS 10.8. It is described as the proximity of the spacing river channel. The whole length of the streams is separated through the entire research region of drainage. Drainages are an inverse function of permeability. As a result, drainage densities are the activating causative weights for landslides in RCF. The smaller the amount of porous soil is, the less the penetration of rainfall, which on the other hand tends to be concentrated in surface runoff (Sonker et al., 2021). It is a derivative as of digitized stream methods of RCF further rectified with GIS tools. The landslide susceptibility regions are directly associated with density due to their relation with surface runoff and permeability (Figure 2.12).
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Figure 2.12. Drainage density map of RCF
2.4.10 Curvature
A surface's curves are referred to as its curvature. This surface needs to cross over into a plane surface, but only in one direction. The curvature map is also important for geo-morphological analysis. The profile curvature is the curvature that corresponds to a normal section that is tangential to a flow line. It provides a basic indication of geomorphology and reveals the flow acceleration and erosion/deposition (positive values/negative values) rate. Furthermore, the profile curvature regulates the variation in mass flow velocity down the slope (Chen et al., 2016) (Figure 2. 13).
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Figure 2.13. Curvature Map of RCF
2.4.11 Geomorphology study
Groundwater potentiality is mostly influenced by the landforms and various topographic aspects of a given area. One of the surface waters is hydrogeomorphic approach is required for planning purposes regarding groundwater exploration since it is one of the most crucial components of developing and determining the landscapes of any area (Das, 2017). There is a strong correlation between the lithology and geological formation of the study and its geomorphology. According to geomorphology, this region is a pediplain with sporadic rock shards. The shards of rock consist of quartz, feldspar, and basic rock pebbles and gravels. Scientific investigation and observation of various geomorphic units with multispectral coverage of the terrain are made possible by RS and GIS studies.Based on IRS LISS IV pictures, SOI topographical map, NBSS & LUP report, and NRSC technical guidelines, many geomorphic units have been identified. This study area is related with four key geomorphic units: Waterbodies, Dissected Lateritic Upland (Upper), Valley Fill and Alluvial Plain (Lower), Anthropogenic Origin, and Dissected Gondwana Upland (primarily Structural Origin) (Table 2.4 and Figure 2.14).
Table 2.4. RCF Geomorphology
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Figure 2.14. Map of RCF's geomorphology
2.4.12 TWI
Quantifying the influence of topography on hydrological processes is a common application for it. The upstream contributing area per unit width orthogonal to the flow direction and the slope together determine the index. The index was made with hillslope catenas in mind. In locations that are level, accumulation quantities will be quite high, making TWI an irrelevant variable (Rehman et al., 2020). Numerous soil characteristics, including horizon depth, silt percentage, organic matter content, and phosphorus, have a strong correlation with the index.
The upslope contributing area is determined differently in each method of calculating this index (Figure 2.15).
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Figure 2.15. TWI map of RCF
2.5 Conclusion
Comparatively speaking to natural geomorphology, they have received less investigation, despite being unique and widespread geomorphic forms. The mines are viewed mainly as potential risks in heavily exploited and urbanized areas. Particular concerns are raised regarding collapses and sinking. As a result, specialized techniques for finding abandoned underground mines are starting to emerge, such as cutting-edge geophysical techniques. Several geomechanical monitoring approaches are employed in well-known and mapped mines to stop potential ground movement harm. Mine databases and hazard maps are appearing more often. Predispositions and triggers for ground movements have been identified, and modeling and risk assessment of these dynamic phenomena are more widespread. Reclamation and mine cleanup are two of the transdisciplinary topics with the fastest growth and a geomorphological basis. Reclamation and remediation of mines, where an artificial topography arrangement is typically used, is one of the rapidly expanding interdisciplinary topics with a geomorphological foundation. Only an operational mine should be regarded as a landform with all of its distinctive characteristics because it functions more like a factory than a naturally occurring entity. Abandoned mines show a variety of geomorphic processes caused by weathering, erosion, and accumulation decades after mining was terminated. As a geomorphic mesoform, the mine is made up of numerous deliberate smaller forms (adits, shafts, and fills) that are subsequently enhanced by a variety of microforms, including debris cones, collapses, river forms, and a broad variety of speleothems. The arrangement of the mine in relation to the surrounding geology and rock mass, as well as the presence of geomorphic mesoforms, influence the development of particular physical circumstances that lead to the emergence of living forms. Protecting the primary source of these conditions—represented principally by the layout of the particular mine—is essential to the preservation of biodiversity. A comprehensive mapping of mines, along with accurate digital elevation models of the terrain to clarify their spatial linkages, will be a critical component of future research challenges. The accurate dating of comparatively younger mines and various geomorphic activities taking place inside of them continue to be extremely difficult. Mines as a component of the geosystem have only recently emerged in comparison to natural geomorphology (including studies on diverse microforms and related geomorphic processes). In a nutshell coal mines are still a relatively unexplored landform globally.
2.6 Bibliography
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Chapter 3. Excavating: Revealing the reality of coal mining
3.1 Abstract
Employed in several sectors, coal accounts for 41% of the world's electrical demands. It serves as a raw material for several compounds, including activated carbon. Coal is extracted using surface and deep underground mining methods, consisting of four types: lignite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and anthracite. The world's coal consumption is increasing at an average yearly rate of 1.3% due to increased use from China, India, and other nations. However, as renewable energy sources become more affordable and industrial demand decreases, coal utilization is expected to decrease. India uses fossil fuels for 55% of its energy needs, but due to limited natural gas and petroleum reserves, environmental restrictions on hydroelectric projects, and geopolitical attitudes towards nuclear power, coal remains a significant part of India's energy mix. The MoC established SDC in December 2019 to address issues in the coal mining industry and promote sustainable development. Thermal power plants have established SDCs to enhance the industry's reputation. RCF holding a significant historical and production position in India's coal mining sector, can implement a strategy to minimize mining's negative effects, enhance resource utilization, and minimize its impact on ecosystem services. Coal companies are actively implementing measures to promote environmental sustainability and JT within their operations. In this context, the chapter explores coal mining on a global and national scale, with an emphasis on RCF, and recommends an extended strategy to reduce negative consequences, increase resource use, and improve local societies' livelihoods. The development of this mining strategy is based on employing a systemic approach that includes data collection, analysis, information presentation, expert planning, adoption of best practices, consultations, creative thinking, site-specific approaches, knowledge sharing, and dissemination to enhance the quality of life for local residents and those dwelling near mining regions.
Keywords
Coal consumption, Ecosystem services, Mining Strategy, Renewable energy, Sustainability
3.2 Introduction
Coal, currently providing 41% of the world's electricity, is an affordable, reliable, and constant power source, ensuring it meets energy consumption needs on demand. Besides, coal also serves many industrial uses. This substance is utilized as a raw material for activated carbon and various other common and industrial chemicals. Among the most significant is steel production, which uses metallurgical/coking coal, and cement manufacture. Coal and its by-products are also used to manufacture a variety of goods, including activated carbon used in filters for water and air purification systems; carbon fiber in the construction of airplanes and automobiles; silicon metal for lubricants and even chemical processes to extract rare earth elements, just to name a few examples. These essential components, which are fueling some of the greatest technological and energy-efficiency breakthroughs in the world today, are primarily responsible for the economies of the globe (SME 2021; Duffy et al., 2018; McHugh 2017; Massari and Ruberti 2013).
To reduce impoverished access to energy, coal is essential. As of right now, 860 million people worldwide lack access to electricity. There are around 2.6 billion individuals who lack access to hygienic kitchens. Although the issue affects many developing nations, sub-Saharan Africa and developing Asia have the worst rates of energy poverty—together, they account for 95% of the world's poor. The amount of electricity used per person worldwide is correlated with life expectancy, income, and level of education. Coal is the primary energy source. Remarkably, almost 1.7 billion people were able to get energy between 1990 and 2010, largely due to coal. These factors contribute to the rising usage of coal in some nations, particularly in emerging nations, due to the scarcity of other energy sources (Ramani and Evans 2024; Turgeon and Morse 2023; SME 2021).
Coal continues to be crucial for reducing global energy poverty even if a large portion of the globe lacks access to contemporary, clean energy. Developing technology and strategies to achieve zero emissions, particularly CO2, which scientists have identified as a contributing contributor to climate change, is the industry's problem. A technologically based plan to reduce CO2 emissions through an "all of the above" energy strategy and road to zero emissions is perhaps the most intelligent answer, given the world will continue to rely on coal and other fossil fuels to satisfy vital energy demands (SME 2021).
In light of this, the current chapter aims to explore the entire process of coal mining, the current scenario of coal mining global and national coal mining processes, with a focus on RCF, and offers a sustainable mining approach that would reduce adverse effects, improve resource utilization, and improve the standard of living in nearby communities.
3.3 An overview of various types of coal
The four main coal ranks are lignite, bituminous, sub-bituminous, and anthracite. These ranks are determined by the carbon content, heat energy, and the amount of heat and pressure experienced by plants over time, affecting the overall coal resource (USEIA 2023; CIL 2022):
Anthracite
This type of coal has the highest heating value out of all the grades and is composed of 86%- 97% C. It's the best grade of coal. It is stiff, brittle, shiny, and black.
Bituminous
This kind of coal contains between 45% and 86% C. Bituminous coal has been formed for between 100 and 300 mya. It has a good thermal value and is a medium-grade coal. It is the most often used type of coal for electricity generation, especially in countries like India. Bituminous coal is used to generate electricity in addition to being an essential fuel and raw material for the manufacturing of coking coal for the iron and steel industries.
Sub-bituminous
This type of coal has a lower heating value than bituminous coal and usually includes between 35% - 45% C. The majority of subbituminous coal was formed at least 100 mya. It has a higher heating value than lignite, is dull rather than lustrous, and is black.
Lignite
It has the lowest energy content and the highest C content (25-35%) of all the coal grades. Because lignite coal supplies are so fresh, they are frequently subjected to relatively little heat or pressure. One of the reasons lignite has a low heating value is because it is very wet and flaky. It is the lowest-grade and most C-rich coal.
3.4 Types of coal mining methods
The two main techniques used to mine coal are surface-cut mining and deep underground mining. The depth and quality of coal seams, in addition to the geology and surrounding conditions, determine the most cost-effective way to extract coal from them. Both surface-cut and underground miners extract large amounts of coal (Figure 3. 1). The thickness of the coal seam, overburden density, and burial depth all influence the choice of mining techniques. Topography, climate, geological conditions, surface drainage patterns, groundwater conditions, and coal seam continuity are other elements that influence the mining technique to be used (IGNTU 2024; Carlson and Baxter 2023; EPCAMR 2023).
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Figure 3.1. Types of coal mining methods (IGNTU 2024)
In the world, surface-cut mining accounts for around 40% of the total coal output (Figure 3. 2). Mining with this technique is possible for ore deposits near the surface at depths of less than 50 -100 m. However, surface-cut mining often occurs in seams that are less than 50 m below the surface. The types of Surface - cut mining methods are as follows (IGNTU 2024; Carlson and Baxter 2023; EPCAMR 2023):
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Figure 3.2. Series of events involved in Surface - cut mining (IGNTU 2024)
Strip Mining
It is one of the highly automated open-cast techniques that use a power shovel or a combination of draglines and power shovels to remove the overburden. At a depth of 9 to 15 m, the overburden-to-coal ratio can be as low as 1:12, while at a depth of roughly 30 m, it can be as high as 1:15. The US and other similar nations utilize it the most (Bhattacharyya et al., 2023).
Slice Mining
This kind of mining involves dividing a coal seam into suitable thickness slices and then working on each slice separately. In slice mining, inclined, horizontal, and diagonal slices are the most prevalent forms. It is possible to take slices in a mixed order, in ascending order, or in descending order (Huang et al., 2018)
Horizon Mining
This method is applied where coal measures have folded and faulted in highly disturbed areas. This mining technique consists of many levels, with level roadways carved out of the rock to access coal seams. In nations like Belgium, France, and Germany, it is a prevalent practice.
Most coal found between 50 - 100 m below the surface is mined deep. Typically, coal found below 100 m is mined deep. The globe produces 60% of its coal from underground mining. Among the techniques used in subterranean mining are (IGNTU 2024; Carlson and Baxter 2023; EPCAMR 2023):
Bord and Pillar method
It entails drilling many small, parallel-to-one-another headings in the seams. Cross headings join these headings to create pillars that may be fully or partially extracted later on. The technique is appropriate for working shallow-depth flat coal seams with a thickness of 1.8 - 3 m (Ge and Mottahed 2022).
Longwall method
Longwall mining typically involves two techniques: recovering and advancing. The advancing approach is moving a coal panel ahead on a broad front, removing the roads that support it in the process. In the receding form, the face has retreated on the driven highways before expanding out, and caved-in is permitted as the face retreats backward. It is possible to use this technique in any geological situation (Zhou et al., 2019).
Short wall method
The short wall was designed to use the standard room and pillar equipment but with geometric simplicity and the benefits of self-advancing hydraulic roof support. This is a variation of the longwall and bord and pillar method in which the length of the face is significantly smaller than usual with longwall mining (Liu et al., 2019).
3.5 Global scenario of coal mining
Coal is the most commonly used global resource for producing steam, which powers electricity, though it is used in various sectors for heating processes, with less usage than electricity generation. Globally, there are around 6700 functioning units with a rating of more than 25 MW. More than 545 atmospheric circulation fluidized bed boilers are included in the global total. It should come as no surprise that nations or areas with substantial coal reserves are also often those whose electricity production is mostly dependent on coal. For instance, there are more than 2600 coal-fired power plants in operation in China. With about 970 units, the US is second in the world for coal-based electricity. The EU has more than 700 operational entities at the regional level. In Russia, there are almost, 350 coal-fired generating units, whereas, in India, there are over 750 units (Sarkus and Ellis 2016; Panday and Bansal 2014).
Most of the world and a major part of the US are large consumers of coal. Nonetheless, a lot of coal reserves can be too deep, too thin, or too little to extract profitably. Some of these coals could be mineable as technology advances. In other instances, villages, cities, or environmentally sensitive places may be buried by coal seams. Resources for coal are substantial on a national and worldwide scale. Recoverable coal is defined by the USEIA as "Recoverable Reserves of Coal: An estimate of the amount of coal that can be removed (mined) from the accessible reserves in the future, using current prices and operable equipment (Figure 3. 3) (Mohr et al., 2015; Stecke et al., 2015).
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Figure 3. 3. Global recoverable coal deposits (Mohr et al., 2015; Stecke et al., 2015)
Global coal use is growing at an average pace of 1.3% annually. The amount of coal used has increased from 147 quadrillion British thermal units (Btu) in 2010 to 180 quadrillion Btu in 2020 and might increase to 220 quadrillion Btu by 2040. China, India, and other countries have significantly increased their coal use. It is expected that more nations that do not belong to the OECD will follow soon. China is primarily responsible for 47% of the world's coal use. 70% of the total was made up of the US (14%), and India (9%) (Figure 3. 4). The percentage of these consumed worldwide usages of these three nations, by 2040, is expected to increase to 75% of the total global consumption (Sarkus and Ellis 2016; Makino 2016).
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Figure 3. 4. Shows the world's total coal output by global region from 2008 to 2011 (Sarkus and Ellis 2016; Makino 2016).
3.6 National scenario of coal mining
In India, coal is the most prominent and abundant fossil fuel. It serves 55% of the nation's energy requirements. Native coal was the foundation of the nation's industrial heritage. Over the past forty years, India's commercial primary energy consumption has increased by around 700%. India now consumes 350 kg of primary commercial energy per year, far less than affluent countries. India's energy consumption is predicted to increase due to the country's growing population, developing economy, and desire for a higher standard of living. Coal will continue to play a major part in India's energy landscape due to the restricted reserve potential of natural gas and petroleum, limits on hydroelectric projects related to environmental protection, and the country's geopolitical view of nuclear power (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii).
Indian coal offers a unique, environmentally friendly fuel supply to the local energy market for the foreseeable future. Across 27 significant coalfields, the nation's hard coal reserves are mostly located in the east and south-central regions. Approximately 36 billion tons of lignite is in reserve, with 90% of that amount located in the southern state of Tamil Nadu (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii).
Under the Government of India, the MoC is in charge of formulating policies and plans for the discovery and exploitation of coal and lignite deposits, approving significant projects with significant financial implications, and making decisions on all matters pertaining to these projects. These public sector undertakings—CIL and its subsidiaries and NLCIL—execute these vital tasks under the administrative supervision of the Ministry. The MoC has a joint venture with the Government of Telangana named Singareni Collieries Company Limited in addition to CIL and NLCIL. The Telangana government owns 51% of the shares, while the Indian government owns 49% (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii).
Amid the implementation of a consistent investment program and increased emphasis on using contemporary technology, it has been feasible to elevate the total coal production in India to 893.19 million tons by 2022-2023. In 2023-2024, the total coal production in India was 997.25 MT, indicating a positive growth of 11.65% (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii) (Figure 3. 5).
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Figure 3.5. Coal production in India from 2022-2024 (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii)
The output of CIL and its subsidiaries was 703.20 MT in 2022-2023 compared to 622.63 MT in 2021-2022, indicating a positive rise of 12.94%. CIL produced 773.64 MT of coal in 2023-2024, showing a positive increase of 10.02% (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii) (Figure 3. 6).
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Figure 3.6. Output of CIL over the last three years (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii)
The primary supplier of coal to the south is SCCL. During 2022-2023 the firm produced 67.14 million tons of coal, compared to 65.02 MT in the same period the previous year. The SCCL produced 70.02 MT of coal in 2023-2024, showing a 4.30% increase (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii).
Other enterprises including TISCO, IISCO, and DVC, among others also fabricate small amounts of coal. CIL's Marketing Division administers the promotional endeavors of each of its business enterprises. To successfully accommodate the demands of the consuming sectors in different regions, CIL has established Regional Sales Offices and Sub-Sales Offices at certain locations around the nation (MoC, 2024 i; ii; iii).
3.7 Focus on the RCF region's coal mining
RCF is known as the place of inception of coal mining in India when coal was discovered in that region in 1774, with early exploration and mining operations conducted haphazardly. Regular mining began in 1820, and by 1835, RCF was established as a prominent coal mine in India. CIL established ECL as a subsidiary (ECL 2024). It supplanted all of the former privately-owned coal mines in RCF.
The Asansol and Durgapur subdivisions of West Bengal's Paschim Bardhaman district are home to the majority of RCF's land. It extends to the Dhanbad district of Jharkhand as well as the nearby districts of Birbhum, Bankura, and Purulia (ECL 2024; MoC 2024) (Figure 3. 8).
There are two blocks of coal seams in the RCF: the Raniganj measures and the Barakar measures. The Raniganj measures apply to the following ECL areas: Kajora, Jhanjra, Bankola, Kenda, Sonepur, Kunustoria, Satgram, Sripur, Sodepur, and Salanpur (partially). The two ECL regions covered by Barakar measures are Salanpur and Mugma (ECL 2024; ECL 2022).
Encompassing 500 square miles, the RCF produces around 30 million tons annually from its open-cast mines and 10 million tons annually from its underground mines, the majority of which are managed by ECL (ECL 2024; MoC 2024). Areas of RCF, West Bengal, India that were mined after 2001 are referred to as newly created active mines. According to a report, almost 70% of mines that are now in operation were developed after 2001. Between 1991 and 2001, the expanded area under opencast mining was 5.7 km[2]; however, in the following years, it nearly doubled to 10.47 km[2]. The rising demand for coal and the falling cost of open-cast mining account for the notable increase in open-cast mines between 2001 and 2014. Because open-cast mining has comparatively lower production costs per unit than typical underground mining, it has grown in popularity (Figure 3. 7).
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Figure 3.7. Mining growth trend in areas of RCF from 1991 to 2014
Furthermore, during the past few decades, there has been a tremendous advancement in the technical sector of open-cast mining. The majority of underground mining took place in the past when there was a dearth of the necessary infrastructure and technological know-how (Patra et al., 2022; Dhar and Dutta 2020).
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Figure 3.8 a. An ongoing open cast mining at Nimcha Colliery; b. An Underground mine at Narayankuri Mines
3.8 A step towards sustainability in the future of coal mining in RCF
The MoC has been promoting sustainable development principles in the coal mining sector to meet rising energy demands prioritize the local environment and host community care. The coal industry seeks to advance a sustainable development paradigm that takes social responsibility, resource conservation, and environmental preservation into account (MoC 2023). In December 2019, the Ministry established the SDC to promote environmentally sustainable coal mining and address concerns during mining operations and until mine closure. The SDC has since evolved into the Sustainability and JT (S and JT) Division, consisting of the SDC and JT Section. SDCs have also been established in all Coal/Lignite Power Plants to improve the overall image of the coal sector. These objectives include advising, mentoring, planning, and monitoring mitigation measures, minimizing adverse mining impacts, establishing a sustainable environment around coal regions, sharing best practices of sustainable mining, addressing climate change issues, and disseminating best practices through reports, films, and documentaries (MoC 2023).
This approach can be initiated in RCF as well to limit the negative effects of mining, enhance resource usage, and mitigate ecosystem services, coal firms implement mitigation measures. It discusses the coal industry's components of JT and environmental sustainability. To improve the lives of people and communities in and around mining areas, the strategy uses a systemic approach that includes data collection, analysis, information presentation, expert planning, adoption of best practices, consultations, creative thinking, site-specific approaches, knowledge sharing, and dissemination. This sustainable approach is based on the following steps:
Land amelioration and afforestation
The research entails creating sizable carbon sinks that would help mitigate climate change, the initiative intends to assist coal firms in identifying places for plantation projects and species suited for certain regions. There are also indicated activities for de-watering, slope stabilization, and land creation. The initiative also investigates the profitable reuse of reclaimed land, including farms for renewable energy, integrated Modern Township, and agribusiness and horticulture.
Air quality, emission, and noise management
In order to lessen air and noise pollution from mining activities and HEMMs, it advises coal companies to implement environmental mitigation measures like water sprinkling and noise barriers. It also promotes energy efficiency measures and noise reduction in HEMM operations.
Mine water management
The endeavor entails gathering, evaluating, and creating a roadmap for mine water management based on data on mine water availability in coal mines, both now and in the future. The plan calls for using mine water for tourism, agriculture, drinking, fisheries, and47 |Page
other sustainable uses. State government agencies may participate in the process via an MOU.
Sustainable Mine Tourism
In locations that have been reclaimed by mining and abandoned land, including abandoned surface cut abandoned PLs, the concept proposes creating environmental parks for recreation and tourism.
Planning, Monitoring, and Auditing
To monitor progress and offer support, the initiative entails developing a roadmap with yearly objectives for coal firms to implement mitigation efforts in all mines, holding frequent meetings, and working with professional agencies to undertake an environmental audit of mines.
Policy, Research, Education, and Dissemination
Experts, institutions, and organizations will be involved in the endeavor to carry out research and build a solid knowledge foundation for environmental mitigation planning and monitoring. Additionally, it pushes coal businesses to release sustainability reports on a range of environmental factors and organize frequent conferences, seminars, and formal training courses.
3.9 Conclusion
Coal continues to be a vital resource for the development of the worldwide community due to global infrastructure initiatives, particularly in emerging nations, and the growing population that is driving an increase in the need for power, even though prosperous economies like the US have minimized their usage of coal. However, because of factors like population growth, increased competition, and less accessibility to other sources of energy, emerging countries are witnessing a completely different situation in terms of ever-escalating coal consumption. Similarly, in India, coal continues to be a major source of inexpensive, dependable, and increasingly clean power. Given that coal is the most plentiful energy resource on Earth and that it helps reduce energy poverty and access to affordable energy, industry, government, and the general public must collaborate to create technically feasible commercial pathways to zero emissions in a world with carbon constraints. RCF holds the impeccable reputation of being the oldest and one of the most prominent coal mines in India. Nevertheless, mining operations have a detrimental effect on the local natural resources, such as the land, water, and air. This strategy promotes reducing the negative effects of mining, maximizing resource use, and lessening the impact on ecosystem services—all of which the RCF coal mining enterprises may incorporate into their coal mining operations. The strategy employs a systemic approach to restore the ecological balance in and around the mining areas. Last but not least, the economic development of a nation depends on the expansion of commercial anthropogenic enterprises and the continuous development of industrial applications, which again depend on coal as their primary source of energy, and a systematic approach is needed to be implemented in the mining sector to ensure environmental sustainability in the near future.
3.10 Bibliography
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Huang, Q., Wu, B., Cheng, W., Lei, B., Shi, H., & Chen, L. (2018). Investigation of permeability evolution in the lower slice during thick seam slicing mining and gas drainage: a case study from the Dahuangshan coalmine in China. Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering, 52, 141-154.
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Liu, W., Xu, J., Zhu, W., & Wang, S. (2019). A novel short-wall caving zone backfilling technique for controlling mining subsidence. Energy Science & Engineering, 7(5), 2124-2137.
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McHugh, L. (2017). World energy needs: A role for coal in the energy mix.
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Mohr, S. H., Wang, J., Ellem, G., Ward, J., and Giurco, D. (2015). Projection of world fossil fuels by country.Fuel,141, 120-135.
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Patra, T., Dutta, D., Kundu, A., Kumar, M., Hossain, S. S., and Chattoraj, K. K. (2022). Evolution of opencast mines in the raniganj coalfield (India): An assessment through multi-temporal satellite data.Journal of the Geological Society of India,98(3), 387-394.
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United States Energy Information Administration. (2023). Coal Explained. www.eia.gov. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/coal/#:~:text=Coal%20is%20classified%20into%20fou r,bituminous%2C%20subbituminous%2C%20and%20lignite. (Retrieved on 15th May, 2024).
Zhou, P., Wang, Y., Zhu, G., & Gao, Y. (2019). Comparative analysis of the mine pressure at non-pillar longwall mining by roof cutting and traditional longwall mining. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, 16(2), 423-438.
Chapter 4. The consequences of coal mining on vegetation
4.1 Abstract
The RCF in West Bengal, India, has seen extensive coal mining activity that has resulted in habitat degradation and a landscape littered with mine debris. The study focuses on the many ways that coal mining has negatively impacted the vegetation in the Raniganj block, Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India. Despite creating jobs and fostering socioeconomic development, the Raniganj Block is a prominent part of the RCF and is well-known for its extensive coal reserves and infrastructural development. Raniganj block is bordered by the AMC Jamuria Block on the north, the Andal Block on the east, the Mejia Block in the Bankura district on the south, and the AMC and Barabani Block on the west. Amrasota, Ballavpur, Egara, Jemari, Ratibati, and Tirat are among the gram panchayats of the Raniganj block that are considered as study areas. It is found that the species composition of the populations of trees and shrubs had significantly declined due to coal mining. Mined areas have significantly lower tree, shrub, and herb density, with a majority of plant species dominating both mined and un-mined areas. In mined areas, there are 14 types of trees, 9 shrubs, and 20 sorts of herbs - 10 of which are climbers. Plant growth isn't supported by the overworked surroundings. The aggregate tree girth classes indicate a lower tree density in the mined areas. Because most tree species have mined zones and infectious dispersion patterns, there is minimal variance in the dissemination strategies between them.
Keywords
Vegetation, Habitat degradation, Landscape, Herb density
4.2 Introduction
Empirical evidence suggests that coal mining significantly degrades natural ecosystems and ecosystem services. Natural plant communities have experienced disturbances before, during, and after mining activities. The vegetation includes a variety of distinctive characteristics numerous rare, endangered, and indigenous plant species can be extinct (Corlett 2016). The environments get depleted, creating extremely difficult conditions for plant growth. The tiny Indian state of West Bengal located in the east, has an abundance of natural greenery and a substantial mineral resource endowment (Mondala et al., 2022). Over the past few decades, the state's native vegetation has been severely damaged and deteriorated due to the rapid increase in coal mining, transforming the region's natural, beautiful, and green scenery into mine spoils (Huang et al., 2015). In certain areas of RCF of west Bengal, private operators have embraced the antiquated and unscientific "rat-hole" method of mining, which has severely destroyed the ecosystem (Roy 2021). Numerous mining processes, such as managing topsoil, drilling, blasting, handling overburden with draglines and conveyors; loading, unloading, and handling coal, produce copious amounts of dust, which eventually settle on neighboring soils (Ha-Duong et al., 2016). Mining spoil can reduce soil erosion, sedimentation, and coal dust deposition, but soil quality and surface vegetation are impacted by mining. Maintaining soil quality is crucial as it affects the environment, agronomy, society, economy, geology, and human health (Brevik et al., 2020). Soil contains a wide range of habitat for living things both above and below ground. Numerous ecosystem services required by both the environment and humans are provided by soil biodiversity. Overall, the effects of coal mining on vegetation can be severe and protracted, affecting not only the plant species that are directly impacted by the mining process but also the richness of the ecosystem as a whole. Reclamation and restoration techniques, such as vegetating mined areas and restoring damaged ecosystems, are frequently used in attempts to lessen these effects.
4.3 Global overview
The ecological condition in mining area is deteriorating due to disruptions in plant diversity and vegetation growth. A new plant configuration mode is needed to revitalize deteriorated plants. The Landsat-NDVI time series data was used to determine the regression slope and correlation coefficient of vegetation fractional coverage, and the yearly variation in VFC was assessed in various regions of the Daliuta coal mining area (Liu et al., 2021). Slight improvement in vegetation quality between 2001 and 2013, with 77.22% of the area exhibiting progress or better, 15.27% deteriorated, and 1.52% severe degradation, primarily in urbanized and coal-mining districts, due to drastic land cover changes and vegetation degradation in Xilingol, Inner Mongolia (Fu et al., 2017). There is proof that the original vegetation of Yangquan Coal Mine has been totally altered or destroyed as a result of land use changes and coal mining, which has put a great deal of strain on the local and adjacent areas' ecological systems (Li et al., 2018). The Rostov Region, Russia not only does mine waste stacking cause a geochemical change of the soils in the top strata, but it also affects the entire soil profile. This is observable when contrasting the geochemical anomalies of Cr, Mo and Zn in soil profiles at various separations from spoil tips within the same agronomic landscape. The topsoil has an average twice-heightened concentration of Cr, Mo, and Zn (Alekseenko et al., 2018). That coal mining activities and its accessory industries have a great deal of detrimental consequences on both society and the environment, including soil erosion, air and water pollution, biodiversity loss, health issues, and a deterioration in community cohesiveness in mining areas. The option to continue supporting the coal sector is becoming more and more dubious in light of urgent challenges like climate change, which need an energy transition, and the threat that Australia's economy poses from an excessive reliance on coal exports (De Valck et al., 2021). Southeast part of Erdos City, Inner Mongolia, China, there were no noticeable drastic or widespread alterations to the pattern of the vegetation-environment. There hasn't been any noticeable large-scale degradation in the fractured region, despite a 0-21.5% fall in the vegetation community index at the transect-plot size; the NDVI increased by 15% at the watershed scale as a whole. In spite of the subsidence, the surface ecosystem seems robust (Yang et al., 2018). According to Zhao et al., (2016) the northern part of the open-pit coal mine Heidaigou. The site, which covered 197 km[2], was situated in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region's eastern Junggar Banner region where foundAstragalus scaberrimusBunge,Artemisia frigidaWilld.,Cleistogenes songorica(Roshev.)Ohwi Cynanchum chinenseR. Br.,Erodium stephanianumWilld.Glycyrrhiza uralensisFisch.Calamagrostis pseudophragmites(Hall. F.) Koel.,Hypericum attenuatumChoisy.,Oxytropis chiliophyllaRoyle,Pennisetum alopecuroides(L.) Spreng.,Iris tenuifoliaPall.Messerschmidia sibiricaL.Bidens parvifloraWilld.,Peganum harmalaL.,Phalaris arundinaceaLinn.(A).,Potentilla bifurcaL.,Deyeuxia confertaKeng.,Stipa capillataLinn.,Vicia sepiumLinn. Accroding to Thovhakale, Ndivhuho Duke (2020), Bidens bipinnata(L),Conyza bonariensis(L),Plantago lanceolate(L).Helichrysum rugulosumLess,Schkuria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell,Sonchus dregeanusDC,Tagetes minuta(L),Tephrosia capensisPersCyprus escualentus(L), those species are generally found in west of Witbank (Emalahleni) in Mpumalangady, South Africa. this an area mine is an opencast and underground coal mine. A specific portion of the surfaces of former mining areas is experiencing the formation of forests, with the first stage of forestation occurring naturally. There are woods of pine, black locust (R. pseudoacaciaL.), elm-oak (Ulmus laevis Pall- Quercus roburL.), and pine coniferous. The stand is thought to be between thirty and seventy years old. Several sprouts emerge from a single root in stubby, clumpy tree examples, which are common. The look ofPadus serotina(Ehrh.) Borkh is a characteristic that unites them. The Ulmus laevis-Quercus assemblage and the original birch forest, which includedPadus serotina(Erkh.) Borkh.,Crataegus monogynaJacq.,Euonymus verrucosusScop,Rhamnus catharticaL.,Corylus avellanaL.,Prunus cerasusL., andViburnum opulusL.,Prunus spinosaL., were the most diverse shrub species in the region of the former mining regions in the southern section of Sosnowiec (Rahmonov et al., 2020). Petrorhagia prolifera (L),Sanguisorba minorScop, Phleum pratenseLinn,Melilotus albaMedik,Agrostis stoloniferaL., Hieracium laevigatum Willd., Senecio viscosus (L) foun in Silesian Upland in southern Poland coal mining area (Kompala-Baba et al., 2019).Ajuga bracteosaWall Ex Benth,Rumex hastatusD. Don.,Sisymbrium officinale(L.) Scop.,Plantago ovataForssk,Amaranthus spinosusL.,Sonchus asperL.,Bidens PilosaL.,Conyzea canadensis(L.) Cronq.,Malvastrum coromandelianumL.,Dodonaea viscosaJacq located in Pakistan's Harno coal mining site in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Shakeel et al., 2024).
4.4 National overview
Coal mining has decreased vegetation diversity and caused the extinction of dominant plant species, endangering the plant diversity of the tropical forests of Nagaland. Thus, it is possible to scientifically integrate bioremediation, land reclamation initiatives, strict forest management, and regulations governing mine waste to lessen the consequences of mining (Semy and Singh 2024). Large-scale landscape destruction, soil erosion, the loss of wildlife habitat and the forest ecosystem, as well as pollution of the air, water, and soil are among the environmental problems. The literature describes a number of physical and chemical techniques for removing mineral debris, total sulfur, and other types of sulfur from high sulfur coal in northeastern India (Chabukdhara and Singh 2016). In the direction of the mining site, species diversity declines. Many plant species have a reduced capacity for regeneration as a result of unfavorable habitat conditions. Moreover, the disposal of polluted soil results in changes to the natural ecosystem and the expansion of invasive alien species, such asProsopis juliflora(Sw) DC. Because to human activities related to mining, natural tree species likeAcacia Senegal(L),Acacia nilotica(L) andSalvadora oleoides(Decne.) are extremely threatened with extinction (Patel et al., 2020). The ongoing extraction of coal from this type of stone dust over vegetation results in a decline in the NDVI values between 1990 and 2016. Prestigious woodland removal has been fast degrading as a result of mining activity. Of course, this reality is not the only reason why the quality of the forest is declining (Pal and Mandal 2017). The Ananta open cast project is located in MCL, Odisha, India in where reclaimed mining soil (RMS) have fast-growing tree saplings suchCassia seameaLamk.,Dalbergia sissooRoxb.,Gmelina arboreaRoxb.,Acacia nilotica(L.) Delile, andAcacia mangiumWilld. were planted to reclaim dump sites. The recently created RMS has high levels of stones and pebbles, compacted surface, and poor soil quality that encourages xeric weed invasion. The ground vegetation is made up of herbaceous plants such asTephrosia purpurea(L.) Pers.,Dactyloctenium aegyptium(L.) Willd.,Allotropis semialata(R.Br.) Hitchc.,Cyperus rotundusL andBorreria hispidaL., as well as shrubs such asCalotropis procera(Aiton) WT Aiton,Datura spcemoniumL.,Crotalaria retusaL., andLantana camaraL (Ahirwal and Maiti 2016). 9 different species of trees were planted to reclaim the land; of these, 4 species accounted for 84% of the total tree density:A. auriculiformis(Fabaceae) at 39%;M. azedarach(Meliaceae) at 16%;Eucalyptus hybrid(Myrtaceae) at 16%; andAlstonia scholaris(L.) R.Br. (Apocynaceae) at 12%). 2 dominating tree species,A. auriculiformisandM. azedarach, were examined out of nine planted tree species to determine the amount of metal buildup in plant tissues in coal mining over load dumps at Jharia Coalfield, Jharkhand, India's eastern region (Rana and Maiti 2018).Bacidia incongruens(Stirt.) Zahlbr.,Buellia alboatra(Hoffm.) Th. Fr.,Calopadia fusca(Mull. Arg.) Vezda,Caloplaca bassiae(Willd. Ex Ach.) Zahlbr.,Coccocarpia palmicola(Spreng.) Arvidss and D.J. Galloway,Collema pulcellumAch. var. subnigrescens (Mull. Arg.) Degel.,Cryptothecia striataG. Thor,Chiodecton leptosporumMull. Arg,Chrysothrix chlorina(Ach.) laundon,Cladonia coniocraea(Florke) Spreng,Dirinaria aegialita(Afzel.) B.J. Moore,Glyphis duriusculaStirton,Graphis duplicataAch,Graphis scripta(L.) Ach,Lecanora indicaZahlbr.,Mazosia phyllosema(Nyl.) Zahlbr.,Parmotrema crinitoidesJ. C. Wei,Pertusaria quassiae(Fee) Nyl.,Phaeographina caesioradians(Leighton) Redinger,Haematomma puniceum(Sw.) A.Massal.,Heterodermia diademata(Taylor) D.D. Awasthi,Phaeographis platycarpaMüll. Arg.,Strigula smaragdulaFr.,Tricharia vainioiR. Sant.,Trichothelium annulatum(Karst) R.Sant.,Trypethelium eluteriaeSpreng,Pseudopyrenula pupula(Ach.) Mull. Arg,Strigula antillarum(Fee) Mull. Arg.,Strigula elegans(Fee) Mull. Arg., these lichen are found in Mukum coalfield Magherita, Assam (Yadav et al., 2018).
4.5 Study sites
Raniganj block is a roughly centrally positioned RCF in the Indian province of West Bengal's Paschim Bardhaman district. This block has a wealth of different industries and coal mines. An outstanding location for a sample study to investigate the effects of coal mining on vegetation is the Raniganj Block. The Raniganj block is located within the Damodar basin (Figure 4.1). This area is basically an extension of the Chota Nagpur Plateau. It is a rocky, undulating area with laterite soil. Since coal was discovered in the seventeenth century, most of the area's woods have been cleared for industrialization. The 58.28 km[2] Raniganj block is made up of the following six gram panchayats: Ballavpur, Amrasota, Jemari, Egara, Ratibati, and Tirat (Directory of District, Subdivision, Panchayat Samiti/ Block and Gram Panchayats in West Bengal 2017).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4. 1. Raniganj Block, Paschim Bardhaman is the study site
4.6 Methodology
Six villages from the Raniganj Block were chosen for this study: Amrasota, Ballavpur, Jemeri, Tirat, Egara, and Ratibati. The vegetation features of the mined regions at each site 10 quadrats of 01 meters by 01 meters each were arranged randomly in the mined areas at each location to serve as the tree components. Ten 5 m x 5 m quadrats for shrub species were placed in every mined area. To study the herb species, 40 quadrats, each measuring 1 meter by 1 meter, were placed in mined regions (Sarma and Barik 2011). The species indicated in the quadrats was found. Quantitative community features, including each component's significance value index (IVI), basal area, density, and frequency, were ascertained by utilizing the procedures described by Muller-Dombois and Ellenberg 1974 and Mishra 1968 (Sarma and Barik 2011):
Frequency (%) = number of quadrats of occurrence of a species / (total number of quadrats studiedx 100),
Density = total number of individuals of a species/ total number of quadrats studied,
Basal cover = density x average basal area of individuals of a species,
Abundance = number of individuals of a species/ number of quadrats of occurrence of the species
The distribution patterns of the species in the forests were studied using Whitford’s index (Whitford 1948):
Whitford’s index = abundance (A)/ frequency (F)
If the AZF ratio is < .025 there is a regular distribution, 0.025-0.05 a random distribution and >0.05 a contagious or clumped distribution. Shannon’s index of general diversity (H) was calculated by using the formula
H=-Z(niZN)ln(niZN)
Where ni is the importance value index of a species and N is the total of the importance values of all species.
4.7 GIS Methodology
ArcMap 10.8 was used in two different approaches for this investigation. These analyses were basic and sophisticated analyses. As in the past, the production of maps, data integration, scenario visualization, issue solving, idea presentation, and practical solution generation were all done with the use of the GIS to support strategic decision-making. Geographic analysis, personalized printing, appending new spatial data to an already-existing map, and computer-based digital map viewing are all made possible by the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) program (Salman, 2021). We digitized NDVI flooding data using fundamental analysis, creating accurate Vegetation Index (NDVI) and NDVI maps using Landsat 8 (USGS) data. Pixels in an image can be automatically classified into classes based on the kind of land cover. The primary objective of picture categorization is to create LULC thematic maps (Ruidas et al., 2021). One important and precise technique for categorizing land uses is the Maximum Likelihood Classifier (MLC). It was widely used for the categorization of land use and land cover in several previous research publications. In this study, the LULC map was created using MLC classification. According to Saha et al., (2021), supervised classification has led to a general classification of land use and land cover (LULC) into two groups: (i) Level 1- built up types, which include high, medium, and low-density residential areas; and (ii) Level 2- land cover types, which include agricultural land, water bodies, bare land, sand deposition, and vegetation cover, in that order.
4.8 Results
4.8.1 Floristic composition
Substantially fewer plant species were detected overall in the Raniganj block mining areas. The number of tree and shrub species revealed a sharp decline as a result of mining, except the herb species at the Egara panchayat. The variations in species composition may be linked to mining activities because the climatic, edaphic, and physiographic characteristics of the mined and unmined areas were similar. Studying how coal mining affects vegetation, Sarma, Kushwaha, and Singh (2010) discovered that coal mining has a significant impact on species composition and distribution. The aforementioned study found that compared to nearby unmined areas, the number of species, genera, and families was lower in mine-affected areas. According to Kompala-Baba (2020) the age and acidity of the spoil were correlated with the species richness on coal waste regions. A major issue related to coal mining operations is the decrease in pH in mine wastes (Choudhury et al., 2017). Reduced pH has a significant impact on plant growth in several ways.
Table 4.1. Species, which are mostly found in Raniganj block of West Bengal, India
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
The current findings are also supported by investigations by other authors as well as Mondal et al., (2019). According to what they state, Melochia corchorifolia, Oxalis corniculata, Mimosa pudica, Desmodium gangeticum, Ailanthus excelsa, Albizzia lebbek, Azadirachta indica, Ziziphus jujube, Dalbergia sissoo, Phoenix dactylifera. Boerhaavia repens, Heliotropium indicum, Amaranthus spinosus, Acacia auriculiformis, Alstonia scholaris, Anisomeles indica Achyranthus aspera, Alternanthera sessilis, Parthenium histerophorus, Evolvulus nummularis, Crotalaria juncea, Aerva lanata, Blumea lacera, Oldenlandia corymbose, Hyptis suaveolens, Gomphrena serrata, Euphorbia hirta, Eclipta alba, Heliotropium indicum, Amaranthus spinosus, Sida acuta, Eucalyptus globules, Senna siamea, Alstonia scholaris, Acacia nilotica, Hyptissu aveolens, Anisomeles indica, Melochia corchorifolia, Senna obtusifolia, Borassus flabellifer, Dalbergia sissoo, Phoenix dactylifera, Azadirachta indica, Crotalaria juncea, Oxalis corniculata, Solanum virginianum, Desmodium gangeticum, Cyperus rotundus, Ailanthus excels, Albizzia lebbek, are commonly found in Damalia wasteland and Nimcha-Harabhanga, two villages under Tirat gram panchayat in Raniganj block.Azadirachta indicaandAegle marmelosare found in Joyalbhanga, the Raniganj coal field's woodland area, whereasPongamia pinnataandStreblus asperare found in Chora. In Chora and Joyalbhanga both are the Raniganj coal field's forest area (Table 4.1). Accroding to Mondal et al., 2020, Cassia fistula, Cassia siamea, Dalbergia sissoo, Ficus hispida, Ficus religiose, Madhuca longifolia, Mangifera indica, Phoenix acaulis, Polyalthia longifolia, Syzigium cumini, Tamarindus indica, Tectona grandis,,Acacia auriculiformis, Aegle marmelos, Albizia lebbeck, Alstonia scholaris, Azadirachta indica Borassus flabellifer Terminalia arjunafound at the coal mine site's unaltered sections in the neighboring forest (Durgapur subdivision) (Table 4.1 and Figure 4.2).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.2.a.Acacia auriculiformis; b.Eclipta alba; c. Euphorbia hirita; d. Solanum virginianu; e.Croton bonplandianus; f.Amaranthus spinosu
4.8.2 Species diversity
The mining sites at Tirat, Ratiabti and Jemeri had lower Shannon's diversity index for tree species than the unmined sites, suggesting that mining had a negative effect on tree diversity. At Ballavpur though, the pattern was the opposite. This may be explained by the larger trees, which in turn prevent the trees from being harmed by miners' activities. For shrub species, the diversity index was evenly distributed and did not exhibit any trend. The diversity index for herbs as mining operations progressed, indicating that this process facilitated the colonization of certain species in the newly formed habitats (Table 4.2).
Table 4.2. Species, family compositions which are mostly found in Raniganj block, West Bengal, India
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
4.9. Discussion
4.9.1. Distribution of density and circumference at breast height
At all three locations, the medium-girth class trees predominated in both the mined and unmined zones. There were significantly fewer trees in the younger and older girth groups (15-25 cm and 485 cm, respectively). In Tirat panchayat, the trees with girth classes of 35-45 cm dominated both the mined and unmined areas. The trees with the highest density were those in the 45-55 cm girth class in the Ballavpur area. The number of trees was significantly lower in the mined area, with the majority of trees (20.93%) falling into the 75-85 cm girth class. Within the trees with girth classes of 45-55 cm had the highest density in the unmined Jemeri area, while trees with girth classes of 25-35 cm had the highest maximum density of 92 trees/ha in the Tirat mined areas. The density of young and medium-sized trees was found to be higher than that of old trees in all of the surrounded areas, suggesting a stable structure for the tree population. A typical example of this type of tree population structure indicates that the forest is expanding and will likely persist. Nevertheless, according to Jubair et al., (2023) the tree density in all girth classes in the mined regions was incredibly low and did not follow any typical density diameter population curve. This resulted in a significant shift in the population structure of trees as a result of the widespread and haphazard removal of forest areas for mining activities. The population structure trend does not suggest that the forest will persist in its current form (Figure 4.3).
4.9.2 Distribution pattern
Three kinds of geographical distribution can be seen in plant populations: random, uniform or regular, and contagious or clumped. Understanding patchiness—the degree to which individuals are grouped or scattered—is essential to comprehending how species use resources and how those resources are exploited. The reproductive biology of a species is frequently linked to its population distribution pattern. According to Zou et al., (2023), soil and water conditions are important in determining a species' distribution pattern when there isn't a significant disturbance. In the mined regions at Amrasota, Egara, Tirat, and Jemeri respectively, the majority of tree species displayed a contagious distribution pattern. The majority of tree species' infectious dispersion patterns suggested that the forest stands were mosaic. Mining-related increases in the contagiousness of more species point to increases in the patchiness of the natural flora (Figure 4.3).
4.9.3 Vegetation degradation
Coal extraction, as a common underground mining zone in semi-arid locations, can have a detrimental impact on the soil and have severe consequences that contribute to land degradation, including landslides, unstable slopes, cracks and fissures, and aquifer losses. The earth above an underground mine may sink when coal, rock, or mineral ore is extracted. The main ceiling cracks and falls as the subterranean coalface advances, extending the collapsed zone higher. Big blocks of the fracture zone settle on top of the collapsing roof. strata in soil fertility and ground hydrology that are continuous. The subsidence basin is the downward direction of flow for both surface runoff and groundwater. Eventually, the movement of the strata is transferred to the surface as ground fractures caused by subsidence. Fortunately, the majority of herbs can survive in liquids that are dew-based and in the aeration zone. The satellite imagery (TM) satellite imagery provided the land cover categories of the. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), which is based on remote sensing, has been extensively utilized to track changes in land cover and phenological dynamics. But since various disturbance factors (such as climate, grazing, and volcanic events) frequently produce surface spectral responses that are identical (Tortini et al., 2017) determining how mining activities affect the plant cover is still a difficult issue. It takes regular long-term temporal coverage observations for an effective method to distinguish between changes that are naturally occurring and those that are the result of human activity. Three main signals can be distinguished from variations in long-term NDVI time series: seasonal, progressive, and sudden shifts. The phenological cycle of the vegetation's seasonality illustrates its inherent variability (Wang et al., 2022), whereas the other two show potential shifts in trend brought on by outside factors. Our downloads of remote sensing pictures were centered in the years 1998, 2010, and 2022 in order to optimize the display of the different times of vegetation development in the study area (Figure 4.4).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.3. Satellite images of land uses land cover of Raniganj block
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Figure 4.4. Satellite images of the past 24 years' vegetation deterioration in the RCF
The authors note with great attention that the mining of coal in the Raniganj block of RCF can have a significant impact on the vegetation due to a variety of direct and indirect consequences.
4.9.4 Soil degradation
The quality of the soil is greatly impacted by coal mining, which affects plant development. Large-scale excavations carried out for mining purposes may cause soil erosion, which might weaken soil layers and reveal the topsoil, which is the most fertile layer. Extensive mining equipment compacts soil, impeding the development of roots and the absorption of nutrients. Heavy metals, poisonous compounds, and other pollutants can pollute soil due to chemical and explosive pollution from coal mining, upsetting the soil's natural equilibrium. The environmental damage can be exacerbated by contaminants entering adjacent water bodies through runoff from mining operations. The most fertile layer, the topsoil, is lost, depriving plants of vital nutrients and organic matter (Figure 4.5).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.5. Soil degradation due to coal mining
4.9.5 Deforestation
Clearing green areas for mainly open cast coal mining results in habitat loss, biodiversity loss, soil erosion, and disturbance of ecosystems. It lessens the amount of carbon dioxide absorbed by trees, which also contributes to climate change. Utilizing reclamation or replanting can lessen these effects. Naturally occurring forest services might not be entirely replaced by ecosystem restoration, which can be difficult (Figure 4.6).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.6. Deforestation due to coal mining in Raniganj block
4.9.6 Destroying habitats
Coal mining can disrupt or destroy the habitats of many plant species, including rare and endangered ones. Vegetation that is removed or disturbed may not recover fully, leading to a loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services (Figure 4.7).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.7. Habitat destruction in the Tirat GP area of Raniganj block
4.9.7 Air contamination
The emission of toxic dust and particle matter during coal mining may prevent photosynthesis, restrict sunlight, and cause damage to plant tissues. Acidic chemicals can be formed chemically by mining equipment and transportation trucks, which can cause acid rain and interfere with the absorption of nutrients. Plant tissues accumulate with heavy metals, which hinders development. Protecting ecosystems and biodiversity depends on reducing dust emissions, limiting air pollution, and lessening environmental effects (Figure 4.8).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.8. Plants are harmed by dust and particulate matter from coal mining
4.9.8 Water contamination
Activities related to coal mining, such as excavation and coal washing, may cause contaminants to leak into adjacent bodies of water. Both terrestrial and aquatic vegetation that depends on these water sources may be adversely affected by this pollution (Figure 4.9).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.9. Water contamination by Coal mine pollutant
4.9.9 AMD
AMD can occur in regions where sulfur-containing minerals are present in coal seams due to the exposure of these materials to air and water during mining. AMD may release harmful metals and alter the pH of the soil, which makes it harder for plants to grow (Figure 4.10).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 4.10. AMD due to coal mining
4.9.10. Indirect Impact
Coal mining can have indirect effects on vegetation in addition to direct ones through modifications to the microclimate, hydrology, and patterns of land use. Over time, these indirect influences may change the distribution and composition of plant communities. Long-term impacts of coal mining on vegetation include harm to individual plant species as well as the ecosystem as a whole and biodiversity. Reclamation and restoration techniques, mining area revegetation, and ecosystem rehabilitation are common components of mitigation initiatives.
4.10. Conclusion
This study aimed to improve the efficiency and variety of a significant amount of wasteland created by coal mines by investigating how different plant species that are native to different ecosystems naturally grow on two different waste sites generated by coal mines in the RCF. An area's capacity for vegetation depends on a number of regional and environmental factors. The current study demonstrates how phytosociological analysis can be used as a valuable tool to forecast the characteristics of mine soil for vegetation growth and eco-restoration. Some stress-tolerant plant species have invaded the wasteland areas of coal fields, and learning more about these species can be quite useful for eco-restoration. These plants are capable of initiating ecological succession. To create and carry out a revegetation program on any wasteland produced by a coal mine, it is important to study the natural vegetation in depth in the area affected by the coal mine. Finally, with an emphasis on phytosociological analysis as a prediction tool for vegetation development and eco-restoration, the study investigates the growth of native plant species in coal mining residue areas.
4.11. Bibliography
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Sarma, K., Kushwaha, S. P. S., and Singh, K. J. (2010). Impact of coal mining on plant diversity and tree population structure in Jaintia Hills district of Meghalaya, North East India. New York Science Journal, 3(9), 79-85.
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Tortini, R., Van Manen, S. M., Parkes, B. R. B., and Carn, S. A. (2017). The impact of persistent volcanic degassing on vegetation: A case study at Turrialba volcano, Costa Rica. International journal of applied earth observation and geoinformation, 59, 92-103.
Wang, Z., Luo, K., Zhao, Y., Lechner, A. M., Wu, J., Zhu, Q., ... and Wang, Y. (2022). Modelling regional ecological security pattern and restoration priorities after long-term intensive open-pit coal mining. Science of the Total Environment, 835, 155491.
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Chapter 5. The effects of coal mining on agricultural land and soil
5.1 Abstract
Agriculture and coal mining have frequently clashed when they coexist. Even while they may seem harmless in comparison to surface-cut mining, underground coal extraction methods, such as longwall mining, result in productivity loss and agricultural land subsidence. Mining in highly productive agricultural regions, despite growing worries about the security of the world's food supply and the rising need for coal resources. Mine soils are complex and variable, making it challenging for ecosystem sustainability and production growth due to their complexity. The bioaccumulation of potentially hazardous materials in the biota is a severe issue that affects both human and animal health. Plant absorption is influenced by variables like pH, organic matter, and soil bioavailability. As bioindicators of pollution, plant and animal species are suggested, with rice and fish serving as the primary food sources. This wide-ranging topic is crucial for the ecosystem, human health, and environment. Inclusion entails incorporating community interests and values into the sector's operational and regulatory procedures as well as into related decision-making processes like resource conservation and land-use planning, even though access to the mining income is still crucial. To integrate mining development processes and decision-making mechanisms with sustainable development principles and land-use planning practices of the areas where they are located, this calls for an upgrading of participatory processes and procedures.
Keywords
Agriculture, Bioaccumulation, Bioindicators, Ecosystem sustainability, Potentially hazardous
5.2 Introduction
Mining, particularly coal mining, is a major global cause of land degradation, particularly in developing nations like India, China, and Africa. Despite efforts to control and reduce its effects, implementation remains challenging. India, for instance, has seen a surge in mining activity due to rising global energy demand, particularly for coal (Blondeel and Graff 2018). A significant industry for many emerging economies is coal production. India has the world's most significant coal rents, or the gap between its hard and soft coal production at world prices, as a proportion of GDP. The production of coal is also important for several nations in the OECD, including India. In areas where arable land and coal coexist, there is frequently substantial friction between agricultural communities and mining interests, even though coal extraction significantly boosts the economies of many nations (Steinberg 2019). Competition for the use of land, particularly high-quality agricultural land, is the root of this conflict. According to RCF's perspective on agriculture and soil science, this type of land is designated as strategic cropping land. When coal is mined through open-cut mining, it is evident that prime agricultural land is being degraded; nevertheless, underground coal mining, especially longwall extraction, has significantly expanded and is predicted to continue expanding in the future. Surface-cut mining removes coal from depths 0-200m, altering its physical and chemical characteristics like soil bulk density, water-holding capacity, and water-absorbing capacity. This process destroys flora, modifies soil, changes landforms and landscapes, and severely disrupts hydrological regimes (Ahirwal and Maiti 2016). Soil, despite being vulnerable to mining, is crucial for the pedosphere's material cycling, regulating water, nutrients, and energy flow, promoting production, and preserving biodiversity. However, its original qualities and structure are altered during excavation, transportation, and disposal (Maiti and Ahirwal 2018). Continuous mining damages vegetation/soil systems and diminishes soil productivity and fertility, whereas restoration aims to restore mined soil to its original condition by restoring the nutritional properties of soil using a range of reclamation processes (Upadhyay et al., 2016). These restored mine soils are used to grow grasses, trees, and commodities after undergoing a quick maturation phase using chemical, biological, and engineering techniques. Therefore, with appropriate management and protection, significant ecological and economic benefits can be attained quickly. The utilization of mine soils for crops and plants presents a continuous challenge due to their enormous variability and complexity, which hinders the development of productivity and ecosystem sustainability. The bioaccumulation of potentially toxic elements in biota is a significant issue affecting human health and animals. Factors such as soil bioavailability, pH, and organic matter affect plant absorption. Plant species and animal species are proposed as bioindicators of contamination, with fish and rice being the main dietary sources. This extensive issue is crucial for environmental, ecological, and human health. Coal mining areas show changes in community structure and species diversity, with an increase in resistant plants due to air pollution and soil changes. Factors like SO4[2]-, PO4[3]-, and organic C influence community structure. Biodiversity assessment programs are needed (Pandey et al., 2014).
The study focuses on the consequences of mining subsidence on cultivation facilities in the RCF agricultural and coal production sectors. It analyzes the effects of the subsidence on grain yield, landscape, the ecological environment, and societal stability.
5.3 Mining soil and the process of coal reclamation
Surface mining techniques like strip, mountaintop removal, and open-pit mining involve sequential stages for coal mining and reclamation. A holistic ecosystem reclamation approach is needed to restore ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and faunal habitat. Understanding these processes is crucial for ensuring land productivity. Mine soils, developed on anthropogenically altered landscapes, can be reconstructed through positive exchanges between the RMS system and other subsystems. Coal mining can cause drastic changes in soil properties, leading to long-lasting damage and negative effects on land productivity and ecosystem functionality. Proper reclamation techniques and management practices can restore disturbed mined soils, but full recovery may not always occur. Understanding the connections and responses of RMS subsystems is crucial for successful reclamation. Mining and reclamation effects on RMS require an integrated analysis of soil's physical, chemical, and biological properties before and after reclamation (Munoz-Rojas et al., 2016). The impact of mining and reclamation on mine soil cannot be assessed by individual soil parameters, but an integrated analysis of soil properties before and after reclamation can provide a meaningful assessment. Soil chrono sequences are an established approach to understanding changes in soil physical, chemical, and biological processes in a mini-land ecosystem. Reclamation success is not a short-term investment, as large disturbances and reclamation plant growth periods require prolonged periods (Sun et al., 2017). However, there is still uncertainty surrounding the likely success of reclamation efforts. In the short term, studies of soil and vegetation development during early succession on restored coal waste indicated some soil changes favoring the increase of plant community complexity. Long-term effects are still unknown, but all Chrono sequences tend to proceed toward a relatively stable equilibrium in the long term, likely to enhance rehabilitation/restoration ecology.
5.4 Agricultural lands affected by subsidence
The hydrology is the most affected area of the environment by coal mine subsidence. Soil compaction and surface topography changes may ensue, and disruptions to the patterns of surface water drainage, which result in surface water ponding, and have an impact on slope stability, porosity, and soil infiltration. Subsidence causes joints and bedding planes to fracture and swell, which increases permeability and porosity and may also strengthen the hydrologic connections between aquifers. Thus, a variety of factors may interact to cause effects on agriculture. The authors discusses about potential impacts on topography, landforms, soil, agricultural productivity, and farm management to mitigate their effects. Soil sample locations with high levels of TEs are located 100-1000 meters from coal mining and associated activity areas. Different locations are associated with Cr, As, and Pb contamination, suggesting that these TEs likely originated from the same source of industrial activity. The most enriched TEs are Cr, Pb, Co, Cu, Cd, Fe, Ni, Mn, Zn, As, and Al. PCA results suggest that the origin of these TEs is likely coal-mining activities, contributing 37.14% of the total variance in PCA factor F1. Other anthropogenic activities, such as localized industrial activities and sewage, are also possible sources (Chakraborty et al., 2023).
5.5 Contamination of irrigated water due to mining
Water quality, soil, and cropping types significantly influence irrigation practices. Due to mining overly, high dissolved ions in irrigation water negatively impact plants and agricultural soils, reducing productivity. These ions reduce osmotic pressure in plant cells, preventing water from reaching branches and leaves, and disrupting plant metabolism (Tahmasebi et al 2018). Water, known as the "life-blood of the biosphere," serves as a universal solvent, effectively dissolving various organic and inorganic substances and environmental contaminants. Pollution poses a threat to freshwater and marine aquatic ecosystems. Potentially toxic element pollution of water supplies is a serious environmental problem that hurts human health, animals, and plants (Rezania et al 2016). Despite their low quantities, toxic elements can be highly harmful to aquatic organisms, significantly affecting the histopathology of their tissues, including fish. PTEs pollution affects aquatic habitats from a variety of sources. Mining operations' effluents are one source of potentially toxic elements in aquatic ecosystems. Other sources of water contamination with potentially toxic elements include different industrial effluents, domestic sewage, and agricultural run-off. The release of industrial effluents without treatment into aquatic bodies is a major source of pollution of surface and groundwater water (Afzal et al 2018). Pollution of water bodies with potentially toxic elements is a worldwide problem because of the environmental persistence, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification in food chains and the toxicity of these elements (figure 5.1.). Coal mine drainage, primarily acidic, is associated with heavy metal pollution, including As, Co, Cu, Cd, Pb, and Zn. This pollution leads to significant water pollution.
Despite the belief that Indian coal mine drainage doesn't need treatment for PTEs, coal mine water contains high heavy metal contaminants and requires immediate attention. coal mine drainage is neutral or slightly alkaline, despite having significant iron content, due to the presence of alkaline minerals in the coal/overlying strata (Ray and Dey 2020). In RCF surface and groundwater are contaminated by the discharged water's high concentration of TSS, TDS, hard, and PTEs. It can occasionally have an acidic character and contaminate the water system. The entrance's water is primarily sourced from rain and mine runoff due to the lack of a suitable water resource management plan. The majority of the water in this region is released into open canals for no useful purpose, and the remaining areas suffer from a severe year-round water shortage (Saha 2020).
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Figure 5.1. Biomagnification of contaminants in food chain
5.6 Contamination of irrigated soil due to mining
In soils, lithogenic parent material and various human sources discharge potentially toxic elements and metalloids. The parent coal dumping composition, the level of weathering, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil, as well as the climate, all have an impact on the presence and distribution of PTEs in soils. Compared to virgin soils and soils receiving minimal inputs, soils receiving higher fertilizer and Cu fungicide applications have been shown to exhibit a notable enrichment of potentially toxic elements. Heavy traffic on the roadways can contaminate soils in metropolitan areas with potentially toxic elements. Urban soil samples show higher Pb contents, of which 45-85% are bio-accessible. The fate of PTEs in the environment and their uptake by plants are significantly influenced by their bioavailability in soils. The bioavailability of various PTEs in soils varies, and this bioavailability is influenced by metal speciation as well as certain physicochemical characteristics of the soil. According to Chakraborty et al., (2023) in Raniganj basin the environmental indices, Pb, Co, Cu, Cd, Fe, Ni, Mn, Zn, As, and Al were the next most enriched TEs in the soil samples under study, after Cr. As, Cr, and Pb are distinguished from the other TEs by the Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients because, in contrast to the other TEs, they are subsequently absorbed into the carbonates and organic matter found in the soil samples rather than being firmly bound in Fe and/or Mn oxides. Zn and the PLI have a strong exponential relationship and high positive Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients. These imply that Zn might be employed at particular locations within the research region as a fast-look indication of total pollution.
5.7 PTEs proceed from the soil into the crops.
Soil-to-crops transfer of PTEs is crucial for trophic transfer in food chains. Polluted soil takes up these metals, which are then transferred to herbivorous animals. Contamination of crops like cereals and vegetables is a serious issue, as consumption of contaminated cereals may pose a health risk (Mahmood and Malik 2014). The Govindpur-Raniganj coal mine has a substantial influence on the pollution load associated with the transportation of coal. Vehicle runoff and spray water up to five meters from road margins, slopes, ditches, and embankments inject PTEs into the environment (Ghosh and Mati 2020). Compared to vegetables cultivated with groundwater, vegetables grown with wastewater have been found to contain PTEs in greater concentration ranges. Moreover, leafy vegetables have been discovered to contain larger quantities of these metals than other vegetable varieties including tubers and bulbs. Figure 5.2 represents agriculture in RCF.
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Figure 5.2.a. Paddy cultivation, b. Mastered cultivation, c. Vegetable cultivation, d. Sesame cultivation in Raniganj block.
5.8 Bioaccumulation of PTEs
The movement of these elements from the crop plant's roots to its stem, leaves, and grains raises concerns for human health. The crop is particularly vulnerable to potentially toxic element pollution since it requires water for the majority of its growth season (Beebout 2013). PTEs, including Cd, Pb, Hg, and As, are hazardous to human health and can be increased by eating crops, with As being the leading source of Cd (Cai et al., 2015). PTEs contamination in crop poses health risks, especially in developing nations where wastewater irrigation leads to increased metal absorption in crops (Besante et al., 2011). The high levels of toxic elements in crops, particularly in rice fields, can negatively impact food quality and pose a health risk to customers (Cai et al., 2015). Crop, paddy consumption may expose the public to hazardous elements like As, Pb, and Cd, potentially posing health risks. To reduce toxic element uptake through roots and translocation to grains, particularly Cd in paddy, efforts are being made (Jallad, 2015). In the ECL region, PTEs accumulate in crops and vegetables due to mine water discharge, excessive cultivation, and industrial effluents. These PTEs are carried through the food chain when ingested by humans or other organisms, posing health risks (Panda et al., 2021, Shil and Singh, 2019, Wang et al., 2017). PTE exposure to humans can occur through direct ingestion, inhalation, and dermal absorption from soil, dust, and water through various environmental mediums.
5.9 PTE bioaccumulation and biomagnification in food chains associated with humans
Humans, being omnivores, can be exposed to hazardous elements in various foods like fish, cereals, and vegetables. Freshwater fish bioaccumulate toxic elements in freshwater bodies, while crops also accumulate toxic elements in freshwater areas. The health of people is at risk when hazardous potentially toxic elements contaminate human food chains. Contamination of food chains with potentially toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, and mercury, has serious implications for human health. In Japan, itai-itai and Minamata diseases were caused by eating rice contaminated with lead and fish contaminated with mercury. This biomagnification of toxic elements is controversial in metal ecotoxicology. Biomagnification of trace metals in higher trophic levels within food chains increases vulnerability, potentially causing larger amounts of these metals in organisms and humans, potentially causing health issues (Rahman and Singh 2019). The continuous monitoring of the bioaccumulation and biomagnification of potentially PTEs in human food chains is crucial to protect human health from the harmful effects of these elements, thereby ensuring the safety of the human population. To prevent the loss of biota as a result of analysis, nondestructive sampling methods and the use of environmental biomarkers should be chosen. Furthermore, untreated urban and industrial wastewater shouldn't be dumped into natural ecosystems like rivers and farms in order to prevent potentially toxic element contamination of food chains (Balkhair, 2016).
5.10 Effects of PTEs on Human Health
The main antioxidants in cells are depleted by the potentially toxic elements Cd, Pb, Hg, and As, especially antioxidants and enzymes with thiol groups (—SH). These metals could raise the production of ROS, such as H2O2, hydroxyl radical (HO_), and superoxide radical (O2_ -). The natural antioxidant defenses of cells can be completely destroyed by increased ROS production, which might result in "oxidative stress" (Ercal el al 2001). Nephrotoxic effects are caused by potentially toxic elements, such as Cd, Pb, and Hg, particularly in the renal cortex (Wilk et al 2017). The toxicity of the potentially toxic elements depends on their chemical form. Mercury speciation has a major impact on mercury toxicity (Ali and Ilahi 2019). Cancer and diabetes patients in Lahore, Pakistan have lower levels of Se antioxidant element and higher concentrations of hazardous elements like Cr, Cd, and Pb compared to normal individuals (Rehman et al 2011).
5.11 Impacts of mining on agriculture and human health in RCF
The RCF's soil contamination was studied, and findings indicated that the Singaran Basin had lower pollution levels while mid-catchment regions had intermediate degrees of contamination. There were also differences in the degrees of pollution found in different soil types, such as agricultural, riverbank, ephemeral channels, overburden, wasteland, and interface regions (Manna and Maiti 2018). Masto et al. (2015) studied the various physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil in Sonepur Bazari of RCF, which is the fallow land soil from open-pit and underground mining. Siddiqui et al., (2020) investigated the concentrations of various metallic TE (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn) in soil samples from the Jharia coalfeld, India, using multivariate statistical analysis to determine the pollutant source. Their research revealed that the Jharia coalfeld posed a moderate risk of soil pollution and that the coal mines were the source of the TEs.
PTEs pollution in our atmosphere, soils, and waters is primarily due to human activity. These pollutants are essential in our daily diet, but in larger doses, they can be reversible or life-threatening. Workers in industries that release PTEs should be cautious and wear protective gear to reduce daily intake. The main goal of PTE removal is to prevent them from entering the human body. Phytoremediation and intercropping are methods to absorb and remove PTEs from soils, sediments, and waters. Hyperaccumulator plants are planted in soils to remove PTEs, with their root systems selectively uptake the contaminants. Phyto stabilization and phytoextraction occur for inorganic compounds, while phytodegradation, rhizofiltration, and rhizodegradation are used for organic compounds. Plant species play a significant role in choosing plants, as they absorb different PTEs (Briffa et al., 20220). Intercropping, a method of growing multiple plant species simultaneously, enhances plant biomass and aids in the accumulation of PTE. This method is more environmentally friendly than using chelators and can increase diversity, stability, and reduce fertilizer use. Three varieties of intercropping exist, and proper selection is crucial for effective removal.
5.12 Sustainable mining and agricultural balance through sustainability
It is possible to apply coal-mined land that combines agricultural regions with local protected areas, such as lakes, rivers, and creeks, as well as biodiversity conservation, into a cohesive landscape. The mined land can be exploited as a fully natural location for "agro-ecotourism" through a range of land uses. A range of successful agricultural enterprises, including the development of plantation forests, the production of Cajuput crops, aquaculture, and cattle rearing, ought to be established. Long-term social circumstances and environmental balance can be sustained in formerly mined areas through the range of agricultural practices found on land that has been mined for coal (Kodir et al., 2017).
5.13 Conclusion
Global coal exploitation, particularly in India, poses ecological and environmental threats, increasing carbon levels and causing soil fertility degradation. Research, including Raniganj, aims to determine its impact. The study evaluates soil pollution in agricultural soils surrounding a coal mine area in RCF. Soil samples show significant spatial variation in PTEs and metalloids, which are pervasive environmental contaminants in terrestrial and aquatic environments. Their hazard is determined by toxicity, bio-accumulative capacity, and persistence, with persistent and bio-accumulative toxic pollutants being more dangerous. The most harmful PTEs and metalloids in the environment are Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, Hg, and As. Their trophic transmission in food chains and webs significantly impacts human and wildlife health. Monitoring these levels is crucial for reducing their negative effects on the environment and human health. Research on ecotoxicology and environmental chemistry of these substances highlights the need for action to mitigate their harmful effects.
(i)Recording background concentrations of potentially toxic elements and metalloids in various environmental mediums worldwide is crucial for future reference and guidance.
(ii)Monitoring and evaluating the presence of harmful elements and metalloids in water, sediments, soils, and the surrounding biota is crucial.
(iii)Regular surveys are crucial to understand the daily consumption of freshwater fish and other foods like rice by the global resident population, as this information will aid in assessing ecological and human risks more accurately.
(iv)The decrease of PTE pollution is vital to protect the biota of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems as well as the health of users.
(v)The general people have to be made aware of the detrimental impacts that PTEs have on both the environment and human health.
(vi)Industrial wastewater needs to be sufficiently treated before being discharged into natural water bodies.
(vii)Scientific research on the environmental evaluation of hazardous substances, such as potentially harmful elements and metalloids, should be promoted by allocating sufficient resources for the preservation of the environment and public health.
5.14 Bibliography
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Ahirwal, J., Kumar, A., Pietrzykowski, M., and Maiti, S. K. (2018). Reclamation of coal mine spoil and its effect on Technosol quality and carbon sequestration: A case study from India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25, 27992-28003.
Ali, H., Khan, E., and Ilahi, I. (2019). Environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of hazardous heavy metals: environmental persistence, toxicity, and bioaccumulation. Journal of chemistry, 2019.
Balkhair, K. S. (2016). Microbial contamination of vegetable crop and soil profile in arid regions under controlled application of domestic wastewater. Saudi journal of biological sciences, 23(1), S83-S92.
Beebout, S. (2013). Rice, health, and toxic metals. Rice Plus Magazine, 5(8).
Besante, J., Niforatos, J., and Mousavi, A. (2011). Cadmium in rice: disease and social considerations. Environmental Forensics, 12(2), 121-123.
Bhanu Pandey, B. P., Madhoolika Agrawal, M. A., and Siddharth Singh, S. S. (2014). Coal mining activities change plant community structure due to air pollution and soil degradation.
Briffa, J., Sinagra, E., and Blundell, R. (2020). Heavy metal pollution in the environment and their toxicological effects on humans. Heliyon, 6(9).
Cai, L. M., Xu, Z. C., Qi, J. Y., Feng, Z. Z., and Xiang, T. S. (2015). Assessment of exposure to PTEs and health risks among residents near Tonglushan mine in Hubei, China. Chemosphere, 127, 127-135.
Chakraborty, P., Wood, D. A., Singh, S., and Hazra, B. (2023). Trace element contamination in soils surrounding the open-cast coal mines of eastern Raniganj basin, India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45(10), 7275-7302.
Ercal, N., Gurer-Orhan, H., and Aykin-Burns, N. (2001). Toxic metals and oxidative stress part I: mechanisms involved in metal-induced oxidative damage. Current topics in medicinal chemistry, 1(6), 529-539.
Ghosh, S. P., Raj, D., and Maiti, S. K. (2020). Risks assessment of heavy metal pollution in roadside soil and vegetation of national highway crossing through industrial area. Environmental Processes, 7(4), 1197-1220.
Jallad, K. N. (2015). Heavy metal exposure from ingesting rice and its related potential hazardous health risks to humans. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 22(20), 15449-15458.
Kodir, A., Hartono, D. M., Haeruman, H., and Mansur, I. (2017). Integrated post mining landscape for sustainable land use: A case study in South Sumatera, Indonesia. Sustainable Environment Research, 27(4), 203-213.
Mahmood, A., and Malik, R. N. (2014). Human health risk assessment of heavy metals via consumption of contaminated vegetables collected from different irrigation sources in Lahore, Pakistan. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 7(1), 91-99.
Manna, A., and Maiti, R. (2018). Geochemical contamination in the mine affected soil of Raniganj Coalfield-A river basin scale assessment. Geoscience Frontiers, 9(5), 1577-1590.
Masto, R. E., Sheik, S., Nehru, G., Selvi, V. A., George, J., and Ram, L. C. (2015). Assessment of environmental soil quality around Sonepur Bazari mine of Raniganj coalfield, India. Solid Earth, 6(3), 811-821.
Munoz-Rojas, M., Erickson, T. E., Dixon, K. W., and Merritt, D. J. (2016). Soil quality indicators to assess functionality of restored soils in degraded semiarid ecosystems. Restoration Ecology, 24, S43-S52.
Panda, G., Pobi, K. K., Gangopadhyay, S., Gope, M., Rai, A. K., and Nayek, S. (2021). Contamination level, source identification and health risk evaluation of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in groundwater of an industrial city in eastern India. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 1-25.
Rahman, Z., and Singh, V. P. (2019). The relative impact of toxic heavy metals (THMs)(arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr)(VI), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb)) on the total environment: an overview. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 191, 1-21.
Ray, S., and Dey, K. (2020). Coal mine water drainage: the current status and challenges. Journal of the Institution of Engineers (india): Series D, 101(2), 165-172.
Rehman, R., Mahmud, T., Shafique, U., and Anwar, J. (2011). Assessment of concentration of lead, cadmium, chromium and selenium in blood serum of cancer and diabetic. J Chem Soc Pak, 33, 869.
Rezania, S., Taib, S. M., Din, M. F. M., Dahalan, F. A., and Kamyab, H. (2016). Comprehensive review on phytotechnology: heavy metals removal by diverse aquatic plants species from wastewater. Journal of hazardous materials, 318, 587-599.
Saha, N. C. Analysis of Water Parameter and Its Impact in Abandoned Open Cast Coal Mine Pit: Special Reference to Damalia OCP, Raniganj, West Bengal.
Siddiqui, A. U., Jain, M. K., and Masto, R. E. (2020). Pollution evaluation, spatial distribution, and source apportionment of trace metals around coal mines soil: the case study of eastern India. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(10), 10822-10834.
Singh, R., Venkatesh, A. S., Syed, T. H., Reddy, A. G. S., Kumar, M., and Kurakalva, R. M. (2017). Assessment of potentially toxic trace elements contamination in groundwater resources of the coal mining area of the Korba Coalfield, Central India. Environmental Earth Sciences, 76, 1-17.
Sun, S., Li, S., Avera, B. N., Strahm, B. D., and Badgley, B. D. (2017). Soil bacterial and fungal communities show distinct recovery patterns during forest ecosystem restoration. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 83(14), e00966-17.
Tahmasebi, P., Mahmudy-Gharaie, M. H., Ghassemzadeh, F., and Karimi Karouyeh, A. (2018). Assessment of groundwater suitability for irrigation in a gold mine surrounding area, NE Iran. Environmental earth sciences, 77, 1-12.
Tahmasebi, P., Mahmudy-Gharaie, M. H., Ghassemzadeh, F., and Karimi Karouyeh, A. (2018). Assessment of groundwater suitability for irrigation in a gold mine surrounding area, NE Iran. Environmental earth sciences, 77, 1-12.
Upadhyay, N., Verma, S., Pratap Singh, A., Devi, S., Vishwakarma, K., Kumar, N., ... and Sharma, S. (2016). Soil ecophysiological and microbiological indices of soil health: a study of coal mining site in Sonbhadra, Uttar Pradesh. Journal of soil science and plant nutrition, 16(3), 778-800.
Wang, J., Liu, G., Liu, H., and Lam, P. K. (2017). Multivariate statistical evaluation of dissolved trace elements and a water quality assessment in the middle reaches of Huaihe River, Anhui, China. Science of the total environment, 583, 421-431.
Chapter 6. Investigation of the water quality of abandoned coal mine pit lakes
6.1 Abstract
Coal mining in India has significant environmental impacts on land, water systems, ecology, atmosphere, and social conditions. Opencast coal quarrying is a profitable approach, forming large voids or pits that can protect water from surface-level diversion, groundwater replenishment, precipitation, and pumping operations. The RCF region, spanning 1,550 km[2] and over 1300 km[2], has 78 former opencast coal pits transformed into PLs combined surface area of 260 ha and a volume of 0.4 billion m[3], having the potential of being an alternate source of FW for an area where most people depend on a limited source of FW and frequently experience water shortages, particularly in the summer. PL water has elevated conductivity, total suspended particles, total dissolved solids, salinity, NO2-N, SO4[2]-, and oxygen demands. However, previous studies have claimed that nearly every PL in the RCF has poor to inappropriate water quality, making it unfit for human consumption and home usage. Therefore, this study aims to evaluate the quality of water of ten PLs from different locations in the RCF to assess their current hydrological state and effectiveness. It was compared with a FW lake in Burdwan located far away from the coal mines and was chosen as a control. The study analyzed temperature, TDS, pH, DO, BOD, NO3-, and NH3 concentrations in these PLs of RCF in the presence of a control. PL 6 and 7 had the lowest mean temperature of 34.73 oC, with TDS levels below 500. pH was 7.233, DO levels closer to 5 mg/l ISI limit, NO3-concentrations above 0.1 mg/l ISI limit, and Cu content exceeding ISI limit. Overall hardness was lower than ISI's maximum of 300 mg/l. The results were also statistically analyzed by PCA. The RCF PLs' WQI readings indicated they were unfit for use without treatment. Researchers recommend proper treatment of water in the PLS of this coalfield so that they can be converted into wetlands which also matches with the Ramsar Convention.
Keywords
Coal Mining, PCA, PL, Ramsar Convention, WQI
6.2 Introduction
Coal is an essential commodity and represents India's primary energy source. Nevertheless, coal mining and its related activities can impact many aspects of our environment, such as the land or water systems, ecology, atmosphere, and social conditions. Many researchers at various points in time have thoroughly documented the significant environmental effects on the surrounding surroundings and human health (Saha et al., 2022; Palit et al., 2018; Pal et al., 2013) . In the Indian mining sector, opencast coal quarrying is one of the most profitable and advantageous approaches. It fosters gigantic voids or pits, that offer the potential to safeguard water when open-cast mine pits populate with water from surface-level diversion, the replenishment of groundwater, precipitation, and pumping operations, thus forming PLs (Figure 6. 1) (Nazir et al., 2024; Mondal and Palit 2019).
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Figure 6. 1. A PL in RCF
The RCF, the cradle of Indian coal mining, spans around 1,550 km[2] and contains over 1300 km[2] of directly coal-bearing terrain. The RCF region spans the districts of Dhanbad in Jharkhand and Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, and Purulia in West Bengal. Around 78 former opencast coal pits with a combined surface area of 260 ha and a volume of 0.4 billion m[3] have been transformed into PLs or voids, which could offer FW for the entire area (Saha et al., 2022; Pal et al., 2013).
PLs possess distinct chemical and physical parameters that distinguish them apart from numerous other kinds of sources of freshwater. While PLs water and its ecosystem offer plenty of resources and prospective advantages, they also have a propensity to negatively impact nearby surface and groundwater resources (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit et al., 2018).
According to several research on limnological parameters, PL water has elevated levels of conductivity, total suspended particles, total dissolved solids, salinity, NO2-N, SO42-, and chemical and biological oxygen demands. At the same time, nearly every PLs in the RCF has poor to inappropriate water quality, according to results from the WQI. The majority of the researchers recommended that coalfield mine water be properly treated before being used since it is unfit for human consumption and home usage. The assessment of the water from pits for irrigation reveals that the water is of good to permissible quality and suitable for irrigation (Saha et al., 2022).
This study aims to analyze the WQI of ten specified PLs in the RCF to assess the contemporary hydrological state and effectiveness and create plans for efficient management, conservation, and ecological sustainability.
6.3 Materials and Methods
6.3.1 Study site
The present study is purely based on a water quality assessment of water collected from ten different abandoned PLs in RCF. The study evaluated the water quality in ten RCF PLs, and the results were compared to a control. The RCF mines in Paschim Bardhaman district had PLs that were significantly impacted by mining activities, however, the control was an FW lake at The University of Burdwan that was not impacted by mining (Figure 6. 2) (Table 6. 1).
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Figure 6.2. Control water body and the studied PLs of RCF
Table 6.2. Geographical position of the PLs of RCF
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6.3.2 GIS Study
IDW techniques of interpolation method of spatial analyst tools in arc gis 10.8 software have been used to make a map based on locations of different PLs in RCF, out of which 10 PLs were chosen for water quality analysis.
6.3.3 Limnological study
The water samples were collected in 1l bottle from the said PLs and a FW lake from the premise of The University of Burdwan, that was was used as control and water quality was analyzed based on several parameters which are as:
Temperature and TDS
Water samples were collected and temperature and TDS values were assessed using a portable multimeter (HM digital TDS Meter) for calculating temperature and TDS. A minimum of three readings were considered for water quality analysis.
PH
Water samples were collected and the pH was noted down using a portable pH meter (Hanna Instruments pH Meter). Three readings were taken to analyze the quality of the water
DO and BOD
The procedure was to fill a 500 ml airtight bottle with a water sample and then incubate it for five days at room temperature. With the use of a portable oxygen meter, DO was measured both at the beginning and after 5 days of incubation. Each level has at least three recorded measurements. The difference between the initial and final DO levels was used to calculate BOD.
NO3-
The concentration of NO3- in water samples was analyzed using the API Water testing kit. For this, a test tube was cleaned, and 5 ml PL water was added. After that 5 drops of NO3- solution was added and gently swirled for two minutes. The colour change was compared with the NO3- colour chart and the closest match indicated the concentration of NO3- in mg/l. The same procedure was followed for the water samples from all PLs and a minimum of three readings were considered.
NH3
The concentration of NH3 in the water samples was analyzed by using the API Water testing kit. First, a test tube was cleaned and 3 ml of the sample was added. Then six drops of NH3 solution ‘A’ were added, followed by 6 drops of NH3 solution ‘B’, and NH3 solution ‘C’ respectively. The solutions were mixed and swirled for a few seconds and left undisturbed for the colour to develop. The colour was matched using the NH3 colour chart and the concentration was estimated in mg/l.
As
The concentration of As was estimated using the 3500 - As B method which is also known as the AgNO3 diethyl-dithiocarbamate method under the 24th edition ofStandard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. A minimum of three results was obtained in mg/l
Cr (VI)
The concentration of Cr was assessed using the 3500 - Cr C method under the 24th edition ofStandard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. A minimum of three results was obtained in mg/l
Pb
The concentration of Pb was estimated using the 3500-Pb B protocol which is mentioned under the 24th edition ofStandard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. The results were estimated in mg/l and a minimum of three results were considered.
Cu
The 3500 - Cu B technique, as described in the 24th edition ofStandard Procedures for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, was used to estimate the content of Cu. Three results at the very least were recorded in mg/l.
Total hardness as CaCO3
The 2340-C procedure, also known as the 2340-Hardness procedure, which is referenced in the 24th edition of Standard Procedures for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, was used to estimate the hardness of the water samples. Three findings at the very least were taken into consideration, and the results were estimated in mg/l.
6.3.4 Statistical Analysis
Multivariate statistical techniques including analysis of PCA were applied for statistical exploration of water quality of PL waters in RCF and the control. The tabulated data of all parameters were converted to mean values in MS EXCEL. Then the data was statistically analyzed for PCA in OrginalPro 2024
6.3.5 Water Quality Index (WQI)
A well-liked instrument for assessing the quality of surface water is the water quality index (WQI) model. It employs aggregation techniques to boil down enormous volumes of water quality data to a single number or index. Internationally, the WQI model has been used to evaluate the quality of the water samples from 10 PLs in RCF. The water quality has been classified into five types as per WQI level (Gaur et al., 2022) (Table 6. 2). Due to its broad structure and simplicity of usage, it has gained popularity since its creation in the 1960s (Uddin et al., 2021). The selection of the water quality parameters, the creation of subindices for each parameter, the computation of parameter weighting values, and the aggregation of subindices to calculate the overall water quality index are the four processes that WQI models typically include. The most commonly well-used water quality parameters as per IS 10500:1991 Drinking Water-Specification were considered to analyze the water quality of the different PL water from the RCF area. Then, the mean values were cited in tabular forms (Table 6. 3). The parameters that were selected include TDS, pH, DO, BDO, concentration of NO3-, the concentration of NH3, concentration of As, concentration of Pb, Concentration of Cu, and Total Hardness In this study, it was measured by Weighted Arithmetic Index method using MS-Excel
Table 6.2. The water may be classified into five types based on computed WQI (Gaur et al., 2022)
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Calculating WQI by using the following formula:
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6.4 Results and Discussion
Table 6.3. Mean Values of Parameters of PLs of RCF and Control
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Table 6.3 shows mean values of the limnological parameters of the Water of PLs of RCF and Control. The parameters include Temperature, TDS, pH,
DO, BOD, NO3 NH3, As, cr (VI), Pb, Cu, and TH
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Figure 6.3 GIS Map showing locations of PLs in RCF
Figure 6.3 GIS map showing the locations of some prominent PLs in RCF.
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Figure 6.4 Statistical analysis of limnological parameter of PLs in RCF and Control
Figure 6.4 shows the graphical analysis of the mean values of limnological parameters of PL water concerning Control.
Table 6.4 shows the mathematical calculation of EWn to estimate the WQI values of PLs and Control.
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Table 6.5. WQI of PLs of RCF
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Table 6.1 shows the WQI values of PLs of RCG and Control.
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Figure 6.5. WQI values of PLs in RCF
Figure 6.5. shows a graphical analysis of the mean WQI values of PLs of RCF and Control.
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Figure 6.6a. Eigenvalues of the correction matrix; b. Screen Plot; c. Loading Plot; c. Bi Plot
Figure 6.6 shows the results of PCA analysis of limnological parameters of PLs of RCF and Control.
The study site's GIS map shows the locations of a few notable RCF PLs, which are depicted in Figure 6. 3. Table 6. 2 shows the locations of the chosen PLs. They had average depths of 15 to 35 m and varied in size from 15 to 45 acres. Every PL had hydro-periods that were continually flooded and were sandy and muddied. Coal mining was the prior usage for each of the sample locations.
The PLs are anticipated to contain significant concentrations of mining pollutants, such as PTEs, that amalgamate with the PL water, particularly during the monsoon season as a consequence of precipitation, surface runoff, and groundwater leaching. These PLs are dispersed across various locations in RCF to analyze the impact of coal mining across these locations in this coal mining area. The outcomes were contrasted with a control, which was an FW lake on the premises of The University of Burdwan. The control is located at an obscure location from RCF and is located in the Purba Bardhaman district of West Bengal, which is known for its agriculture and urbanization, so it is unaffected by the impacts of the mining. While the PLs which are located in the RCF mines in the Paschim Bardhaman district, which is known for its coal mines and industries, are deeply affected by the mining activities.
The mean values of the limnological parameters (Table 6. 3) and their graphical analysis (Table 6. 4) were compared with the maximum permissible levels as mandated by ISI. The elevated levels of the parameters showed that the PL water is unsafe for consumption. In this context, water temperature plays a crucial role in the biological activity of aquatic organisms, including their survival, metabolism, physiology, growth, development, and reproduction. The ideal temperature range is around 30°C, which is considered optimal for biological activities (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). In this study, PL 5 had the highest temperature of 34.73°C, while PL 6 and PL 7 displayed the lowest temperature of 36.57°C. The mean temperature was 35.887°C, with an average pH of 7.233, below the maximum allowable limit of 8.5 as determined by the ISI. An increased pH indicates an increasing content of phytoplankton in the water sources. With a mean value of 217.5, the TDS varied from 186.667 to 239.33 as observed in PL 9 and PL 3, respectively. This is below the maximum allowable limit of 500 as stated by ISI. The Control showed a mean TDS of 328.72. (Figure 6. 4). DO concentration plays a key role in aquatic ecosystems and regulates the health of aquatic organisms. DO values varied, with PL 2 and PL 8 and PL 9 having mean values closer to the ISI's maximum allowable limit of 5 mg/l. Higher DO in PLs may be due to the effect of downpour water bringing about air circulation and agitation. The increase in DO in PLs may be due to an increased rate of photosynthesis by macrophytes and planktonic communities, as well as wind action (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). BOD can be reduced in heavy O availability and consuming conditions. Higher BOD was seen previously due to oxygen availability and oxygen dissolving capacity being higher in high temperatures, as well as air activity and agitation tending to increase DO in water, which then increases BOD values (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). The observed BOD values also showed similar trends as previous studies. TH is a significant parameter in determining the probability for fish culture and is a significant viewpoint of estimating water quality. The ISI has set a maximum allowable level of 300 mg/l for overall TH (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). The mean TH of PLs was determined to be 149.6 mg/l, with PLs 6 and 5 exhibiting the lowest and largest concentrations, respectively. The TH was significantly lower than 300 mg/l, which the ISI designated as the uppermost allowable level. The control had an average TH of 266.33 mg/l. NO3- is the most non-harmful of the major inorganic N compounds and is found as the finished result of the nitrification interaction of the aquatic system (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). The concentration of NO3- displayed a mean value of 0.603 mg/l, which varied from 0.433 mg/l in PL 3 to 0.833 mg/l in PL 6, much more than the ISI's maximum allowable limit of 0.1 mg/l. NH3 is the underlying result of the deterioration of natural materials, organic substances, and digestion of microorganisms, and may demonstrate the presence of decaying urea, excrement, and organics (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019). The range of NH3 concentrations was 0.333 mg/l to 0.767 mg/l, with an average of 0.577 mg/l. PL 3 had the highest concentration, while PL 1 displayed the lowest concentration. The concentration of NH3 was higher than the ISI's maximum allowable level, which is 0.1 mg/l, while the control displayed a mean concentration of 0.011 mg/l. Previous research on water quality assessment by various authors including Dey and Ghosh (2023); Palit and Kar (2019); Mondal and Palit (2019); and Palit et al. (2018 and 2014) also showed similar trends in these limnological parameters.
The WQI analysis showed that PL 3 yielded a minimum WQI of 1294.941, much greater than the maximum allowable limit of 100. PL 4 has the highest WQI, 1456.098, recorded. PL’s WQI's mean value was 1378.246 (Table 6. 4) (Figure 6. 5). The control showed a WQI of 31.313. The WQI value of previous studies also indicates the poor quality of the PL water. The high value of WQI of these PL water is mainly due to the high value of TH, and TDS. The result of WQI showed that without treatment, the WQI values in the water of the PLs under scrutiny were unsuitable for any use since they were significantly greater than the upper limit of acceptable values. However, some studies on PL water quality analysis claimed that PL water can be used in agriculture. In this regard, every study has claimed that the water is unfit for consumption. The PL water needs excessive treatment before being used in various anthropogenic ventures (Dey and Ghosh 2023; Mondal and Palit 2019; Palit and Kar 2019)
Figure 6.s 6a and 6b present the PCs' eigenvalues, individual variance, and cumulative variance. With individual eigenvalues greater than 1, the first two of PCs of these parameters account for 81.74% of the overall variance. On the other hand, the ten PCs of these parameters account for 100% of the whole variance, with individual eigenvalues equal to 0. Figure 6.s 7 c and 7d illustrate the relationship between the first two PCs that has the biggest total variance contribution. They depict the direction and length of the vectors in the 2D bi-plot, showing how each variable contributes to the two PCs in the bi-plot. For instance, the first PCs have negative coefficients for pH, BOD, TDS, and Total hardness and positive coefficients for temperature, DO, NH3, Pb, As, Cu, NO3, and Cr (VI) on the horizontal axis. For this reason, four of the vectors point toward the plot's right half and eight toward its left. Similar to this, the PC2 contains positive coefficients for the remaining eight variables and negative coefficients for total hardness, TDS, pH, and BOD on the vertical axis. This 2D biplot additionally includes a point for the average values of each parameter for each of the 10 PLs and control. Consequently, as these points are scaled concerning the highest score value and maximum coefficient length, their respective placements may be ascertained from the plot.
Some contend that the region's rivers are the most badly impacted by coal mining and that the infrastructure for river-based water delivery is not effective enough to meet demand, especially in the summer (Saha et al., 2021, 2022ii). Furthermore, the district's supply systems are primarily reliant on rivers. The region is currently experiencing a water crisis due to past disasters in these supply systems (Hindustan Times, 2017; The Statesman, 2020; The Telegraph, 2020). With appropriate purification procedures and management, these PLs of RCF, which together have a surface area of 260 ha and a volume of 0.4 billion m[3], have the potential to be a wetland and a productive source of FW, with a sustainable strategy of water purification, which includes proper planning and implementation (Saha et al., 2022). So the sustainable approach also fits in with the norms of the Ramsar Convention.
The Ramsar Convention, signed in 1971 in Iran, is the first modern treaty aimed at conserving wetlands. It aims to halt the worldwide loss of wetlands and conserve those that remain through wise use and management. Wetlands can include various habitat types, such as swamps, marshes, lakes, salt marshes, coral reefs, and peat bogs. The Convention encourages the designation of sites containing representative, rare, or unique wetlands for conserving biological diversity. These sites are added to the Convention's List of Wetlands of International Importance and become known as Ramsar sites. Countries agree to establish and oversee a management framework to conserve the wetland and ensure its wise use. Wetlands can be included on the List due to their ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological importance.
In this context, once cleaned up, these abandoned PLs, which are supposed to be potential wetlands, provide a significant chance for sustainable usage since they might help with the neighborhood's water scarcity and reduce the price of the public water supply near the coalfield. This makes bioremediation a viable and cost-effective method for cleaning up these PLs as employing plants to remove pollutants from them is a comprehensive and sustainable solution. Taking sustainability concerns and long-term perspectives into account, bioremediation seems to have a lot of promise (Prasad et al., 2021; Mona et al., 2021). The advancement of new technologies, collaborative research initiatives, and the integration of these strategies into all-encompassing plans meant to lessen the region's water scarcity episodes. To successfully achieve long-term sustainability, a comprehensive, interdisciplinary approach that balances ecological, social, and economic concerns would be required.
6.5 Conclusion
The land, water systems, ecology, atmosphere, and socioeconomic situations are all significantly impacted by coal mining in India. In the Indian mining industry, and likewise in RCF opencast coal mining is a successful strategy that creates enormous pits or gaps that can shield water, forming PLs during monsoon. In RCF, these PLs hold a combined surface area of 260 ha and a volume of 0.4 billion m[3], having the potential to be an efficient source of FW for a region the majority of which relies on a finite FW supply and faces episodes of a water crisis, especially during summer. Elevated conductivity, salinity, total dissolved solids, total suspended particles, NO2-N, SO4[2]-, and oxygen needs are all present in PL water. This study examined the water quality of the PLs in RCF based on various parameters. The least amount of TDS, pH, DO, NO3-, and Cu was present in PLs 6 and 7. The WQI measurements for the RCF PLs showed that they were unsuitable for usage in the absence of therapy. Statistical analysis revealed that the results were unsuitable for use in the absence of therapy. Researchers recommend prior treatment of the PL water before anthropogenic uses. Finally, The PLs in RCF have the potential to be converted into wetlands, which can become alternate sources of FW but the WQI assay has indicated the need for efficient management, strategy, and implementation for sustainable water management before being used in anthropogenic ventures, matching the norms of Ramsar convention.
6.6 Bibliography
Dey, A. K., and Ghosh, A. R. (2023). Assessment of water quality parameters of an abandoned opencast coal pit (OCP) of Asansol-Raniganj Coalfield (ARCF), Paschim Bardhaman, West Bengal, India. Khulna University Studies, 69-77.
Dey, A. K., & Ghosh, A. R. (2023). Assessment of water quality parameters of an Abandoned Opencast Coal Pit (Ocp) Of Asansol-Raniganj Coalfield (ARCF), Paschim Bardhaman, West Bengal, India.Khulna University Studies, 69-77.
Gaur, N., Sarkar, A., Dutta, D., Gogoi, B. J., Dubey, R., and Dwivedi, S. K. (2022). Evaluation of water quality index and geochemical characteristics of surfacewater from Tawang India. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 11698.
Hindustan Times. (2017).Durgapur barrage runs dry after lock gate breaks, township faces water scarcity. www.hindustantimes.com. https://www.hindustantimes.com/kolkata/durgapur- barrage-runs-dry-after-lock-gate-breaks-township-faces-water-scarcity/story-
bOlCabLMNqV3blm9dJZRiI.html
Mona, S., Malyan, S. K., Saini, N., Deepak, B., Pugazhendhi, A., and Kumar, S. S. (2021). Towards sustainable agriculture with carbon sequestration, and greenhouse gas mitigation using algal biochar. Chemosphere, 275, 129856.
Mondal, S., and Palit, D. (2019). Evaluation Of Water Quality Using Water Quality Index Of Pit Lakes, Raniganj Coal Field Area, West Bengal, India. Research Journal of Life Sciences, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences, 10(2019.0503), 44.
Mondal, S., & Palit, D. (2019). Evaluation Of Water Quality Using Water Quality Index Of Pit Lakes, Raniganj Coal Field Area, West Bengal, India.Research Journal of Life Sciences, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences,10(2019.0503), 44.
Pal, S., Mukherjee, A. K., Senapati, T., Samanta, P., Mondal, S., and Ghosh, A. R. (2013). Surface water quality assessment of abandoned opencast coal pit-lakes in Raniganj coalfields area, India. The Ecoscan, 4(special issue), 175-188.
Palit, D., Mondal, S., and Chattopadhyay, P. (2018). Analyzing water quality index of selected pit-lakes of Raniganj coal field area, India. Environment and Ecology, 36(4A), 1167-1175.
Palit, D., & Kar, D. (2019). A Contemplation On Pitlakes of Raniganj Coalfield Area: West Bengal, India.Sustainable agriculture, forest and environmental management, 517-571.
Palit, D., Mukherjee, A., GUPTA, S., & KAR, D. (2014). Water quality in the pit lakes of Raniganj coal field, West Bengal, India.Journal of Applied Sciences in Environmental Sanitation,9(1).
Palit, D., Mondal, S., & Chattopadhyay, P. (2018). Analyzing water quality index of selected pit-lakes of Raniganj coal field area, India.Environment and Ecology,36(4A), 1167-1175.
Prasad, R., Gupta, S. K., Shabnam, N., Oliveira, C. Y. B., Nema, A. K., Ansari, F. A., and Bux, F. (2021). Role of microalgae in global CO2 sequestration: Physiological mechanism, recent development, challenges, and future prospective. Sustainability, 13(23), 13061.
Saha, D., Keshri, J. P., and Saha, N. C. (2022). Comprehensive study on raniganj coalfield area, India: A review. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 28, S387-S398.
Saha, D., Saha, A., Saha, N. C. (2021). Seasonal Variation Of Water Quality And Its Sustainable Approach In Local Livelihood In Harabhanga Abandoned Ocp In Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal, India. International Journal ofBiology, Pharmacy and Allied Sciences, 1-13.
The Statesman. (2020). Broken lockgate in Durgapur barrage leads to panic among locals; BJP blames TMC-led govt. www.thestatesman.com. https://www.thestatesman.com/bengal/broken-lockgate-durgapur-barrage-leads-panic-among- locals-bjp-blames-tmc-led-govt-1502932815.html. (Retrieved on 20th January, 2024)
The Telegraph. (2020). Durgapur: Bent barrage gate fuels water supply crisis fears. Latest News, Top Stories, Opinion, News Analysis and Comments. https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/durgapur-bent-barrage-gate-fuels- water-supply-crisis-fears/cid/1796160. (Retrieved on 20th January, 2024)
Uddin, M. G., Nash, S., and Olbert, A. I. (2021). A review of water quality index models and their use for assessing surface water quality. Ecological Indicators, 122
Chapter 7. Relevance of water footprint evaluation: Focusing on coal mining and associated industries
7.1 Abstract
The assessment of water consumption within the framework of anthropological consumption is known as a "WF", which entails the consumption of FW by a person, the community, or business enterprises. It premiered in 2002 as a consumption-based indicator of FW. RCF is positioned in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, a region renowned for its coal mines alongside its industries. It is the oldest and a significant coal mine in India where the main cause of land tenure, land cover, and environmental impacts is surface-cut mining. In this context, the current study focuses on RCF, highlighting the region's reliance on a finite water supply, emphasizing summertime water emergencies, and those caused by significant water delivery system accidents. It also targets the WF of the mining sector and industrial sectors at the global and national levels. The assessment also includes a comprehensive plan of action for identifying alternative FW sources. Recognizing viable alternatives for FW supply can be powered by evaluating the provision of FW using WF. This could eventually contribute to the sustainable use of FW and the exploration of alternative FW sources by using green purifying approaches. Subsequently, the WF assessment facilitates the organization's management of FW vulnerability, investment selection, and policy development. It also acts as a pivotal instrument for tracking and assessing the accomplishments of ecologically conscious endeavors, such as the attainment of sustainability. A more integrated strategy combining multifaceted cooperation, awareness of the indigenous perspective, and contemplation of the life cycle must be implemented to bridge the gaps and provide comprehensive execution of water management solutions. However, this method may require further study.
Keywords
FW, surface-cut mining, Sustainability, WF, Water management
7.2 Introduction
The existence of water is precisely what inevitably sets apart Earth from the other planetary bodies in the solar system we inhabit. Water is an indispensable component for life to thrive on Earth. Apart from being fundamental to life on Earth, water is employed in nearly all anthropological endeavors. In over three-quarters of the planet, there is water. However, the majority of the 1.386 Bkm[3] of water on Earth is brine. As stated by Nazir et al. (2024), accessible FW sources make up barely one percent of the entire water supply, while the ice shelves deposit the greatest portion of the remaining 2.5% of the FW (Figure 7. 1).
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Figure 7.1. Status of FW in the planet (Nazir et al., 2024)
Approximately half of humanity is likely to experience severe water shortages by the end of this decade, according to the IPCC. (Caretta et al., 2022; UNESCO, 2020). In the opinion of Dolan et al. (2021), a significant impediment to both sustainable development goals and the progress of human development globally is the lack of FW. There is an increasing consciousness about FW scarcity as a worldwide fundamental concern (Mekonnen and Hoekstra 2016). Accordingly, the USEPA (2023), advances on to assert that challenges to the quality of source water brought about by climate change involve rising contaminants, sediment discharge, drought, and infiltration of saltwater, as well as collateral repercussions for overall efforts to maintain water quality (Figure 7. 2).
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Figure 7.2. Global water crisis and contamination
It is conceivable that there will be more intense rainstorms because of climate change. Torrential downpours can worsen pollutant discharge and sedimentation in FW sources, such as streams, creeks, and rivers. Such runoff and deposition can increase expenditures and render treatment at drinking water facilities more challenging. Increased erosion and sedimentation can impair water quality, hinder storm-water management systems, and decrease storage capacity. According to estimates, global warming will make the severity of the drought harsher across the entirety of the US. Drought may prompt water supply to have a decline in supplies and a spike in demand from consumers. Drought can affect immediate water sources, like reservoir or lake levels, or longer-term storage, like alpine snowpack (USEPA 2023). The impact of global warming and environmental degradation will trigger more substantial water shortages for between half and 3.1 B individuals by 2050, corresponding to the research conducted by Gosling and Arnell (2016).
A framework for assessing the accounting and status of FW with particular emphasis on its sustainably sound consumption has to be implemented considering the gravity of this trepidating predicament. Developed in 2002 by Arjen Hoekstra, WF is a tool that concentrates on the efficient implementation of water in this context (Madaka et al., 2022; Lohrmann et al., 2021; Marston et al., 2018 )(Figure 7. 3).
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Figure 7.3. WF and its components
Green WF, Blue WF, and Grey WF are three distinct subcategories into which the approach is classified at the consumption stage (Figure 7. 3). Precipitation ingestion is the primary theme of green WF, surface water consumption is the primary emphasis of blue WF, and the sheer amount of FW used for the discharges is the centerpiece of gray WF.
The WF holdings threshold is an extensive spreadsheet that either directly or through infiltration, gauges the real occupancy of FW watersheds by various anthropogenic conducts. It embraces every aspect of the lifespan of a product, including manufacturing, transportation, logistics, revenues, consumption, and prospects as there is an unambiguous connection between the notion of human terminal customers and the management of FW reserves. Consequently, comprehending potential threats to water resources, precisely monitoring their allocation and safeguards, and strengthening the effectiveness of their management constitute vital targets for accomplishing community-based sustainable development (Rezaee and Tabesh 2022; Marston et al., 2018; Santosa et al., 2018; Hoekstra and Hung 2002)
There exist multiple ecological hazards connected to mining, such as inadequate waste management, floods, and water supply. The geological makeup and processing methods of the mining industry provide particular concerns about water quality. Townships, tourism, agriculture, fisheries, and other stakeholders may experience societal discontent as a result of industrial water liberation. In view of a mounting demand for energy worldwide, the energy sector finds that access to water is a crucial concern. Liberated PTEs, which get mixed in water after mining operations and energy generation and can worsen water quality due to pollutant releases, also have an impact on the water supply used by the mining sector (Madaka et al., 2022; Zhu et al., 2020). The study highlights the challenges of limited water supply in RCF, midsummer emergencies, and water distribution system mishaps, particularly in the water supply of mining and industrial sectors globally and nationally.
7.3 Global scenario overview
The mining industry is a pivotal sector that is crucial for the prosperity of a country. A significant enterprise that pervades each watercourse is mining. It may appear in tropical areas, subarctic areas like Canada and Finland, and desert locations like central Australia. The location of the water's source and the climate in the vicinity ascertain the infrastructure requirements(Northey et al., 2016) (Figure 7. 4).
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Figure 7.4. Mining is a universal phenomenon(Northey et al., 2016)
The WF for a smelter, a tailing dam, and two concentrator units at a typical mine in South Africa have a gross direct WF of 743 ma/kg. The grey WF contributes to 542 ma/kg of the entirety of WF, juxtaposed to the blue WF's 201 ma/kg (Haggard et al., 2015). Coal mining has one of the highest dependence on water among any energy sources (Zhu et al., 2020; Ding et al., 2018). Water, for illustration, must be available for the extraction, processing, and cleansing of coal in addition to generating electrical power and other affiliated procedures. In reality, coal accounts for over 62% of China's main energy demands, meaning it dominates the country's energy structure (NBSC 2017). Consequently, the coal-based power sector exerts an enormous impact on the aquatic environment and its resources. In China, the spatial distributions of water resources and coal do not considerably overlap. South China accounts for somewhere in the range of 80% of the entire national water resources, whereas North China accounts for approximately 20% (He et al., 2018; Ministry of Water Resources of China 2017). Coal constitutes one of the most plentiful energy sources in Northwest China (Zhu et al., 2020). However, severe water shortages are presently set to impede economic growth (Jiang et al., 2017), particularly in North and West China's power sector (Shang et al., 2018).
The EU intends to curtail coal extraction, in 20 areas, such that the WF of power generated from coal-based power plants would drop by 28% in the "Area scenario" and 24% in the "Regions scenario" by 2050. However, on average, five areas in the Area scenario observe a 14% rise in total water demand, ranging from 7% in the Balkan-West nations to 24% in Sweden. Furthermore, because of the launching of new hydropower facilities, Turkey, Norway, and Sweden could have the highest WFs in terms of coal mining and power generation in Europe (Lohrmann et al., 2021).
In Australia, almost 85% of the FW retrieved and used in the process of producing electricity from fossil fuels was coal, which is extracted through mining. Whereas primary fuel production dominated water usage, thermoelectric power generation dominated retrieval of water quantities. It was discovered that a significant portion of water use (256 Gl/year) was exported as virtual water, mostly concerning coal mining. According to Nair and Timms (2020), there was rivalry among numerous water users for the limited FW supply in at least six of the twenty-seven catchments within the national power market region, resulting in moderate to severe instances of water stress.
In the US, the generation of thermoelectric power from coal mining, which accounts for a significant proportion of water transactions uses the third most amount of surface water and the seventh most amount of groundwater among non-agro sectors. Approximately 80% of this WF is found toward the eastern side. Residents of the Eastern US need around 70% more water per capita compared to those in the Western US for coal extraction and to generate thermal power. Thermal power has a WF of over 5 km[3]/year, while mining has a WF of around 3 km[3]/year (Marston et al., 2018).
Mining and heavy industrial operations are the main causes of pollution and crises involving water resources worldwide, therefore, more comprehensive and creative solutions are required. Accessible energy and water resources are crucial for sustainable development on a global scale. The industrial sectors with the largest overall WF were those in China and the US, among other countries (Yu et al., 2022; Nezamoleslami and Hosseinian 2020). Due to rising water contamination, Baker et al. (2016) express concern about the impending dearth of water, especially in the US. There is a pressing requirement for policies that oversee water management in various sectors from the perspective of a supply chain end to end as industrialization grows. Although there are still large research gaps, current efforts need to be focused on developing solutions that reduce the overall impact.
7.4 National scenario overview
Hoekstra (2015) discovered a connection between global market circumstances and water depletion and pollution, with India being the leading producer of WF. There are 700 M people in India who lack access to clean water, and 0.2 M of them perish away every year. The nation is facing a water problem as a result of demands from agriculture, economic growth, population increase, and climate change. The depletion of groundwater supplies, river drying, soil loss, and terrain degradation are signs of the growing scarcity of water (Sidhu et al., 2021; Kashyap and Agarwal 2021i, ii; Shelar et al., 2019).
Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh endured the greatest quantity of green WF in India, compared to that, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh claimed the highest amount of blue WF (Mali et al., 2021; Dhawan, 2017) (Figure 7. 5a). After analyzing the industrial WF of the Indian state of Maharashtra, Ravendiran et al. (2020) concluded that the Blue WF for large, medium, and small size companies is greater since these industries require water for their operations. The inability to use recycled water for industrial operations results in a greater need for FW. The findings indicate that Maharashtra is "water negative," meaning that there is less green water than grey and blue water. Provinces that have a higher blue and green WF possess greater cultivable land as well as more FW accessible for irrigation. It was found that there is substantial indigenous variability in blue, green, and grey WF especially among various soil and terrain facets (Suhailand Fazli 2020). Thus, India contributes 15% and 85% of the planet's mean WF, accordingly. The case is particularly pertinent in provinces like Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and Rajasthan which suffer from lower overall access to water and more productive water resources (Jain et al., 2019; Saha and Ray 2019) (Figure 7. 5b). Legislatures comprising Rajasthan, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Punjab, along with Uttar Pradesh have become critically deprived of water (Mali et al., 2021; Dhawan 2017) (Figure 7. 5c).
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Figure 7.5.a.Indian regions contributing to the highest green WF and blue WF; b. Indian regions with lower overall access and critically deprived of water (Mali et al., 2021; Jain et al., 2019; Saha and Ray, 2019; Dhawan, 2017)
The WF is crucial for assessing industrial water since it influences several operations. The nationwide expansion of manufacturing requires a lot of water to be used for processes like washing, treating, and sewage liberation, as well as cooling down power plant equipment. (Roy Choudhury et al., 2023; Kumar et al., 2021). Likewise, mining is an impactful sector for a developing nation like India, within which coal mining serves as the backbone of the energy sector of the nation. The GDP share of the mining industry varies up to 3%, although it makes up over 10% of the GDP of the entire industrial sector. The whole cost of collecting minerals is increased significantly by even the slightest bit of mining. Over 700,000 individuals in India are employed in the mining industry (Wayback Machine 2023). However mining has a substantially negative impact on the nearby water resources, so, water allocation management must be put in place to sufficiently fulfill the water requirements, as the mining industry has the largest WF and various mining sites ought to be explored to support these approaches (Northey et al., 2016). However, a multitude of information concerning WF of the mining areas within India is lacking; given this setting, the authors are proposing a WF assessment assay in RCF and have duly highlighted its relevance and a possible strategy to be adapted for the assay.
7.5 RCF: A short introduction on the status of FW
The RCF region receives between 1,150 and 1,450 mm of rainfall annually, with the majority of that falling between 80 and 90% during the monsoon season. The Damodar, Ajay, and Barakar rivers govern the drainage system (Figure 7. 6). The RCF area's geological structure, which results in water table levels ranging from 3 to 15 meters below ground level, greatly influences the occurrence and storage of groundwater (Kumar and Singh 2020; Banerji and Mitra 2019).
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Figure 7.6.a. Barakar River; b. Damodar River; c. Ajay River in RCF
Numerous studies have been conducted on the water quality of the mining sites in the Paschim Bardhaman district, particularly the coal mining regions of the RCF (Figure 7. 7).
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Figure 7.7.A coal mine in RCF
Mine waters usually contain a variety of elements and have a very complex nature. These are almost neutral, somewhat acidic, alkaline, and very acidic. Cl-, F-, SO4[2]-, acidity, alkalinity, metalloids, and concentrations of these substances have all been shown to be polluted in rivers, bodies of water, surface, and subsurface water (Saha et al., 2021; López et al., 2019). It is evident that when there is a lot of rainfall, an excessive number of contaminants, particularly the coal mines flow through the runoff and alter the physical characteristics of the. In light of this, from various studies, it is readily apparent that an abundance of waste materials enters the runoff after PTEs, changing the water's physical properties. So, there is a claim that the area's waterways are the most severely affected by coal mining, furthermore, the river-based water supply infrastructure is insufficiently efficient to fulfill the water demand, particularly during the summer (Saha et al., 2022ii, 2021). In addition to that, the majority of the district is dependent on river-based supply systems, which include the Durgapur barrage (Figure 7. 8), and dams like Maithon and Panchet. Previous catastrophes in these supply systems have led to water crisis problems in the region (The Statesman, 2020; The Telegraph, 2020; Hindustan Times, 2017).
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Figure 7.8. Durgapur Barrage
A potential aquatic resource for the mining region is PLs which are mostly left abandoned (Saha et al., 2021) (Figure 7. 9). Abandoned PLs water contains high conductivity, total suspended particles, total dissolved solids, salinity, NO3-N, SO4[2]-, and COD and BOD, according to many limnological investigations. Conversely, surface water runoff, groundwater leaching, or flooding of open-pit mine pits result in PLs.In the meanwhile, the majority of the PLs in the RCF have low to inadequate water quality, according to the results of the WQI (Saha et al., 2021).
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Figure 7.9. A PL in RCF, West Bengal, India
Most academics believe that mine water from the coalfield has to be thoroughly treated before it can be used for drinking and household uses. An evaluation of PL water for irrigation purposes shows that it is of good to permissible quality and suitable for irrigation (Saha et al., 121 | Page
2021). However, in certain places, high salinity, SAR, RSC, Na, and Mg danger levels restrict the land's appeal for farming. The last few decades have seen a phenomenal increase in the amount of coal produced by the Indian coal mining industry, but this growth has almost always been accompanied by several environmental challenges, one of which is the appropriate management of mine water disposal (Saha et al., 2020; Tiwari et al., 2017).
7.6 Relevance of WF in RCF
Considering the effects that coal mining has on the environment, and the limited water supply on anthropological activities, assessing the WF in the RCF is necessary. A WF assessment of this area is thus highly recommended in this case, since determining the present status of accessible FW is critical. Together with offering a tool for assessing the FW status, it would help resolve the problem of the water shortage. An evaluation of the WF, which provides information on patterns of water consumption and possible areas for conservation or efficiency gains, measures the quantity of water used (directly and indirectly) by human activities or goods. Water use can, hence, be substantial in the context of coal mining for several reasons, including
The evaluation of WF as a framework for water sustainability in coal mining
In a collaborative effort, the efficacy of the WF Assessment for corporate water sustainability can be evaluated. As evidenced by the findings, a firm may start or improve its water sustainability action plans with the help of the well-defined framework that the WF Assessment approach offers. Through its use as a water consumption and pollution indicator, the WF provides previously unobtainable fresh insights into water-related concerns. The creation of a more targeted response plan was made possible by the comprehensive picture of water consumption and pollution concerns that were obtained from the calculation of the WF by process and on specific time intervals. The study will also emphasize the need to educate facility workers about their local watershed and interact with suppliers. The collaboration proved the WF Assessment's applicability in the context of RCF coal mining.
Towards a WF database for coal mining
There is no such database for mining and industrial product WF, although the Enschede, Netherlands-based WF Network is a global database with substantial WF information, mostly for agriculture. Current water consumption data is frequently imprecise, out-of-date, and non- geographically focused. Establishing standards for certain processes and products necessitates investing in a WF database for mining and industrial goods.
Relocation and Processing
An essential element in the mining and processing of coal is water. According to Overton (2020), FW is obtained from streams, groundwater, or other bodies of water and is utilized for several tasks such as cooling cutting surfaces, coal cleaning, dust suppression, and lowering the risk of fire in deep mines.
Coal mine-related dewatering
Continuous pumping is required because dewatering coal mines and depressurizing coal seam gas fields cause local groundwater levels to drop and create flow into the pumped coal seam. The succeeding groundwater drawdown cone's geographic extent is determined by the layers' storability and hydraulic conductivity. Specifically, dewatering and depressurization may also have an impact on alluvial aquifers, potentially changing or reversing flow gradients between rivers and aquifers and lowering the amount of base flow that is discharged from the groundwater to a connected stream (Sun et al., 2020). Any increased inter-aquifer connectivity raises the risk of both aquifer-specific and discharged water quality degradation to nearby water bodies.
Impacts on the Environment
The discharge of contaminants and sediments into water bodies can result from mining operations and cause contamination of the water. Aquatic environments may be impacted by contaminated water, as many neighboring towns that depend on the water supply for irrigation and consumption.
Formulating a Response: Is it possible for a business to balance its water use?
Many companies determine if they can offset their WF by calculating their carbon footprint prior to interacting with the WF Network. WFs are geographically and temporally explicit indicators that highlight the significance of the location and timing of water use and pollution. Due to the worldwide nature of carbon footprints, response design must minimize consequences within the period and region of water consumption.
Companies can work with others in local watersheds or aquifers to reduce their WF after fulfilling global water criteria or utilizing cutting-edge technologies. This entails encouraging, sponsoring, or assisting group initiatives to increase the sustainability of nearby water supplies. This completes the water stewardship maturity phase, which started with bettering direct WF and progressed to interacting with the supply chain and group actions within the local watershed. By achieving this, the watershed or aquifer is less likely to operate as a hotspot and can transition to sustainable usage or fulfill water quality criteria.
7.7 Strategies and Management
In order to minimize environmental effects and guarantee sustainable mining activities, WF must be managed properly. This entails putting policies in place to recycle water, treat mining runoff, and reduce water waste. Stakeholders may learn more about the patterns of water consumption associated with coal mining operations and spot possibilities for sustainable water management and conservation by carrying out a WF assessment in the RCF. Decision-making procedures can benefit from this knowledge, which can also make it easier to enact policies aimed at reducing the negative environmental effects of coal mining activities in the area. Everyone must deepen their knowledge of the interdependencies between water and energy to promote integrated regulation and control of water resources and industrial growth. The following strategy is to be implemented in RCF for evaluating the WF:
Identifying Functional Borders
The assessment of the boundary of the study area is the prerequisite of the assay. The boundaries of the area are to be marked in RCF.
Considering Functional Parameters
The study involved literary research, a comprehensive loads survey, collecting details from the records available for different scopes, and a field survey to validate the available records.
Data Inventory and Inquiries
The data collected for this study included the relevant documents to estimate resource consumption (e.g., organizations, the yield of products sector-wise, water sources, water consumption, quantity, and quality of the wastewater), and consultation with different departments in coal mines.
Interviews, Surveys, Data Collection and Analysis
Regular surveys and interviews are to be conducted at the required offices in coal mines and stakeholders for the collection of various data regarding the assessment of WF.
For Green WF, the estimation of the rainfall and the consumption of rainwater in various sectors are to be assessed
For Blue WF, the details of FW sources in the vicinity and the consumption of FW following the yield of every sector are to be assessed
For Grey WF, the details about the sewage generated from every sector are to be assessed and the analysis of the contaminants is to be done.
Estimation of WF
The green WF, blue WF, and grey WF are to be analyzed and the total WF of the area is to be calculated using the following formula
Total WF = Green WF +Blue WF + Grey WF
Finally, as a remedy for the water crisis, if appropriate management strategies are implemented, particularly through the sustainable approach of remediation, these PLs might be used as an alternate supply of FW (Nazir et al., 2024).
7.8 Future perspectives
Sustainable methods are necessary for water conservation, and WF can assist improve efficiency and optimizing water consumption. Public awareness campaigns and capacity building support WF and water-saving initiatives. WF evaluation supports business water risk management, investment choices, and governmental policy. Policymakers will be able to comprehend the link between the UN SDGs, trade, energy, agriculture, and water resource management thanks to scientific advancements, which will ensure coordination and minimize unintended repercussions. Particularly in nations like India, future WF evaluations can pinpoint regions of water pollution and create plans for managing pollution. With the right WF assay, sustainable FW consumption in Paschim Bardhaman, West Bengal, India, might be accomplished. Yet, further investigation ought to be done for crisis management and repurposing abandoned coal mine PLs into sources of potable water.
7.9 Conclusion
Although the majority of Earth's crust is covered in water, only a limited amount of that water is fit for human use. This has resulted in a water crisis, which may be alleviated by using FW sustainably. In mining and other industries, FW is required for a variety of industrial stages, and its use is usually nonjudicial. FW depletion is the result of unethical water usage practices. However, WF is useful for assessing FW status, creating sustainability strategies, controlling water hazards, and promoting ecologically beneficial projects, such as the UN SDGs.WF might be of use in identifying hotspots for water pollution and developing strategies for pollution reduction and global warming mitigation, especially in countries such as India. The coal mines, industry, and agriculture in West Bengal, India, particularly in the summer, are the main causes of the supply shortfall in the freshly formed district of Paschim Bardhaman. Assessing the status of FW using WF can help in the search for long-term replacements for FW supply. As a result, it may be possible to use FW sustainably and investigate other FW sources with eco-friendly purification methods. In the end, the WF evaluation aids in the formulation of public policy, the selection of investments, and the organization's management of water risk. Additionally, it serves as a priceless instrument for tracking and assessing the development of ecologically sensitive projects, such as the realization of sustainability.
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Chapter 8. Pit lakes, a legacy of coal mining: A holistic strategy for rehabilitation, utilitarianism, and sustainability for communities
8.1 Abstract
PLs are significant environmental issues caused by coal mine closures, often caused by hydrological and hydrogeological processes. The relationship between climate change and mining conditions is crucial for water chemistry and sustainability forecasting. Management, characterization, and cleanup are necessary for long-term environmental responsibility, regulatory compliance, and protection issues. PLs are crucial for mine rehabilitation and sustainable closure, offering opportunities for regional welfare if certain attributes are met. Slope stability, water quality, and safety concerns all play a major role in these opportunities. Sadly, an extensive number of PLs have persisted in being abandoned, signifying they didn't get sustainability, rehabilitation, or utilitarian perspectives. Assessing PLs' realistic efficacy in both national and international contexts is the objective of the study. In RCF, Paschim Bardhaman District, West Bengal, India, socio-eco developmental practices of PLs status are explored in this study. The findings would assist stakeholders enhance post-mining initiatives of PLs with the appropriate management strategies for sustainability, utilitarianism, and rehabilitation.
Keywords
Abandoned, Coal mine closures, Pit Lakes, Rehabilitation, Sustainability, Utilitarianism
8.2 Introduction
The global water crisis, resulting from population growth and anthropogenic activities, is a growing concern causing a shortage of fresh water. Water scarcity is a major global concern, with about two-thirds of the world's population experiencing severe water shortage for at least one month each year. Over two billion people live in countries with inadequate water supplies. By 2025, half of humanity may reside in water-scarce regions, and by 2030, 700 million people might have to migrate because of acute water scarcity. One in four kids will be living in places with severe water stress by 2040. However, water can be used for extended periods with proper protection and organization, but many countries need to make significant changes to their sustainable consumption and water management strategies (Ling 2022, Unicef 2021, Dosi and Easter 2000, Postel 2000).
Deep excavations are typically the end result of open-pit mining, which seriously damages groundwater and other water resources. After mining, enormous pits in mine excavation sites are filled with water from runoff, precipitation, and groundwater, creating end PLs. The process of the PL it lake filling and the water's steady state are influenced by several factors, including the hydrogeology of the surrounding area, interactions with the groundwater regime, numerous physical influences governing the hydrodynamic structure of the lake, the lake's shape, and the climate (Figure 8. 1). Pit shape, groundwater influx and outflow, precipitation, and evaporation are some of the elements that can cause water to fill lakes over decades or centuries. The detrimental impacts of open-pit mining are contingent upon soil attributes, hydrological features, and geological structure (Akburak et al. 2020, Shongwe 2018, Unsal and Yazicigil 2016, Blanchette and Lund 2016).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 8.1. PL showing its structural view
MCP is a global process aimed at reducing environmental disasters by transferring responsibility for mined lands to the state. It involves imposing safety and environmental standards on enterprises, with communities playing a crucial role in deciding pit lake use near inhabited areas (Morrison-Saunders et al. 2016). Along with pushing for PLs to be added to the Ramsar list, the Indian Ministry of Coal is collaborating with the World Bank, GIZ, and other international organizations to repurpose coal deposits (PLs) so that the wetlands can be turned into ecologically stable areas suitable for appropriate economic use (Coal Ministry Approaches Environment Ministry for Inclusion of Five Coal Mine Pit Lakes in Ramsar List 2022, Maiti and Ahirwal 2019). This study intends to explore the rehabilitation, sustainability, and utilitarian viewpoint of PLs from both national and global perspectives. The ecological sustainability of PLs is contingent upon the evolution of water quality and post-mining activities.
8.3 Global scenario overview
Globally, when mining ends, PL restoration is sustained both organically and artificially through suitable management that considers both commercial and utilitarian factors, reaching out to local stakeholders or the general public; however we focus on a select few here for discussion.
Jakarta's urban lakes have been continuously encroached on for housing, industry, transportation, and farming. The complexity of these issues necessitates a comprehensive management plan to maintain PL Ecosystem stability, improve socio-cultural-economic conditions, and address unique risks due to different impacts from urban development. Specific management plans should be developed for each urban lake (Henny and Meutia, 2014).
In Central Germany, mining voids were used to build about 140 PLs, which created vital post-mining landscapes. Some of these PLs have seen salty groundwater intrusion and excessive sodium chloride concentrations, but they are not at high danger of eutrophication or pollution from industrial contaminants. The decision was made to quickly fill cavities with water in order to support pit walls and stop acidification. Eleven PLs were filled by diverting four rivers, although neutralization may take years or possibly decades. PLs in Central Germany contribute significantly to socioeconomic development and meet contemporary environmental criteria. While some are utilized for fish breeding, others are protected places for the preservation of the natural world. A few PLs are also utilized for flood control and other water management purposes (Schultze et al., 2018)
Greece has numerous PLs, including those in the Peloponnese, Western Macedonia, Northern, Southern, and Central Euboea, all of which are linked to a very productive karstic aquifer. A sizable PL with a surface area of 0.8 km[2] and a depth of 30 m is located in the Megalopolis core. Marathoussa is a 0.40 km[2] pit lake that forms in the lowest portion of mine excavations and is replenished by precipitation, surface runoff, and groundwater recharge. Nevertheless, these lakes are unsustainable and inaccessible due to subsidence along the north slope. 2 PLs with a combined water capacity of 450,000-500,000 m[3] and a depth of 50 m were formed in the Aliveri region. Heavy rainfall causes the lake's water level to rise over time (Louloudis et al., 2020, Dimitrakopoulos et al., 2016, Vasileiou et al., 2012).
There are 13 PLs with different water characteristics and stages of rehabilitation in the Collie Coal Basin in Western Australia, where more than 100 coal mining operations were in operation until 1997. Sulfide oxidation causes a mild acidic and metalliferous outflow in these lakes. The largest mining opening was redirected between 2002 and 2008 during periods of high flow, and a master plan was created for a "closed catchment lake" surrounding it. Collie's economy is getting more and more diverse, and after three years, tourism is expected to contribute up to 22,000 overnight stays and 37,000 day trips yearly (Sakellariet al., 2021, McCullough et al., 2020, Mccullough et al., 2012).
South African coalfields have three PLs: Mafutha, Kriel, and Rooikop. Mafutha PL is a deep void that maintains equilibrium in inflows and outflows. Kriel PL is composed of hydraulically connected open voids due to extended excavations and permeable backfill material. Rooikop PL maintains a positive water balance, with outflow occurring in the subsurface along the coal seam. The morphology of voids is crucial for water balance and quality, determining their environmental sustainability (Johnstone 2021).
In the Wabamun region, Whitewood's mining company TransAlta Utilities in Canada developed into an internationally recognized East mining PL. After impurities were recovered by groundwater modeling, the PL is now creating a recreational sport fishing and aquaculture with a strong salmon fish population. Planning leisure activities and fishery management strategies are now the project's main priorities. Effective groundwater modeling has been credited with the project's success (Palit and Kar 2019).
8.4 National scenario overview
In the Indian mining sector, "closure plans" are very new, hence there are no case studies or records of PL rehabilitation available (Soni et al., 2014).
A study was conducted on a few PLs in the Indian states of Chhattisgarh, Surajpur, and Bishrampur. The results show that there are four main end applications for the PLs under consideration. They are used for household uses, boating, irrigation, and fishing, and the people make a sizable living from the areas agricultural and fishing. However, there is no policy for PLs' rehabilitation (Yadav et al., 2021).
The Korba coalfield in Chhattisgarh, India, contains 1.84 billion barrels of storage capacity and has been developed into a man-made aquifer system with appropriate water harvesting. One important resource, treated mine water, provides 64% of the residential water supply for SECL. However, regions are expected to become overexploited or dry zones due to declining rainfall and rising water demand. Surface water supplies in the area are under less stress because to the birth of PLs, and treatment technologies may be used to successfully handle emergencies. In addition, PLs deliver water to mining users, washeries, and power plants (Chakraborty et al., 2017).
Based on the study, it is clear that the PLs are valuable resources for a range of uses, including ecotourism, aquaculture, irrigation, horticulture, recreation, and habitat for wildlife. Global growth in PLs as self-sustaining aquatic ecosystems has occurred in the past. Accordingly, PLs are essential to the rehabilitation of the community after mine closure. Values often fall into one of three categories: primary production, recreation, or wildlife (Figure 8. 2) (Sakellari et al., 2021, McCullough et al., 2020, Saha et al., 2022).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 8.2. Rehabilitating PLs: A holistic strategy
8.5 Status of PLs in RCF
In RCF PLs or voids have been created on 260 hectares of surface area, or around 78 old PLs, with a total volume of 4,41,17,700 m[3]. These areas may eventually provide the majority of the water for this region, including for sustainable development (Pal et al., 2013).
8.6 Water quality of abandoned PLs
The Raniganj block of India's water quality, analysed by Palit et al., (2018), was found to be low to extremely poor, indicating a need for higher standards for public usage and recreational purposes. This highlights the need for strict water quality management to restore the ecosystem of abandoned PLs and protect their sustainability.In 2018-2020, the author carried out the WQI Harabhanga, Ratibati, and Damalia PLs in comparison to a control pond of RCF. Additionally, the results demonstrated that before use, treatment was required for the poorly maintained PLs water samples, making them unsafe for drinking and other uses.In fact, the results can aid in the development of sustainable strategies by decision makers.
The algal population is impacted by phytoplankton, especially cyanophyceae and flagellates, which are important markers of water pollution. During study, the author noticed that polluted water bodies frequently include the flagellate green phytoplanktonChlamydomonassp.Metal sulphides, particularly potentially hazardous mine slims, are frequently produced by mining activities and related industries.Anabaenasp.,Coelastrumsp.,Closteriumsp.,Cosmariumsp.,Cymbellasp.,Euglenasp.,Flagillariasp.,Gomphonemasp.,Gymnodiniumsp.,Lacunastrumsp.,Lepocinclissp.,Melosirasp.,Merismopediasp.,Microcystissp.,Oscillatoriasp.,Peridiniumsp.,Phacussp.,Rhopalodiasp.,Scenedesmussp.,Spirogyrasp.,Trachelomonassp.,Ulnariasp. were the most prevalent taxa in the PLs.The family Cyanophyceae, which includes blue-green algae, is found throughout the world and in a variety of environments, such as freshwater systems, soil, and hot pools.
The physicochemical characteristics of pure lead water alter the periodicity of cyanophyceae, the species that causes water blooms. Water blooms are caused by high pH, excessive nutrients, low DO and CO2 levels, and warmth (Saha et al., 2021, Saha et al., 2020). AMD is a significant issue of PLs’ water quality management due to the oxidation of sulphide minerals in underlying rocks. To address this, methods like building wetlands or adding alkaline materials can neutralize acidity and improve water quality. Monitoring nitrogen levels is crucial to prevent excessive algal development and maintain a balanced environment (Mondal and Palit 2019).
8.7 Abandoned PLs' effects on the ecology and sustainability
Abandoned coal mine pit lakes (PLs) have both positive and negative impacts on the environment. They provide habitats for various plant and animal species, allowing wetlands to grow and attract various animals as bird populations. Additionally, these lakes can improve water quality by removing sediments and contaminants, leading to a better aquatic environment. However, they also pose additional environmental issues, as hazardous materials like acidic chemicals and heavy metals can leak out of the surrounding rocks, potentially threatening the species and water quality. PLs are long-term structures formed in deep holes left by mine closures, and their sustainability depends on geological conditions, water balance, and water quality. Therefore, PLs are crucial for the sustainable closure and rehabilitation of mines, as they require careful water quality consideration throughout the mining life cycle (Sakellari et al.,2021, Hendrychova and Kabrna 2016).Since there are so many trees and vegetable patches, abandoned PLs like Ratibati PL have lessened pollution because they have lessened soil erosion and runoff. It's now been transformed into a wetland. Thus, naturally bred fish such asHypophthalmichthys molitrix,Puntius sophore,Oreochromis niloticus,Labeo rohita,Labeo calbasu, andCirrhinus mrigalawere discovered in abandoned PLs (Saha et al., 2021, Saha et al., 2020, Mandal et al., 2015); nevertheless, the possibility of their bioaccumulation and biomagnification might be detrimental to the population. Situated close to Sripur village in RCF, Gunjan Ecological Park is a 40-year-old Ratibati PL with an average depth of 80-90 ft. In the past, it was utilized for animal bathing, irrigation, fishing, pisciculture, and household purposes. The local police department turned it into an ecological park as part of a conservation initiative.
8.8 Rehabilitating, replenishing, procurement, and utilitarian perspectives of abandoned coal mine PLs
Rehabilitating PLs into long-term ecosystems that sustain a range of plant and animal species involves the use of ecological restoration techniques and environmental engineering. Wetlands are made to filter water, enhance its quality, and give different creatures a place to live. This improves biodiversity and biological processes within the environment. Additionally, native plant species are added to preserve the stability of the lake shore, stop erosion, and give animals a place to live and feed. The method could also entail building man-made buildings that imitate aquatic ecosystems seen in nature (Lei et al., 2016). Kajora water purifier
In terms of procurement and utilitarian perspectives, abandoned PLs offer a distinct set of opportunities and challenges. Some important factors to consider are as follows:
8.9 Water scarcity in coal mining district
The Paschim Bardhaman district experiences water scarcity, particularly during the summer, due to its reliance on groundwater, the Damodar, Ajoy, and Barakar rivers. The water from the PLs in the RCF can be mechanically treated or bioremediated so that local communities can use it for a variety of purposes, including domestic use and human consumption (Figure 8. 3). This could lower the cost of water supply.
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Figure 8.3 An abandoned pitlake at Raniganj.
8.10 Retain the coal mining area's groundwater table
Groundwater in the vicinity is greatly impacted by large-scale coal mining operations, which also have an impact on operational, financial, and safety aspects as well as water inflows during the mine design and post-mining stages (Zhao and Wang 2017). However, the Pls' water additionally assists to maintain the area's groundwater table.
8.11 Stakeholders’ engagement
Local communities, environmental organizations, governmental bodies, and industry participants are involved in the procurement process to guarantee that PLs water is used for various entrepreneurial activities such as aquaculture, pisciculture, commercial fishing, etc. To get feedback and address issues, this includes holding public consultations, community engagement programs, and workshops.
8.12 Extended maintenance and management
To guarantee the sustainability and continuous advantages of the PLs, procurement should take long-term management and maintenance into account. This might include employing maintenance personnel, creating management schedules, and obtaining money for ongoing repairs. The livelihoods of the local population can be improved by bioremediation, which can make the lake suitable for irrigation, horticulture, vegetable farming, and medicinal plant cultivation. Additionally, PLs can be used for several objectives, such as providing habitat for wildlife and acting as a natural breeding ground for a range of wild fish and aquatic species.
8.13 Tourism potential
The mining and mining-related industries are closely associated with the RCF and the areas around it. The diversified economies connected to tourism may be included in the RCF in the following years. Water sports are predicted to attract a lot of tourists, so the PLs and its surrounds should be developed aesthetically to promote ecotourism with amenities like eye-catching water rides, a kids' park, an eco-park, recreational boating and angling, etc (Figure 8. 4). The PLs should be developed into a hub for ecotourism and leisure activities and offer a variety of options for procurement.
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Figure 8.4 Gunjan ecological park in Paschim Bardhaman district
8.14 Comprehensive strategy for sustainable environmental practices and procurement goals
Procurement processes for PLs may be utilized for environmental remediation of communities, including contracting environmental engineering plans to assess and mitigate ecological damage from mining activities or urban garbage.
A master plan for a "closed catchment lake" may be created in relation to the closure of the mine in the basin. This would include the permanent diversion of the Nonia, Tamla, Kunur, Tumuni, and other streams as well as various high drains and nalas surrounding the largest mine that borders the RCF urban void (Figure 8. 5). Consequently, during the primary high flow period, rivers and drain water will be redirected to the mine void, creating a comprehensive plan for cleaning up mining or urban voids in PLs. After careful consideration, the RCF rivers' water quality will improve in the years to come and provide a wide range of procurement opportunities (McCullough et al., 2009).
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Figure 8. 5 Nonia River, Raniganj
8.15 Development of infrastructure
The acquisition of water storage for mine pit lakes that have been abandoned may require the construction of infrastructure, such as treatment plants and systems for storing rainwater to prevent flooding.
8.16 Research, investigation and Innovation
Contracts for research and innovation projects, such as new water treatment technologies, habitat restoration strategies, or alternate uses for mine water, that seek to find long-term solutions for managing abandoned coal mine PLs, may also be included in procurement efforts.
Stakeholders can efficiently manage and revitalize abandoned coal mine PLs while improving their environmental, social, and economic potential by addressing these different aspects through strategic procurement processes.
8.17 Challenges
Managing abandoned PLs involves a number of challenges and obstacles. One of the main concerns is the long-term viability of lake ecosystems. Maintaining the ecological balance and water quality is essential to ensure the health of the lakes and its inhabitants for future generations. Another concern is the possibility of on-going contamination from adjacent mining zones. If pollutants and sediments are discharged into the lake, the lake's ecological health and water quality may deteriorate. Workable repair and monitoring techniques are essential to resolving these issues (Bolan et al., 2017).
8.18 The action plan that needs to be implemented
Mining responsibly is crucial to prevent PLs in the RCF region. Proper implementation of mine closure plans, controlling water intrusion, and preventing flooding are essential. Efficient water management technologies can reduce pit lake formation risk. PL water can be used as a freshwater source after remediation, following the JalJeevan Mission, Swachh Bharat Mission, and JolDhoroJolBhoro Scheme. The geological structure of the RCF region affects groundwater storage. Regular maintenance and observation of the mining site are essential after closure, including water quality assessment, erosion prevention, and repair plans.
a)The inhabitants' awareness of the need for pollution control boards and their constant inspection of them is greatly helping to preserve and improve the water quality in the PLs.
b)Community engagement is crucial for the sustainability and maintenance of PLs, with indigenous groups and other stakeholders playing a vital role in decision-making processes. This fosters ownership, cultural sensitivity, and alignment with local needs, ensuring long-term restoration effectiveness and ecosystem protection.
c)The community should be educated about the environmental impact of PLs and restoration efforts through public discussions, educational programs, and open communication, thereby promoting sustainable PLs management and gaining support for related projects.
d)Engaging community members in cultural and recreational programs around restored PLs promotes sustainability, shared care, and job opportunities in ecological restoration, water management, and environmental engineering.
e)The conversion of abandoned mine voids into PLs and the avoidance of their use as garbage dumps should be prioritized in order to meet future water requirements and establish a sustainable water resource.
f)The community's involvement in rehabilitation and bioremediation projects can generate economic opportunities by fostering local expertise, offering training programs, and promoting ecotourism and sustainable land use activities.
g)The MoEFCC's NLCP may serve as the model for guidelines and methodology for the preservation of PLs.
h)Lastly, but just as importantly, NGOs, state and federal governments, and other organizations should work to preserve and use this resource.
8.19 Conclusion
The 21st century faces the challenge of meeting water demands while preserving freshwater systems. As population and consumption increase, water dearth spreads globally. Mine water resources, such as residual pits, can help mitigate water crises by transforming abandoned coal mine voids into sustainable water reservoirs. Former coal mine PLs serve as reminders of our industrial past and the adaptability and resiliency of nature. Vibrant ecosystems supporting various plant and animal species may develop from these altered environments. To ensure the long-term survival of these aquatic ecosystems, it is imperative to optimize ecological restoration, control water quality, and implement sustainable management strategies with entrepreneurial perspectives. These PLs represent the planet's beauty and resilience, and we must protect and restore them for future generations to appreciate their beauty and learn from their timeless teachings.
8.20 Bibliography
Akburak, S., Kul, A. A., Makineci, E., Ozdemir, E., Aktas, N. K., Gurbey, A. P., ...andAkgun, T. (2020). Chemical water parameters of end pit lakes in abandoned coal mines. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 13, 1-12.
Blanchette ML, Lund MA (2016) Pit lakes are a global legacy of mining: an integrated approach to achieving sustainable ecosystems and value for communities. CurrOpin Environ Sustain 23:28-34.
Bolan, N. S., Kirkham, M. B., Ok, Y. S., Vandenberg, J. A., and McCullough, C. D. (2017). Key issues in mine closure planning for pit lakes. In Spoil to soil: mine site rehabilitation and revegetation (pp. 175-188). CRC Press.
Chakraborty, D., Ladha, J. K., Rana, D. S., Jat, M. L., Gathala, M. K., Yadav, S., ...and Raman, A. (2017). A global analysis of alternative tillage and crop establishment practices for economically and environmentally efficient rice production. Scientific Reports, 7(1), 9342.
Dimitrakopoulos, D., Vasileiou, E., Stathopoulos, N., andDimitrakopoulou, S. (2016). Estimation of the qualitative characteristics of post mining lakes in different lignite fields in Greece. Mining Meets Water-Conflicts and Solutions, IMWA.
Dosi, C., and Easter, K. W. (2000). Water scarcity: economic approaches to improving management (Center for International Food and Agricultural Policy, Department of Applied Economics University of Minnesota, U.S.A), Pp: 1-40.
Hendrychova, M., and Kabrna, M. (2016). An analysis of 200-year-long changes in a landscape affected by large-scale surface coal mining: History, present and future. Applied Geography, 74, 151-159.
Henny, C., andMeutia, A. A. (2014). Urban lakes in megacity Jakarta: risk and management plan for future sustainability. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 20, 737-746.
Johnstone, A. C. (2021). Are pit lakes an environmentally sustainable closure option for opencast coal mines?. Journal of the Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 121(10), 531-536.
Lei, H., Peng, Z., Yigang, H., and Yang, Z. (2016). Vegetation and soil restoration in refuse dumps from open pit coal mines. Ecological Engineering, 94, 638-646.
Ling, T. (2022).A global study about water crisis.In 2021 International Conference on Social Development and Media Communication (SDMC 2021) (pp. 809-814).Atlantis Press.
Louloudis, G.; Kasfikis, G.; Mertiri, E. Spatiotemporal Forecasting of Amynteon Pit Lake; Technical Report; PPC SA, Sector of Hydrogeological Studies: Athens, Greece, 2020; Unpublished study. (In Greek).
McCullough, C. D., Schultze, M., and Vandenberg, J. (2020).Realizing beneficial end uses from abandoned pit lakes.Minerals, 10(2), 133.
McCullough, C. D., Schultze, M., and Vandenberg, J. (2020).Realizing beneficial end uses from abandoned pit lakes.Minerals, 10(2), 133.
Mccullough, C., Radhakrishnan, N., Lund, M., Newport, M., Ballot, E., and Short, D. (2012). Riverine breach and subsequent decant of an acidic pit lake: evaluating the effects of riverine flow-through on lake stratification and chemistry.
Mondal, S., and Palit, D. (2019). Evaluation Of Water Quality Using Water Quality Index Of Pit Lakes, Raniganj Coal Field Area, West Bengal, India. Research Journal of Life Sciences, Bioinformatics, Pharmaceutical and Chemical Sciences, 10(2019.0503), 44.
Mondal, S., Mukherjee, A. K., Senapati, T., Pal, S., Haque, S., andGhosh, A. R. (2015). Stratification and water quality of an abandoned opencast coal pit lake at Raniganj Coalfield Area, West Bengal, India. Lakes and Reservoirs: Research and Management, 20(2), 85-100.
Morrison-Saunders, A., McHenry, M. P., Rita Sequeira, A., Gorey, P., Mtegha, H., andDoepel, D. (2016). Integrating mine closure planning with environmental impact assessment: challenges and opportunities drawn from African and Australian practice. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 34(2), 117-128.
Palit, D., andKar, D. (2019). A Contemplation OnPitlakes of Raniganj Coalfield Area: West Bengal, India. Sustainable agriculture, forest and environmental management, 517-571.
Postel, S. L. (2000). Entering an era of water scarcity: the challenges ahead.Ecological applications, 10(4), 941-948.
Saha, D., Keshri, J. P. and Saha, N.C. (2021). Sustainable improvement of abandoned open cast coal mine pit: A special reference to Ratibati O.C.P., Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal, India. Indian Hydrobiology, 20(2): 183-193.
Saha, D., Keshri, J. P., andSaha, N. C. (2022). Comprehensive study on raniganj coalfield area, India: A review. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 28, S387-S398.
Saha, D., Keshri, J.P. and Saha, N.C. (2020). Assessment of seasonal Phytoplankton Diversity of abandoned coal pits in Harabhanga village, Raniganj, West Bengal with reference to pollution status caused by heavy metals. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 2(4): 59-66.
Saha, D., Saha, A. and Saha, N.C. (2020).Seasonal variation of Heavy Metals and Fish Diversity on different open cast coal mine pits of Satgram and Kajora areas Raniganj, West Bengal, India. Bioscience Biotechnology Research Communications, 13(4): 2226-2232.
Sakellari, C., Roumpos, C., Louloudis, G., andVasileiou, E. (2021).A review about the sustainability of pit lakes as a rehabilitation factor after mine closure.Materials Proceedings, 5(1), 52.
Sakellari, C., Roumpos, C., Louloudis, G., andVasileiou, E. (2021).A review about the sustainability of pit lakes as a rehabilitation factor after mine closure.Materials Proceedings, 5(1), 52.
Sakellari, C., Roumpos, C., Louloudis, G., andVasileiou, E. (2021).A review about the sustainability of pit lakes as a rehabilitation factor after mine closure.Materials Proceedings, 5(1), 52.
Schultze, M., Jolas, P., and Weber, L. (2018).Filling Remediation and Management of Pit Lakes by Using Mine Water—An Update.In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Mine Closure, Leipzig, Germany (pp. 3-7).
Shongwe, B. N. (2018). The impact of coal mining on the environment and community quality of life: a case study investigation of the impacts and conflicts associated with coal mining in the Mpumalanga Province, South Africa.
Soni, A., Mishra, B., and Singh, S. (2014). Pit lakes as an end use of mining: A review. Journal of Mining and Environment, 5(2), 99-111.
Unicef (2021). Water scarcity: addressing the growing lack of available water to meet children’s needs. United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund. https://www.unicef.org/wash/water-scarcity.
Unsal B, Yazicigil H (2016) Assessment of open pit dewatering requirements and pit lake formation for the Ki§ladag gold mine, Usak, Turkey. Mine Water and the Environment 35:180-198.
Vasileiou, E., Stathopoulos, N., Stefouli, M., Charou, E., andPerrakis, A. (2012). Evaluating the Environmental Impacts after The Closure of Mining Activities Using Remote Sensing Methods-the Case Study of Aliveri Mine Area. In Annual Conference, pp. 755-763.
Yadav, R., Banerjee, A., andJhariya, M. K. (2021).Socioeconomic Potential of Selected Pitlakes of Bishrampur Area, Sarguja, Chhattisgarh, India.In Advances in Sustainable Development and Management of Environmental and Natural Resources (pp. Vol2-335).Apple Academic Press.
McCullough, C. D., Lund, M. A., and Zhao, L. Y. L. (2009). Mine voids management strategy (I): pit lake resources of the Collie Basin. Department of Water Project Report MiWER/Centre for Ecosystem Management Report, 14.
Zhao, L., Ren, T., and Wang, N. (2017). Groundwater impact of open cut coal mine and an assessment methodology: A case study in NSW. International Journal of Mining Science and Technology, 27(5), 861-866.
Chapter 9. The need for a suitable assay of the carbon footprint in this coalfield is crucial
9.1 Abstract
Worldwide temperatures are rising due to global warming, making climate change a "hot" topic for climate scientists and decision-makers. The argument that anthropogenic emissions are the primary cause of the present climate change is being evaluated carefully with all anthropological activities coming under scrutiny. This highlights the necessity of evaluating carbon emissions across a range of levels. An efficient method for assessing carbon emissions is the CF, which assesses the emission of GHGs, particularly CO2 and CH4. In the present situation, India, being the third-largest GHG emitter in the world, is a developing nation that has to advocate for some major mitigation steps to lessen its impact on global warming. Accordingly, it is expected that mining, the main industry propelling the expansion of the Indian economy, would play a significant role in anthropogenic emissions of GHGs. Additionally, it increases the amount of GHG in the atmosphere through the release of gases like CH4 from mineral processing facilities, blasting, and others. Therefore, it is impossible to ignore mining emissions since they have a substantial impact on the bludgeoning global warming. Surface mining primarily affects land tenure, and land cover, and has detrimental effects on the environment in the RCF. Regarding this, the current study promotes the implementation of CF tests in RCF by highlighting several national and international studies conducted in the mining and industrial sectors. The CF assessment would make it easier for the company to manage vulnerability in terms of ecology, investment choices, and policy formulation. It also serves as a crucial tool for monitoring and evaluating the successes of environmentally benign initiatives, such as achieving sustainability. To bridge the gaps and provide full execution of carbon management solutions, additional study is necessary to identify how to adopt a more integrated approach that combines varied cooperation, understanding of the indigenous perspective, and contemplation of the life cycle. The study not only emphasizes the need to calculate the CFs of mines and their influence on the present climate change, but it also encourages the development of cleaner methods to minimize emissions.
Keywords
Carbon Footprint, Global warming, GHGs, Industrial Sector, Mining Sector, RCF.
9.2 Introduction
Sustainable development, defined by the Bruntland Commission study from 1987, aims to meet present demands while considering future generations' needs (Onat and Kucukvar 2020). The concept of a "Green Economy" is increasingly popular for sustainable development, especially in developing nations, as it promotes economic prosperity and social well-being (Onat and Kucukvar, 2020) (Figure 9.1). Put together, the SDGs set by the United Nations have acted as a catalyst for industrial sustainability, which improves social welfare by boosting employment and income rates, lowering GHG emissions and environmental pollution, and increasing resource and energy efficiency (Onat and Kucukvar, 2020; Lombardi et al., 2016).
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Figure 9.1. Green Economy (Onat and Kucukvar, 2020)
GHG emissions and air quality are principal issues related to environmental sustainability (Figure 9.2). Many international programs and laws have been put into place to address climate change and lower CO2 emissions (IPCC, 2014; Lombardi et al., 2014, 2016). Mining, industry, and urban agglomerates significantly harm the environment and natural resources through GHG emissions. Global policies and activities aimed at mitigating and adapting to climate change necessitate the measurement and disclosure of GHG emissions, given their role in the depletion of natural resources (Lombardi et al., 2016; Kalmykova et al., 2015; Sovacool and Brown, 2010).
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Figure 9.2. Global GHG emission across various anthropogenic endeavors (AI- generted)
Implementing the 1960s-elaborated UM concept was the first attempt to gauge the degree of environmental effect. This makes it possible to use several techniques created over the past 20 years to analyze the material and energy fluxes connected to the production and consumption of human activities (BeloinSaint-Pierre et al., 2016; Chen and Chen, 2015). According to Da Schio and Fagerlund Brekke (2013), the UCF is one of the largest "outflows" from a city among people who have settled to date, having an impact on the whole planet. Furthermore, it has been acknowledged as the superior option for educating decision-makers in particular on the direct and indirect GHG emissions from cities. As stated by Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al. (2016), this technique was used by 91% of the examined UM studies to produce data that was helpful for mitigation measures (Beloin-Saint-Pierre et al., 2016; Lin et al., 2015). Recent years have seen the presentation of numerous accounting systems and techniques for analyzing emissions and collecting GHG data for city-scale inventory, leading to ongoing research to find a precise, comprehensible, and comprehensive framework (Lombardy et al. 2016).
9.3 Emergence of CF
Several studies claim that the CF is a comprehensive viewpoint for assessing the GHG emissions coming from an urban, mining, and industrial system and might be a helpful tool for local policy legislators (Figure 9.3). A framework for allocating these emissions to each end product and a mechanism for precisely measuring the GHG emissions arising from each activity in a supply chain process step is provided by CF (Ohnishi et al., 2017; Lin et al., 2015; Dhakal and Ruth 2017). The source of lifecycle GHG emissions, according to Larsen and Hertwch (2009), is the production of products and services used by a population or activity that is specified spatially. This holds whether or not the GHG emissions take place inside or beyond the bounds of the targeted population or activity.
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Figure 9.3. The concept of CF
In the opinion of Peters (2010), another approach for thinking about the CF of a functional unit is the climatic effect under a given metric that considers all pertinent emission sources, sinks, and storage in terms of both production and consumption within a certain geographical and temporal system boundary. As a result, CF was developed to quantify the total quantity of GHG emissions, including CO2 that are either directly or indirectly associated with a product (i.e., products and services) across its supply chain (EC-JRC, 2009). GWP estimates the potential climate change effect per kilogram of GHG over a specific time, such as 100 years, and is the basis for all of these releases' expressions in terms of CO2 equivalent (CO2eq) (IPCC, 2007).
The CF studies were then used at many scales: for people, organizations, and businesses; moreover, they were utilized by nations and localities that needed a comprehensive instrument to carry out specific operations in various domains as part of their policies to mitigate climate change. Rural and urban CF differ significantly from one another (Ibrahim et al., 2012; Li and Zan, 2016; Zhang et al., 2015):
a) National emissions statistics are always derived from production activities that take place i nside the national boundaries
b) Emission statistics for cities may also be based on geographical linkages with adjacent hinterlands and the global resource network, given that the maladies of cities are more complicated than those of the countryside.
WBSCD and the WRI established them in 2001 (Barua et al., 2020; Lombardi et al., 2017).
Direct and indirect emissions are defined under GHG rules (Figure 9.4). A company's power plant or fleet of automobiles are examples of sources of direct GHG emissions that are under its ownership or control, according to the World Resources Institute (2017). According to a 2017 research by the World Resources Institute, indirect GHG emissions are those that result from the reporting company's operations but come from sources like power purchases or travel that are owned or operated by another organization. According to the World Resources Institute (2017), direct and indirect emissions are categorized under the following categories by GHG regulations:
Scope 1: Every single direct GHG emission, including those originating from grid supply and thermal power sources. This also includes the energy that the diesel generator produces when there is no power flowing in.
Scope 2: Steam, thermal, or electricity-mediated GHG emissions.
Scope 3: Additional indirect emissions that are not included in Scope 2, such as those that come from purchasing materials, producing and extracting fuels, and activities connected to transportation. Generally speaking, this is referring to diesel and gasoline used for transportation.
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Figure 9.4. Direct and Indirect GHG emissions
The computational tools involve Microsoft Excel spreadsheets featuring the appropriate stages from the GHG standards (WRI 2017). The emissions calculations and related documentation are made easier by the spreadsheets.
9.4 Global scenario overview
Yao et al., (2023) developed a model for calculating carbon emissions in underground metal mines to objectively analyze the effects of various mining strategies. Three categories accounted for the carbon emissions produced by the mine's production process: a) emissions from the combustion of fuel and explosive explosions; b) emissions from the production of fuel, consumed materials, and electricity; and c) emissions from the surface industrial site's reduced absorption of CO2. The influence of underground metal mining on carbon emissions was then evaluated using data from an iron mine in China's Anhui Province. The findings demonstrated that the main source of carbon emissions from underground mining operations was energy use. This demonstrated how utilizing cutting-edge electric power technology in deep metal mines may significantly reduce carbon emissions. Furthermore, mining techniques with increased productivity have shown definite benefits. They have several positive effects, including a reduction in the amount of carbon emissions per kiloton of ore, a shorter mine life, and less CO2 absorption by the forests that the surface industrial site occupies. Moreover, these techniques reduced carbon emissions throughout the mine's existence. Backfill mining has demonstrated efficacy in mitigating tailings emissions and decreasing the necessary land area for a tailings pond. Accordingly, this strategy would reduce the amount of CO2 absorbed by the forests that house the tailings pond (Yao et al., 2023). Zhao et al., (2011) state that in 2007, China's industrial activities resulted in a CF of 520 M hm[2], which created an ecological deficit of 28 M hm[2]. This indicates that there was insufficient productive land to offset the CF of industrial activities, with a compensating rate of 94.5%. In 2007, China's industrial space had a CF of 0.63 hm[2]/hm[2] per unit area; residential and industrial-commercial space had the greatest CF at 17 hm[2]/hm[2]. China's industrial areas all showed a falling tendency in terms of their per unit area (CF) from east to west (Zhao et al., 2011).
Ivanova et al. (2022) carried out research in Russia to examine the effects of CF on the environment and to determine strategies for minimizing the harm that coal mining companies do to the environment. The available reviews and research papers on the effects of coal mining firms' CFs (CF) and strategies for mitigating them while restoring wastelands' biodiversity were consulted to examine the selected issue. It was determined that an outright prohibition on the industry's ability to extract and utilize coal would not have the intended effect. The researchers took into consideration the primary strategies for minimizing the damaging effects that coal mining companies have on the environment. Restoring the plant cover using phytoremediation techniques and establishing carbon landfills in reclaimed areas of technologically contaminated coal mining locations are the most promising approaches to lowering the CF (Ivanova et al., 2022).
Australia's CF has been analyzed by Wood and Dey (2009). Their findings indicated that 580 Mt of total domestic emissions came from the supply of energy or 190 Mt per person. This translates to a level of 28 Mt per individual. An estimated 140 Mt of emissions are associated with imports, of which 60 Mt are related to power. Since Australian technology is assumed, and the majority of Australia's energy is produced by coal-fired power plants, which have greater emissions intensity than the majority of other foreign electricity-producing technologies, these emissions of electricity are likely overstated. An estimated 200 Mt of emissions are associated with exports, of which 50 Mt are related to the provision of power. Interestingly, a quarter of Australia's power, which is mostly generated by coal, is utilized in goods and services that are purchased and consumed outside of the country, even though the policy is often concentrated on export-oriented, emissions-intensive industries like mining. As stated by Wood and Dey, (2009), Australia's projected CF is 520 Mt, or 26 Mt/capita, which is somewhat less than the country's emissions (580 Mt, or 30 Mt/capita).
In four Canadian provinces (British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Ontario, and Quebec), Bharathan et al. (2017) evaluated the relative fuel prices and usage of diesel, compressed natural gas, and electricity for underground haulage. The authors also compared CO2 emissions for the full fuel life cycles arithmetically and using Life Cycle Analysis in the four provinces by accounting for the energy mix for electricity power generation. They assessed the impact of mine haulage on the ventilation requirement and potential reduction in CF. The findings indicated that, particularly in the province of Quebec, electric haulage has a higher potential for fuel expenditure reductions and uses less on-site energy than compressed natural gas and diesel. Besides, there are considerable power savings and reductions in CO2 emissions from the conveyance of compressed natural gas and electricity. However, under life cycle analysis, electric haulage may not always result in the lowest carbon emissions, depending on the energy sources used in each province (Bharathan et al., 2017).
South Africa's mining and metals sector, which contributed 6% of GDP in 2020, is the second largest contributor to the nation's economy (Department of Statistics South Africa, 2020b). This implies that any new legislation affecting this sector will have an impact on the GDP as a whole. The largest commodity exporter in the nation, making up almost 50% of all exports, is the mining and metals industry, according to data published by the Department of Statistics South Africa, (2020a). There hasn't been much international collaboration to lower carbon emissions in the atmosphere, despite climate change. By enacting a carbon tax, South Africa has demonstrated its opposition to these problems, but with unintended implications for small and medium-sized businesses and entrepreneurship. Anticipatedly, all South African businesses will need to adjust their market operations to comply with the carbon tax. Shuro, (2021) reports that, according to CF tests, the Republic of South Africa is among the top 20 countries in the world for CO2 emissions, with an annual per capita emission rate of 10 tons, which is equivalent to that of industrialized nations (Figure 9.5). In light of these findings, the government, via the National Treasury's Tax Policy Unit, initiated studies to ascertain if utilizing a tax system may lead to environmental improvements. The study produced a draft Environmental Fiscal Reform Policy Paper in 2006, which included a framework and a list of standards for evaluating and analyzing environmental tax schemes. The National Treasury implemented a carbon tax plan to encourage producers and consumers to adopt more sustainable behaviors and reduce their use of fossil fuels by using price as a tool to internalize some of the external costs of global warming (Loubser, 2016).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 9.5. GHG emission bykacchacoal burning at RCF
In many Spanish industrial sectors, Zubelzu and Alvarez evaluated the CF in 2015. According to the findings, depending on the activity, the average CF of industrial operations ranges from 130 kg CO2eq/m[2] to 600 kg CO2eq/m[2]. For the most polluting industrial operations (chemical and non-metal mineral products), gas and electricity are the main sources of emissions; transportation is the main source for all other activities. Urban planning decision factors may accomplish the majority of reductions in the industrial CF, except for waste management and two industrial activities connected to energy. This means that municipalities can have a significant impact on this factor.
9.5 National scenario overview
All anthropogenic activities are currently being closely examined, with the major cause of the current climate change being attributed to human-caused emissions. India has to take significant mitigation measures to reduce its contribution to global warming since, according to reports, it is the third-largest GHG emitter in the world (Tibrewal and Sahu, 2016).
Grunewald et al. (2012) assessed the CF of an Indian home and discovered that while wealth was the primary driver of household emissions, fuel types - which were specifically designed for cooking - affected CFs. An increase in income has varying effects on families. With an income elasticity of more than one, households with a presently low CF often see a larger increase in emissions when income rises. Income elasticity is not one among households with high CF at the moment. Because of this, it's possible that they've reached a saturation point and that further usage is now less carbon-intensive. Examining trends over time, they discovered that the majority of the 60% increase in the mean CF was caused by higher family income (total spending), which accounts for 50% of the increase in emissions. They concluded that the strong increase in the CF between the fourth- and fifth-income quintile was primarily caused by the overall income increase after analyzing the income elasticities of each consumption category and finding that those categories that were classified as luxury goods, such as transportation, medical goods, entertainment, or services, did not exhibit the highest carbon intensities.
Conversely, there has been an increase in GHG emissions from crop cultivation over the past 50 years, according to Sah and Devakumar's (2018) assessment of the CF of India's agricultural sector. The area used to grow carbon-intensive rice has grown throughout this time, whereas the area used to grow less carbon-intensive coarse cereals like barley, sorghum, finger millet, and pearl millet has shrunk. The use of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers is shown to be responsible for a significant amount of the overall emissions among the many inputs utilized; as a result, improving nitrogen efficiency in the cultivation process by modifying the usage of chemical nitrogen fertilizers is the best course of action. Reducing the CF of the agriculture sector requires improving the effectiveness of other applied inputs. It is possible to accomplish this by carefully following advice, such as applying inputs based on soil analysis and at crucial stages of crop growth, rotating legumes, implementing integrated farming practices, using organic fertilizers, and implementing moisture-saving technologies in rice farming. In order to attain food security and environmental stabilization, farmers, researchers, and policymakers may better understand and regulate GHG emissions from agricultural production by measuring these emissions.
As per the assessment of CF by Pathak et al. (2010), carbon emissions occur at several stages of food products' life cycles. Out of 24 Indian food items, the primary sources of GHG emissions were rice production and animal food products (meat and milk). On the other hand, food products derived from crops were the main source of N2O emissions. The production of agricultural inputs, transportation, food processing, and preparation all result in the emission of CO2. The life cycle of cooked rice produced 3 times as much GHG emissions as the life cycle of chapatti, a wheat flour product Rice, chapatti, fish, and mutton all released GHG at rates that were 11, 12, 13, and 37 times higher, respectively. Since Indians generally eat locally grown, fresh food, about 90% of emissions were from food production, with around 10% coming from preparation, and around 2% each from processing, and transportation. An adult Indian male followed a healthy vegetarian diet, consuming 1170 g of food and emitting 725 g of CO2 equivalent to GHGd-[1]. An ovo-vegetarian dinner and a non-vegetarian lunch with mutton produced 1.5 times as much GHG emissions as did a vegetarian meal, 2 times that of a non-vegetarian meal with chicken, and 1.5 times that of a lacto-vegetarian meal.
Green organizations and policymakers are paying more attention to coal mining as it is a major source of GHG emissions. In the coal-mining industry, fugitive emissions, emissions from captive power generation, land-use change, mine fires, fuel combustion, energy-related activities, and acquired products and services are responsible for most of the emissions. The major source of GHG emissions is fugitive CH4 emissions, which can account for 70% to 80% of GHG emissions both during and after mining operations. According to Pandey et al., (2018), the least amount of emissions is caused by electricity transmission, product consumption, and emissions from acquired products and services. Emissions from heat, water, and electricity that are purchased account for the second-highest portion of emissions, accounting for around 10% of total emissions.
9.6 Need of CF assay in RCF
One of the most enormous coal mines in the world, the RCF in West Bengal, India, covers 1,530 km[2] and includes the Panchet and Biharinath hills. With 23 billion tons of reserves of coal and 6 billion tons of extractable resources, ECL runs 107 mines that supply the world's energy needs at the cost of considerable anthropogenic emissions. Determining the locations for carbon footprint tests and comprehending the environmental effects of mining operations depend on measuring the CF in coal mining sites (Masto et al., 2015) (Figure 9.6). The following justifies the necessity of CF assessments near coal mines:
Estimating emissions of GHGs
The primary GHG released by coal mining processes are CO2, CH4, and N2O. CF assays provide a baseline for evaluating the environmental effect by assisting in the quantification of GHG emissions.
Keeping an eye on air quality
The air pollution caused by GHG emissions from coal mining operations has an impact on human health and local air quality. Assays for measuring CF can be used to track emissions and pinpoint locations that require mitigation to enhance air quality.
Assessing the impacts of climate change
Climate change is mostly caused by the combustion of coal for energy production. Understanding the industry's entire contribution to global warming and its implications for attempts to mitigate climate change is made possible by CF tests conducted in coal mining locations.
Observance of regulations
Regulations limiting GHG emissions from industrial processes, such as coal mining, are in place in many nations. Mining companies may evaluate their compliance with these laws and find ways to reduce emissions with the use of carbon footprint assessments.
Recognizing hotspots and opportunities for mitigation
CF assays can locate emission hotspots in coal mining operations, such as underground mine methane leaks or coal combustion-related CO2 emissions. Companies can prioritize mitigation activities and put emission-reduction strategies into action thanks to this knowledge.
Enhancing Sustainability and Efficiency
It is possible to find ways to increase productivity and use fewer resources by understanding the CF of coal mining activities. Mining firms may lessen their environmental effect and improve sustainability by streamlining operations and implementing cleaner technologies.
In favor of Environmental Management Practices
In coal mining sites, CF tests offer useful information for creating and executing environmental management plans. This might entail establishing goals for reducing emissions, carrying out carbon offset programs, or making investments in renewable energy sources.
Promoting Eco-Friendly Approaches
CF assays can encourage the adoption of more environmentally friendly procedures in coal mining operations by measuring GHG emissions and analyzing their effects on the environment. This might entail making waste reduction reclamation and restoration efforts, as well as investing in cleaner technology.
Strengthening the practice of CSR
A dedication to CSR and environmental care may be seen in the completion of CF tests. It enables mining businesses to inform stakeholders and the general public transparently about their environmental performance.
Analyzing the environmental impact of coal mining activities and monitoring emissions both depend on CF assessments. Through the mitigation of the carbon footprint associated with its coal mining operations, ECL may assist reduce the adverse effects of climate change and advance environmental sustainability. A mine's CF in RCF may be utilized to evaluate its impact on climate change and promote more environmentally friendly options because mining emissions are a contributing factor to global warming. It also aids in issue identification and makes recommendations for improving emission estimation, regulation, and the use of unconventional energy.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 9.6. GHG emission from a coal mine in RCF, justifying the need for a CF assay in the region
9.7 Potential possibilities
Technical advancements worldwide focus on developing novel methods and technologies to reduce environmental risks and maintain economic growth. However, challenges persist in adopting carbon control systems. Global institutions must change to preserve natural resources and bridge the divide between reality and climate-denier rhetoric. Governments, investors, and academics must collaborate to achieve carbon neutrality and tackle climate concerns. Utilizing advanced scientific knowledge and innovative technology is crucial for achieving carbon neutrality and addressing climate concerns (Valls-Val et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2019; Garg et al., 2018). There is a current push to create new approaches to energy efficiency, sustainable resource use, and GHG emissions reduction. For societal transformation, research and innovation must be funded and encouraged. Achieving carbon neutrality also requires strong policy, with legal foundations and ambitious programs encouraging sustainable growth. The transition to renewable energy sources must be prioritized equally by shareholders and customers to attain carbon neutrality. Their expansion and development will be aided by investments in renewable energy technology and sustainability activities. Customers have the power to shape the market and encourage the creation of sustainable alternatives by selecting certain products and services. Therefore, cooperation and coordination amongst several stakeholders are needed to achieve carbon neutrality (Valls-Val et al., 2021; Jiang et al., 2019; Garg et al., 2018).
9.8 Conclusion
The plundering of natural resources has been a significant driver of human economy and civilization development since the Industrial Revolution. Human activities such as petroleum and natural gas use, deforestation, and land degradation have led to rising atmospheric concentrations of climate-active gases and anthropogenic emissions, resulting in a rise in global temperatures by around 1°C over the last 150 years. Limiting these increases and curbing societal carbon emissions are the two main challenges facing nations, science, and civil society. To minimize and sequester GHG emissions, it is crucial to modify current manufacturing systems. Carbon capture and storage can be a helpful tool in evaluating released carbon levels, creating sustainability plans, controlling water risk, and supporting policy development. CF evaluations are essential for tracking emissions and evaluating how coal mining operations affect the environment. ECL can assist in CF mitigation, lessening the negative consequences of climate change, and advancing environmental sustainability. Concerns about emission estimates, regulation, and unconventional energy usage may be found, and suggestions for changes made by CF in RCF. Additionally, it can assist in locating hotspots for air pollution and creating measures for mitigating it—especially in nations like India. Through the establishment of public policy frameworks, investment decisions, and carbon pollution management, CF analysis may promote the growth of a sustainable society.
9.9 Bibliography
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Nazir, Md, Roy, K, Saha, A, and Saha, D. (2024). A novel approach to explore new means of depletion of potable water crisis by phytoremediation of Abandoned Coalmine Pitlake and generate alternate livelihood: A case study of RCF, West Bengal, India. InHydrology-Current Research and Future Directions.IntechOpen.
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Chapter 10. The emergence of a comprehensive approach to carbon sequestration and bioremediation
10.1 Abstract
Urbanization in developing nations leads to air and water pollution, causing FW scarcity. Traditional restoration methods are costly, but bioremediation, a method involving aquatic plants and algae, can remove contaminants and toxins from watery environments. Algae, due to their growth and photosynthetic efficiency, are highly effective biological C sequestration agents, helping improve bioremediation in the face of air pollution primarily caused by GHG emissions from human activities and industrialization. Under ideal conditions, algae may absorb up to 99% of CO2. The usage of these organisms has improved the air quality by raising the concentration of O2 and lowering CO2. The study evaluates whether co-cultivating aquatic plants and algae might improve bioremediation capacities while also sequestering C for environmental sustainability. Aquatic plants provide ecologically acceptable means of purification by absorbing pollutants, while co-cultivated algae can capture CO2 from the atmosphere. This integrated approach to wastewater management and GHG reduction, which incorporates C capture and storage as well as bioremediation, is compliant with the 2015 Paris Agreement. Utilizing the biomass of aquatic plants and algae for non-conventional biofuels, and value-added products can lessen dependency on fossil fuels and provide benefits for the environment and the economy. Having 49.17 Bt of coal reserves, the 443.50 km[2]. RCF is situated in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India. Perched at 30.61 Bt in West Bengal and 18.56 Bt in Jharkhand, the RCF is India's next-largest coalfield. Surface-cut mining is the most prevalent method of coal extraction in this region. Unarguably being the most popular approach, surface-cut quarrying leaves behind large crevices that, throughout the monsoon, become PLs that are left abandoned. However mine-liberated contaminants abound within the abandoned PLs. Additionally, the method of extracting discharges a great deal of contaminants into the atmosphere, which degrades its quality. Employing this cleansed PL water after it has been remedied by algae and aquatic plants will offer a sustainable water supply. Likewise, the algae and aquatic plants can be incorporated into other scenarios to sequester C in the locality and improve the quality of air. Nonetheless, further research is needed to fully understand and explore the process of separating and identifying plant-associated algae. The study evaluates the combined advantages of aquatic plants and algae for wastewater management and C sequestration.
Keywords
Abandoned PLs, Bioremediation, C sequestration, Co-cultivation, GHG, Wastewater management
10.2 Introduction
Urbanization is one of the most significant sociocultural changes of the 21st century, resulting from several environmental, social, and economic factors. According to Bai et al. (2017), urbanization has a wide range of significant environmental effects on a local, regional, and global scale. Over the past fifty years, there has been a noticeable increase in urbanization in developing nations. Historical urbanization in industrialized nations is closely related to rapid urbanization in growing economies, with a strong correlation between rising per capita income and urbanization. Urbanization is often used as a measure of population growth over time and space (Dong et al., 2019). As countries develop, people move from rural, agricultural areas to urban areas where they work in manufacturing and services. Rapid urbanization has accelerated the exploitation of scarce resources and led to many problems with environmental degradation, but it has also facilitated social and economic advancement (Gollin et al., 2016). The primary sources of pollution in water and the atmosphere are industrial wastewater pollution, industrial smoke and dust, and C emissions from urban expansion, industrial, and anthropogenic activities in urban areas, according to Liang et al. (2019), and Chen et al. (2018). These environmental issues are placing a great deal of demand on the ecosystem and resources. It is widely acknowledged that water is essential to life as we know it on Earth. Water is a resource that is frequently used for social and economic purposes across the world (Karimi-Maleh et al., 2021; Saravanan et al., 2021; Liang et al., 2019; Kosalopova et al., 2017). FW makes up about 2.5% of all the water that is accessible on Earth. FW is essential to most ecosystems and forms of life. Sources of FW include ponds, rivers, lakes, streams, and groundwater, to name a few (Kreitler, 2023; Rana and Guleria 2018). Glaciers and other unsuitable sources contain the remaining FW, of which just around 1% is viable for human use (Nazir et al., 2024). However, these resources are running depleted due to continued industrialization and population expansion. Additional factors contributing to FW depletion and scarcity include internal climate variability, climate change, and the growing usage of FW for energy generation. Two-thirds of the world's population experience water stress as a result of FW shortage, which is turning into a serious environmental issue. Additionally, 1.1 B people drink polluted water globally, which hurts their health (Gleick and Cooley 2021; Hasan et al., 2018). In India, water-related disorders make up about 21% of all infectious diseases, according to the World Bank. Finding other water sources for human use or reclaiming water from existent wastewater is crucial to resolving the problems related to water scarcity. Duque-Acevedo et al. (2020), have observed that treating wastewater may be an excellent approach to recovering water and reusing it for a variety of residential and other uses. Reverse osmosis, activated C adsorption, microfiltration, ultrafiltration, and sand filters are among the wastewater treatment systems employed. According to Lakshmi et al. (2017), these techniques are quite successful in purifying wastewater. Nevertheless, these approaches necessitate significant financial outlays. However, in an attempt to get businesses back to how they were before the COVID-19 pandemic, worldwide emissions have gone up, substantially undermining the objective of reducing C emissions. Global energy CO2 emissions increased by over 2% between December 2019 and December 2020 (Paul et al., 2019).
Using aquatic plants and algae to remove pollutants from wastewater is one of the most creative and affordable wastewater treatment techniques available. Furthermore, it causes less harm to the environment. The process by which plants remove, trap, immobilize, and decompose pollutants from soil, water, or the atmosphere is known as phytoremediation (Muthusaravanan et al., 2018). Growing rapidly in stagnant wastewater and rivers without additional nutrients, they may absorb different pollutants from wastewater and PTEs from industrial effluent (Singh et al., 2021; Gerhardt et al., 2017). Moreover, aquatic plants are highly effective in eliminating a wide range of organic and inorganic contaminants from wastewater, such as fertilizers, hydrocarbons, PTEs, explosives, and radionucleotides (Anand et al., 2019). Analogously, the utilization of cyanobacteria, macroalgae, and microalgae can also be advantageous in treating wastewater. Researchers refer to this type of algal bioremediation as phycoremediation. As per Nasir et al. (2023), this technique has high efficacy in eliminating organic and inorganic pollutants from wastewater. Furthermore, via sequestration, algae can be a valuable resource for the capture of C. When grown under the proper circumstances, algae may absorb up to 99% of CO2 (Iglina et al., 2022). According to research (Paul et al., 2020),Chlorella vulgarishas the capacity to phycoremediate, allowing it to absorb 3.35 g/l/day. Using a wide range of bioremediation procedures, several developed nations, including the US, Canada, Russia, and most of Europe, have removed PTEs and hazardous organic compounds from soil and water. But when it comes to cleaning up contaminated areas in underdeveloped countries like Nepal, the biggest worries are about the overall cost of remediation, the technical specifications, the acceptance of society, and sustainability. For setup, upkeep, and post-treatment, phytoremediation, and phycoremediation need low to medium levels of technology and can be advantageous for these developing nations (Timalsina et al., 2022; Gunwal et al., 2021).
10.3 Mechanism of bioremediation by aquatic plants
PTEs contaminated soil can be treated using a single phytoremediation method or a combination of two or more. Rhizofiltration, phytoextraction, phytostabilization, phytodegradation, and phytovolatilization were the primary processes of phytoremediation (Sharma et al., 2023) (Figure 10. 1). Plants are known to have a variety of metal-binding proteins, such as PCs, metalloenzymes, MT, metal-activated enzymes, and several metal storage, transport, and channel proteins (Figure 10. 2 and Figure 10. 3) (Raza et al., 2020; Rodrigo et al., 2016). Moreover, glutathione-derived metal-binding peptides synthesize PCs, which are low-molecular-weight peptides with a strong affinity for transition metals (Sharma et al., 2023). According to Mejare and Bülow (2001), metal-binding proteins are substances that attach to metals including iron, nickel, zinc, chromium, arsenic, cadmium, and lead. Naturally occurring PTEs binding proteins like PCs (Figure 10. 4) and MT (Figure 10. 5) are rich in cysteine residues. Species that tend to absorb greater concentrations of PTEs in their surface sections are referred to as hyperaccumulators, whereas those that do not have this character are non-hyperaccumulators. Depending on the PTE being accumulated, different plant species might be classified as hyperaccumulator species (Souza et al., 2013). Krämer (2010) states that depending on the PTE, aerial portions of plant shoots with concentrations of PTE ranging from 1,000 to 10,000 mg/kg are usually a reliable diagnostic of a hyperaccumulator plant species. Due to the high toxicity of Cd, the concentration is much lower (100 mg/kg) in this situation (Krämer, 2010). The element concentration ratio between aerial parts and roots is another criterion that Baker et al. (1994) developed. A ratio above 1.0 indicates that the contaminant is primarily accumulated in aerial parts, making it a hyperaccumulator that may be appropriate for phytoextraction.
The enhanced tolerance or resistance (cysteine- and glutathione-rich compounds) that hyperaccumulating plants exhibit is believed to be caused by the presence of an increased chelating molecule in plant cells, such as PCs and MT, which are cysteine-rich proteins (Sharma et al., 2021). Different forms of cadmium-binding proteins with fewer cysteine residues are seen in plants (Yang et al., 2018). To increase the ability, tolerance, or accumulation of metal-binding in bacteria and plants, metal-binding proteins have frequently been added and/or overexpressed (Sharma et al., 2021).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 10.3. MT-mediated bioremediation by aquatic plants and algae (Raza et al., 2020)
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Figure 10.4. Structure of PC and mechanism of PTE capture (Rodrigo et al., 2016)
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Figure 10.5. Structure of MT and mechanism of PTE capture (Marikar and Chun, 2022)
10.4 Aquatic plants as agents of bioremediation
The effectiveness of various aquatic plants in bioremediation has been the subject of several research carried out all around the world. Khataee et al. (2012) looked at the possibility ofLemna minorL. (duckweed) for the azo dye C.I. Acid Blue 92 (AB92) degradation in Iran.Micranthemum umbrosum(J.F. Gmel.) S.F. Blake is an aquatic plant that uses phytofiltration to remove two dangerous and carcinogenic chemicals, As and Cd, from water in Japan. Islam et al. (2015) looked into this process. Gonzalez et al. (2014) looked into the effects of compost and the biodegradable chelate methylglycinediacetic acid on the phytoextraction of Cu by the aquatic plantOenothera picensisPhil. in Chile. Afzal et al. (2019) and Quilliam et al. (2015) have also demonstrated the use of aquatic plants in phytoremediation of wastewater. Shrivastava and Srivastava (2021) looked into the biochemical responses that occurred inHydrilla verticillata(L. f.) Royle as a result of the accumulation of metals and metalloids. The effectiveness of water hyacinth in removing BOD, dissolved solids, and PTEs - Cr and Cu from wastewater was investigated by Saha et al. (2017). The researchers also looked at how the development of water hyacinth altered the effluent's pH. Pandey (2020) examined the potential forAzolla carolinianaKaulf.to accumulate PTEs in the flying ash ponds of NTPC Unchahar, situated in Uttar Pradesh, India. On the other hand, on the bank of the Amravati River in Andhra Pradesh, India, Panneerselvam and Priya (2023) examined the water hyacinth's phytoremediation efficacy in the dye industry's contaminated water. The aforementioned, constrained instances demonstrate the critical function that some aquatic plants play in bioremediation-the technique of utilizing living organisms to eliminate or neutralize pollutants from contaminated areas. Aquatic plants function as bioremediation agents in the following ways:
Phytoremediation
Aquatic plants use their roots, stems, and leaves to absorb, decompose, or transform contaminants so they may be removed from water bodies (Nazir et al., 2024).
Intake of nutrients
Aquatic plants effectively reduce eutrophication and algal blooms by absorbing excess nutrients and pollutants like N and P from water bodies (Goswami et al., 2022; Ummalyma and Singh, 2021).
PTE accumulation
Aquatic plants can phytoaccumulate PTEs from polluted sediments and water, such as Pb, Hg, and Cd, which lowers the quantities of PTEs in the environment (Nazir et al., 2024; Ali et al., 2020).
Enhanced microbial activity
Aquatic plants release root exudates and organic matter into the surrounding sediment, which stimulate microbial activity. These microbes can degrade organic pollutants, such as petroleum hydrocarbons, pesticides, and industrial chemicals, through processes like biodegradation and mineralization (Kristanti and Hadibarata, 2023).
Sediment stabilization
Aquatic plants use their roots and rhizomes to capture tiny particles, which helps stabilize silt and decrease erosion. This decreases the resuspension of polluted sediments and the release of contaminants into the water column (Ali et al., 2020).
Oxygenation and aeration
Aquatic plants use photosynthesis to help oxygenate and aerate water bodies. The O2 produced during photosynthesis improves aerobic conditions, encouraging the growth of beneficial aerobic microorganisms that break down contaminants (Dey, 2022).
Creating habitat
Aquatic plants offer habitat and refuge for various aquatic creatures, such as microorganisms, invertebrates, and fish. These organisms play critical roles in bioremediation by participating in nutrient cycling and pollution breakdown processes (Kristanti and Hadibarata, 2023).
Natural filtration system
Aquatic plants serve as a natural filter, trapping suspended particles and pollutants in their tissues. As water travels through dense stands of aquatic plants, toxins are physically filtered out, resulting in improved water quality (Nazir et al., 2024; Kristanti and Hadibarata, 2023; Ali et al., 2020).
Aesthetic and recreational benefits
Aquatic plants function as natural filters, collecting suspended particles and contaminants in their tissues and improving water quality by physically filtering out toxins (Nazir et al., 2024; Kristanti and Hadibarata, 2023; Ali et al., 2020).
Aquatic plants play a crucial role in bioremediation because they provide a natural and sustainable way to repair and maintain water quality, minimize the impacts of pollution and boost the health and resilience of aquatic ecosystems (Nazir et al., 2024; Kristanti and Hadibarata, 2023; Ali et al., 2020).
10.5 Algae as agents of bioremediation
A possible new option for the bioremediation of distillery wastewaters is microalgae and cyanobacteria, which, in addition to plants, are tropically independent of C, N, K, and P. Colored effluents that require treatment must be diluted in order to prevent light blockage, as these processes rely on light. The potential applications of the microalgaChlorella sorokinianaShihira & R.W. Krauss and the aquatic plantLemna minorL. for the treatment of municipal wastewater were investigated in an early investigation. The development of microalgae and municipal wastewater treatment was first studied in batch experiments with the effects of wastewater type, illumination, and ammonium nitrogen addition. A sequencing batch reactor system was operated, and its efficacy in eliminating important pollutants was evaluated, after the initial treatment stage withChlorella sorokinianaShihira & R.W. Krauss and the second polishing stage withLemna minor L. (Kotoula et al., 2020). Before being utilized in the experiments,Chlorella sorokinianaShihira & R.W. Krauss were subjected to eight weeks of filtered, anaerobic wastewater treatment. Over the course of the first six weeks, the wastewater-to-medium ratio was gradually increased from 20% to 80% to 100% wastewater. After that, 100% of the wastewater was utilized to produce biomass for an additional two weeks. The procedure involved infecting 200 mL of cotton-gauze-blocked flasks with 2 mL of exponentially growingChlorella sorokinianacells and 98 mL of a medium/wastewater mixture.
The growth of the microalgae was monitored using OD, and Gatidou et al. (2017) reported that a conversion factor of 211.6 was applied to translate OD readings to biomass concentration (mg/l). A stock ofLemna minorL. that has previously been utilized for aerobic wastewater treatment was used in the experiments by Iatrou et al. (2018) and Gatidou et al. (2017). Utilizing the acclimated organism in wastewater studies is not new for the authors. Incubation was placed in a temperature-controlled setting for both species. Iatrou et al. (2018) and Gatidou et al. (2017) reported that daily manual shaking of the flasks containing microalgae prevented cell clumping.
10.6 Mechanism of bioremediation by algae
Algae use a variety of operations, including bioaccumulation, biodegradation, biosorption, and biouptake, to remove a variety of common and novel contaminants (Figure 10. 6). These methods for reaching bioremediation efficiency differ depending on the species and cell wall architectures (Dubey et al., 2023). Through transporter proteins, contaminants can enter cells and attach to nucleic acids and enzymes, preventing them from doing their jobs. Microalgae employ biosynthesis of metal-binding peptides, which chelate metal cations and decrease their action, as one of their strategies to reduce the toxicity of pollutants. Enzymatically generated PCs and genetically encoded MTs are examples of metal-binding peptides (Figure 10. 2 and Figure 10. 3) (Balzano et al., 2020).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 10.6. Mechanism of algal bioremediation (Abdelfattah et al., 2023; Chugh et al.,
10.7 Enhancement in the level of bioremediation through co-cultivation/co-association of aquatic plants and algae
Mahmood et al. (2015) stated that during phytoremediation, plants absorb mineral nutrients in the rhizosphere. Numerous organic acid anions, phytosiderophores, carbohydrates, vitamins, amino acids, purines, nucleosides, and inorganic ions interact with microbes here, as do molecules in gaseous form, enzymes, and root border cells. In addition to their indirect contribution to the increase of subterranean and shoot biomass, rhizosphere-associated algae have a direct function in modifying the concentration and/or accumulation of metals in plant tissues. Algae are believed to exhibit a range of PTE detoxification and repair techniques. For instance, non-active adsorption biosorption or low-concentration absorption for metabolism might be their coping mechanisms for PTE stress (Bello-Akinosho et al., 2021). The fundamental objective of algal association with aquatic plants seems to be a mutualistic relationship that facilitates the bioaccumulation of pollutants, hence aiding in the remediation of a contaminated environment (Feng, 2022). According to Mao et al. (2023), plants treated with rhizosphere microalgae show a decrease in the toxicity of metals.
10.8 Paris Accord and the emergence of C sequestration
More than half of all GHGs have the potential to cause warming, with CO2 being the most significant issue owing to the global economy's reliance on industries and fossil fuels. The use of CCS techniques is growing in popularity as an alternative to reducing the atmospheric concentration of CO2. C sequestration is the long-term storage of C in plants, soils, oceans, and geologic formations. It is the act of storing C that is soon to be released as CO2 gas (Figure 10. 7). It may occur spontaneously or as a result of human activity (Biswas et al., 2022; Kumaresan, 2022; Singh et al., 2013).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 10.7. Burning of coal, producing CO2 at RCF
It is one strategy to mitigate the effects of global climate change by reducing CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere and, eventually, global warming. The Paris Climate Accord, a significant treaty of 27 articles over 25 pages with a primary focus on reducing C emissions, came into effect on December 15, 2015. China, the US, and the EU were among the approximately 190 nations that signed the agreement. China and the US are two of the countries that collectively produce over 40% of the world's emissions (Ohara, 2022; Schleussner and Guillod, 2020; Sanchez et al., 2019). The most important and notable feature of the agreement is that each nation will choose what a voluntary reduction in emissions entails. By the end of the century, the accord aims to decrease global warming to less than 2°C over preindustrial levels. The earth has warmed since pre-industrial times by the end of the previous century, therefore keeping future warming to less than 1°C is essential. The aforementioned agreement emphasizes how important it is to make the shift to low C emissions sustainably (Ohara, 2022; Schleussner and Guillod, 2020; Sanchez et al., 2019).
10.9 Algae as efficient agents of C sequestration
The most efficient biological sequesters of CO2 are phycoremediating algae, which are somewhat more effective than terrestrial plants. In addition to their capacity for bioremediation, microalgae can sequester C, with a photosynthetic efficiency of 10-15%, as opposed to 1-2% for most terrestrial plants. Accordingly, during their exponential development phase, certain algae species may even double their biomass in as short as 3.5 hours (Onyeaka et al., 2021). They are also the favored species due to their resistance to high CO2 concentrations, low light intensity requirements, capacity to co-produce commodities with added value, and environmental sustainability (flue gas). Through the practice of employing them, air quality has recently improved due to a decrease in CO2 levels and an increase O2 concentrations (Patidar et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2014).
10.10 Utility of bioremediation and C sequestering approaches in RCF
The RCF, which covers 444 km[2] and has 50 Bt of coal reserves, is the genesis of coal mining in India (ECL, 2021; Chattopadhyay, 2001). The country's second-largest coalfield, RCF, contains 19 Bt of reserves, with surface-cut mining being the most popular and cost-effective method. Surface-cut mining creates enormous trenches for coal extraction, leaving them empty and polluted. These pits fill with surface runoff, rainfall, and groundwater, resulting in PLs. Unfortunately, surface runoff, groundwater leaching, and the mixing of residual chemicals with water have left the water in these PLs highly polluted (Figure 10. 7). After tidying up, these PLs present a substantial opportunity for sustainable use, as they might alleviate the local water shortage and lower the cost of the public water supply in the Coalfield's vicinity. Algae and aquatic plants provide a viable solution for storing CO2 for a sustainable and perfect future. When considering sustainability and future views, the possibility of utilizing algae and aquatic plants for bioremediation and subsequently for C sequestration becomes quite significant (Prasad et al., 2021; Mona et al., 2021) (Figure 10. 8 and Figure 10. 9). The efficient use of algae and aquatic plants for C sequestration is dependent on the development of new technologies, collaborative research efforts, and the implementation of these techniques into comprehensive programs designed to mitigate and adapt to climate change. To achieve long-term sustainability, a comprehensive,
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 10.8. Flowchart showing all the stages from mining to Bioremediation and C
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 10.9.a. Surface-cut mining and PL formation; b. Abandoned PL; c and d. Abandoned PL covered with naturally grown Aquatic plants and Algae; e. Bioremediation and C Sequestration
10.11 Strategies and management
Considering their innate capacity to absorb and store CO2, a suggested approach involves using aquatic plants and algae for C sequestration, wastewater bioremediation, and global warming mitigation. This approach combines ecological concepts, sustainable practices, and community engagement to reduce global warming by using the ability of aquatic plants and algae to store C. It is necessary to modify the model to take into consideration ecological factors, species availability, and local circumstances. Furthermore, these sorts of projects cannot succeed without cooperation with local communities, environmental organizations, and academic institutions. Analyzing many investigations was necessary to build this model (Pessarrodona et al., 2023; Behara et al., 2019; Almomani, 2019), the strategy includes the following steps:
Identification of Organizational Borders:Identify suitable aquatic bodies to apply the model on, with an emphasis on PLs. Take into account parameters like water quality, nutrition availability, and sunlight exposure.
Selection of aquatic plants and algae:Consider aquatic plants and algae with a substantial amount of photosynthetic activity that are well-known for their ability of CCS and bioremediation.
Management of Eutrophication:Adherence to strategies for regulating nutrient levels to avert eutrophication and unsustainable algal growth. While maintaining ecological homeostasis, managing nutrients optimizes the potential for bioremediation and CCS. Regulating nutrients optimizes the possibility of sequestering CO2 while retaining ecological equilibrium.
Co-cultivation of aquatic plants and algae:Incorporate a variety of aquatic plant and algae species to promote biodiversity while offering a more sustainable ecosystem. Develop planting and agricultural areas for the aquatic environment. To maximize the conditions of soil and turnover of nutrients, foster beneficial microbial interactions with the roots of aquatic plants. Mycorrhizal connections can enhance the overall health of the aquatic ecosystem. Take into consideration the creation of monitored environments for the growth of algae by using floating platforms or cages. This might increase the efficiency of C sequestration and facilitate the optimization of the growth environment.
Retention of C and Sedimentation:to promote the sedimentation of organic compounds and C-rich waste to maximize C sequestration. By aiding in the sequestration of C in the sediment, helps with long-term C storage.
Evaluation and establishment of a tracking system:Develop a monitoring system to assess the growth of water plants and algae. Determine biomass, chlorophyll content, and rates of C fixing regularly to evaluate C sequestration and bioremediation. Establish a worldwide tracking system to monitor the impacts of commonly used models of C sequestration and bioremediation based on aquatic plants and algae. Assess the efficacy and scalability of the strategy in collaboration with researchers and organizations.
Biomass management:Harvest leftover biomass from aquatic plants and algae regularly to lessen nutrient overload and improve the efficiency of C sequestration and bioremediation. A variety of applications, including soil conditioning and bioenergy production, are possible for the gathered biomass.
Innovation and Sustainability:Advocate further research into emerging species, methods of cultivation, and breakthroughs in technology that may enhance the potential of algae and aquatic plants to CCS and detoxify wastewater.
10.12 Electrocatalytic Conversion: A revolutionary innovation in the pathway of CO2 conversion
Researchers have developed a method for CO2 conversion using electrocatalytic conversion, which involves varying the size of Sn used, which could instead be captured and converted to value-added products. The team found that the reaction path changes when ordinary water is switched to deuterated water, a phenomenon known as the kinetic isotope effect. The research, which used the Advanced Photon Source and Centre for Nanoscale Materials, aims to use locally generated electricity from wind and solar to produce desired chemicals for local consumption (Harmon, 2024). The authors suggest the application of this approach in RCF, where the mining and its associated activities contribute to CO2 and GHG levels in a substantial amount which leads to global warming. This remedial strategy integrates the newly discovered catalysts into a low-temperature electrolyzer to carry out the conversion with renewable energy and chemicals. This would help cut down CO2 transport and storage costs and benefit local communities. However, the proper commercialization of this approach needs elaborative research and development.
10.13 Challenges
However, there are several challenges associated with putting this strategy into practice, which different scholars and stakeholders have encountered. In photoautotrophic microalgal culture, mass transmission, heat transfer, light transfer, and biological reaction are all involved. At the moment, experience is the primary constraint on photoreactor design and manufacture, and theoretical research is inadequate. Moreover, no theoretical calculations or basic system designs for flow and transfer are available. A thorough analysis and optimization of the theory and structure is necessary for both a high-cost, complicated structure, high productivity, and difficult operation plate reactor and a low-cost, simple structure, low productivity, easy-to-operate runway pool (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan 2014; Li and Kang 2011). Even with algae's high photosynthetic efficiency, producing algae still requires a sizable amount of land, which presents a problem in industrial regions. Documentation demonstrating the economic feasibility of removing industrial waste gas from industrial zones is required. To address this issue, system engineering and the multidisciplinary application of manufacturing, biotechnology, chemical engineering, materials science, and engineering are required (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan 2014; Li and Kang 2011). The algae fixes C in three stages. First, the liquid phase body travels to the algal cells; second, the gas phase CO2 flows into the medium; and third, the algal cells grow, use, and convert CO2. The first two are physical processes involving Fluid movement and Mass transfer devices, whereas the last stage is a Biological change. Nowadays, a large number of scientists are examining, analyzing, and assessing how quickly algae fix CO2 in different environmental conditions (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan 2014; Li and Kang 2011). The goal of these studies is to comprehend the micro-mechanism of CO2 fixation by algae, as well as the effects of pH, light, temperature, and CO2 concentration on the rate of CO2 fixation by microalgae in bubbling environments. These studies often compute apparent rates of sequestration of C by the three methods described above. Because of the ambiguity surrounding the mass transfer process (equilibrium partial pressure, mass transfer area, temperature, etc.), the study's conclusions are non-repetitive and unclear. Consequently, there is room for interpretational variance in the legislation controlling the development of algae, and even the process of choosing appropriate species of algae might be misleading. Consequently, research procedures need to be improved to become more accurate and scientific (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan, 2014; Li and Kang, 2011). As an external culture approach, microalgae biological C sequestration raises several questions. According to Xu et al. (2019), Zhou and Ruan (2014), and Li and Kang (2011), maintaining and controlling particular illumination conditions and ensuring the stability of culture temperature requires the full cooperation of engineering experts and theoretical researchers. However, the majority of the research on microalgae's capacity to sequester C is currently conducted in laboratories, and growth conditions are all strictly controlled via experimental procedures. Massive field demonstration devices are still lacking. Studying the natural growth adaptability of the algae species and the feasibility of generating photoreaction systems is essential (Xu et al., 2019; Li and Kang, 2011). Products made from microalgae may have more added value and process economy when used in food and medicine. The quality of algal products produced with the use of industrial waste gas must be evaluated and confirmed (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan, 2014; Li and Kang, 2011). Theoretical research on the process of CO2 absorption is lacking. Either random selection or an empirical process serves as the fundamental framework for absorption. There is no scientific basis for the dearth of kinetic and thermodynamic research on the mechanism of CO2 absorption. As this implies, establishing quantitative control over the industrial process is difficult, and experimental results cannot provide design information for the industrial production process (Xu et al., 2019; Li and Kang, 2011).
10.14 Future prospects
Lowering the cost of the algae and Cyanophyceae growing systems requires the construction of a low-cost growth media or the use of wastewater as a growth medium. Bioprospecting is required to find native strains that are well-suited for utilization in certain areas or territories. It is possible to choose strains for C capture in large-scale cultivation that can flourish at very high or low pH values (Singh et al., 2014). Since the study of plant-associated algae includes the isolation and identification of hundreds of algal species, more research is necessary to fully understand the features of both C sequestration and bioremediation. Identifying aquatic plants and algae featuring an excellent level of photosynthetic activity as well as abilities to bioremediate and sequester CO2 is an essential aspect of future study. Likewise, it is vital to consider factors including water quality, nutritional availability, and proximity to the sun. Implementing strategies to limit nutrient levels to stop excessive algae growth and eutrophication is crucial in this regard and warrants more research because doing so maximizes the potential for bioremediation and CO2 sequestration while maintaining ecosystem equilibrium. Controlling nutrients also optimizes the capacity for sequestering CO2 and maintains an ecological balance. On top of that, establishing an observatory to assess the growth of algae and aquatic plants is of paramount importance and necessitates more investigation, which entails monitoring C sequestration and bioremediation and regularly quantifying parameters like biomass, chlorophyll content, and rates of C fixing. Harvesting extra biomass from aquatic plants and algae regularly is an important aspect of minimizing nutrient saturation while enhancing the yield of C sequestration and bioremediation. A wide range of applications, including soil conditioning and bioenergy production, are potential uses for the harvested biomass. Thus, the photoautotrophic developmental process for algae and aquatic plants involves mass transmission, heat transfer, light transfer, and biological reaction. At this juncture, expertise is the primary constraint on photoreactor design and manufacturing, since theoretical investigations are inadequate. Similarly, no computational models or fundamental design concepts for transit and transference are available. A comprehensive examination and optimization of the principles and framework are necessary for both an expensive, sophisticated, high productivity, and intricate functioning reactor and an economical, simplistic framework, low output, and user-friendly systems (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan, 2014; Li ank Kang, 2011). Even with algae's high photosynthetic efficiency, cultivating algae nevertheless needs a substantial quantity of terrain, which poses an issue, especially in mining regions. Documentation demonstrating the economic feasibility of removing mine exhaust from these areas must be submitted. To resolve this issue, comprehensive system architecture and the multidisciplinary application of manufacturing, chemical technology, biotechnology, materials science, and technology are essential (Xu et al., 2019; Zhou and Ruan 2014; Li and Kang 2011).
10.15 Conclusion
The two critical issues-water pollution, and global warming-need innovative answers. Using algae and aquatic plants for bioremediation and C sequestration might improve environmental preservation. Aquatic plants take up nutrients and pollutants from wastewater and absorb them, improving the quality of the water. Algae can absorb and degrade organic pollutants, which might help improve bioremediation. It is possible to enhance algal tolerance to these pollutants through genetic engineering. Algae are a varied group of microscopic and macroscopic organisms that are highly adept at sequestering CO2 through photosynthesis. They are useful agents in reducing global warming because of their quick growth and high rates of C fixation. So, a well-balanced aquatic plant and algal ecosystem promotes a circular economy, boosts biodiversity, and incorporates local populations in management to guarantee socioeconomic gains and scalability in a range of aquatic environments. These are but a few advantages of using an integrated strategy for biomass utilization and water reuse. Using aquatic plants and algae is a comprehensive and sustainable way to combat water pollution and lower global warming. This well-planned approach increases C sequestration and cleans up waterways, demonstrating the harmonious coexistence of modern environmental management practices with the natural world. By appreciating their flexibility, society may create a solid and long-lasting future. The environmentally benign and economical approach combines CCS with bioremediation. Aquatic plant and algal biomass may also be used to produce a range of value-added products, such as food additives, aquaculture feed, biofertilizers, cosmetics, medications, and nutraceuticals. We can lessen our need for fossil fuels by using biomass to create unconventional biofuels. In summary, the utilization of co- cultivation/co-association of aquatic plants and algae in bioremediation is an economical yet highly successful method for eliminating pollutants from wastewater and sequestering C. This all-encompassing, sustainable strategy is both environmentally beneficial and conducive to entrepreneurship.
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Chapter 11. The carbon market is essential and has to be implemented as an exigency
11.1 Abstract
Carbon markets, in a nutshell, are trading networks where carbon credits are purchased and sold. By acquiring carbon credits from those who eliminate or minimize GHG emissions, countries may use the carbon market to cover up for the GHG emissions they emit. An equivalent quantity of CO2 or another GHG retrieved, retained, or dwindled is represented by one ton of traded carbon credits. A credit transforms into an offset and is non-tradable when it is employed to prevent, decrease, or sequester emissions. In compliance with the Paris Agreements, nations are obligated to reduce their GHG emissions by at least 43% by 2030 and 60% by 2035 from 2019 levels to achieve net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050 while avoiding global temperature from escalating over 2°C, ideally below 1.5°C. A sound way to encourage nations to curtail their GHG emissions is to impose a price on carbon and provide economic rewards to those who cut their emissions. The carbon market is the best way for its accomplishment. By placing a price on carbon and enabling its sale, carbon markets provide financial incentives for reducing emissions. There are currently initiatives for the establishment of a government-regulated carbon market in India while there exists a voluntary carbon market wherein domestic initiatives or organizations take part in global credit schemes. The Paschim Bardhaman district is renowned for its industry, particularly the RCF. The air quality is declining as a result of the coalfield's mines and industry releasing enormous amounts of pollutants into the atmosphere. Several researchers assessed the area's air pollution situation, noting that average PM2.5, PM10, and particle counts in the area were 44.46, 63.89 |ig/m[3], and 4741.2/l, respectively, while atmospheric CO2 levels were 567.58 ppm, significantly higher than the WHO recommended levels for the pollutants in atmospheric air. The study analyzes a brief overview of the national and international carbon markets and emphasizes their ascendance in RCF. In this regard, the authors have also proposed a method for administering the carbon market plan effectively.
Keywords
Air pollution, Atmosphere, Carbon market, GHG, Paris agreements
11.2 Introduction
Certainly one of the most significant issues facing humanity in the twenty-first century is climate change. The origin of the climate change problem is the greenhouse effect, a natural phenomenon that maintains Earth's average temperature at around 15°C, a level that is conducive to life (Wettertad and Gulbrandsen 2017). A systematic shift in the long-term statistics of climatic components (such as temperature, precipitation, pressure, or winds) sustained over many decades or more is what the American Meteorological Society refers to as climate change (Chanda et al., 2021). Climate change can have natural causes, such as variations in solar radiation or gradual shifts in the components that make up the earth's orbit, as well as man-made ones, such as GHG emissions. According to estimates, GHG emissions peaked between 1983 and 2012, making the earth's surface warmer than it has been since 1850 (Wettertad and Gulbrandsen 2017). Naturally occurring GHGs trap some of the sun's heat in the atmosphere, which is what causes the greenhouse effect. HFC, PFC, PM2.5 and PM10, SF6, CH4, NOx, and CO2 are such gases. The issue of climate change arises as a result of the excessive buildup of these gases in the atmosphere. There is no doubt about how humans affect the climate system (Figure 11.1).
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Figure 11.1. Global warming is caused by the greenhouse effect
The worldwide average combined land and ocean surface temperature data follows a linear increasing trend, warming by 0.85°C (0.65 to 1.06°C) between 1880 and 2012 (Wettertad and Gulbrandsen 2017). Global warming is the consequence of anthropological activities. Emissions from burning fossil fuels and deforestation contribute significantly to the greenhouse impact that humans have caused. The burning of forests, ruminant cattle, rice paddies, farms, and landfill gas produces CH and releases HC, another GHG (Michaelowa et al., 2019).
196 Parties adopted the Paris accord in 2015, and it went into effect in 2016. It is an international climate change accord with legal force. Its primary goal is to keep the rise in global temperature far below 2°C and restrict it to no more than 1.5°C over pre-industrial levels (UNFCC 2023; Hussain, 2023; Savaresi 2016). The top three carbon emitters in the globe are China, the US, and India (Lu, 2023; Rice et al., 2023; Tieso, 2023) (Figure 11.2). To prevent catastrophic climate change consequences, the accord highlights the necessity of keeping warming to 1.5°C by the end of the century. To maintain global warming to 1.5°C, GHG emissions must peak by 2025 and then decrease by 43% by 2030. The Paris Agreement asks wealthier countries to take the lead in giving financial assistance to less developed and vulnerable countries, while also encouraging voluntary contributions from other parties (UNFCC 2023; Hussain, 2023; Savaresi 2016).
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Figure 11.2. Top 10 emitters of GHG (Lu 2023; Rice et al., 2023; Tieso, 2023)
Emissions trading systems, or carbon markets, are essential tools for setting a price on carbon emissions and enabling the exchange of carbon credits or offsets. The word "Carbon Credit" refers to a tradable certificate or permit that certifies the ability to release a specific amount of CO2 (often one metric ton) or an equivalent quantity of other GHGs. It might be considered the fundamental unit of exchange for carbon markets (Hussain 2023; Wettertad and Gulbrandsen 2017). Carbon allowances or caps are set by governments or countries following their emission reduction objectives. Organizations that cut their emissions below these predetermined thresholds can sell the excess "allowance" they have as carbon credits to companies that cut their emissions beyond the threshold. As an illustration, if a company engages in afforestation or other actions that remove carbon from the atmosphere, such efforts may be measured and converted into carbon offsets that may be exchanged for other companies in the market. There are two main categories of carbon markets at the moment: Compliant and Voluntary (Hussain 2023; Wettertad and Gulbrandsen 2017)
Compliance markets
The main purpose of compliance markets is to decrease GHG emissions through government regulation. The dynamics of the market based on the supply and demand of emission allowances define the price of carbon in this system. In essence, these markets promote less energy use and a move toward greener energy sources (Ahonen et al., 2022; Smith and Parkhurst 2018). These government-regulated trading schemes are organized and provide a clear route for tightening emission restrictions and limiting the amount of credits available. This encourages enterprises to invest in low-carbon technologies that are affordable and innovative. Precisely, carbon emissions are controlled by regulatory markets, which mandate that businesses maintain an adequate number of tradable carbon allowances. This provides a financial incentive for businesses to lower their emissions (Ahonen et al., 2022; Smith and Parkhurst 2018). The EU Emissions ETS is an excellent example of a compliance market (Verbruggen et al., 2019, Joltreau and Sommerfeld 2019).
Voluntary markets
Government regulation does not apply to these carbon markets. These markets give institutions, businesses, and people a way to voluntarily offset their GHG emissions. In these markets, organizations purchase carbon credits from brokers or project developers. Usually, independent third-party standard bodies verify these credits to make sure they are genuine and meet specific requirements (Blaufelder et al., 2021; Streck 2021). Companies participate in these marketplaces often as part of their CSR initiatives, utilizing them to offset their carbon emissions and demonstrate their dedication to lessening their environmental effect. In particular, voluntary markets are unrestricted by obligatory carbon reduction regimes, in contrast to compliance markets. They are more adaptable and available to all economic sectors since they enable companies and people to freely acquire carbon credits (Blaufelder et al., 2021; Streck 2021).
The reciprocal relationship between climate change mitigation and sustainable development is highlighted by carbon trading, which implies that mitigation can have side effects that support the objectives of sustainable development (Huang et al., 2021).
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Figure 11.3. SDGs and climate change mitigation are fulfilled by carbon marketing
11.3 Global scenario
The Paris Agreement establishes a new framework for voluntary cooperation, which may involve global carbon market mechanisms, to carry out climate mitigation measures (UNFCCC 2015). The United States, Australia, Canada (at the provincial level), Japan, South Korea, China, and the European Union have already put in place carbon market programs. Other countries are now working on similar projects (Michaelowa et al., 2019). The LSEG Carbon Market Year in Review 2023 shows that 12.5 billion metric tons of carbon permits were exchanged globally, with record prices in North America and Europe increasing the overall value (Twidale, 2024; Aravanti and Habla 2021; Michaelowa et al. 2019). Recently, there was a 2% rise in the value of traded CO2 permits globally, reaching a record 881 billion euros ($948.75 billion). To place a price on CO2 emissions, several nations and regions have implemented ETS to encourage businesses to invest in low-carbon technologies and assist achieve climate objectives (Twidale 2024; Aravanti and Habla 2021; Michaelowa et al., in 2019).
The location and timing of GHG emission reductions are flexible because of international carbon market systems, which may lower the cost of climate change mitigation. This may enable nations to set more aggressive mitigation goals. Global GHG emissions might rise as a result of poorly planned and executed international carbon market systems, raising the associated costs of climate change mitigation. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 and bilateral agreements have established global carbon market mechanisms. These methods include bilateral crediting mechanisms like Japan's Joint Crediting Mechanism and the worldwide linkage of emissions trading systems (Schneider and Hoz Theuer 2019).
As the world's fastest-growing carbon market, the EU's ETS was valued at over 770 billion euros last year, up 2% from the previous year and making up 87% of the total. The EU ETS's carbon permit price has reached an all-time high of more than 100 euros in recent years as a result of a drop in demand from industrial buyers and the power sector. According to the research, the value of the UK's ETS reached 36.4 billion euros, with prices averaging around 65 euros/ton, or 34% less than the average for a few previous years (Twidale 2024; Aravanti and Habla 2021; Michaelowa et al., 2019). In recent years, prices in North America's primary compliance markets reached all-time highs, reaching over $15/ton in the Regional GHG Initiative and $39/ton in the Western Climate Initiative, with a valuation of 60 billion euros. According to the data, prices in China's national ETS also reached a record high which is 1.29 billion euros (Twidale 2024; Zhang, 2022) (Figure 11.4).
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Figure 11.4. Valuation of carbon markets across the nations (Jennifer 2024; Twidale 2024; Zhang, 2022; Aravanti and Habla 2021; Michaelowa et al., 2019)
11.4 National overview
India is slated for enormous accomplishments. Achieving a certain percentage of installed capacity in electric power from non-fossil fuel-based energy sources by 2030 is one of the most concrete and quantifiable goals. To meet this goal by the predetermined deadline, a reliable and trackable action plan must be in place. To fulfill these objectives for the emission intensity of GDP, it is necessary to do an ex-ante study to determine the effectiveness and impact of mitigation activities using natural solutions like afforestation or transition initiatives like green energy and decreased reliance on coal-based power. As a result, even though the government has a wide range of initiatives to reduce emissions, many of them are neither measurable nor overseen. To do so, it is a prerequisite to making specific information on the permitted and real GHG emissions by commercial endeavors (Tyagi and Ghosh 2024; Jennifer, 2024).
Presently, India relies mostly on voluntary C markets and lacks a fully functional government- regulated market. But the nation is making a concerted effort to create one. Presently, the country runs two market-oriented programs to reduce emissions: the REC system and the PAT program (Jennifer, 2024; Hussain 2023; Chanda, 2021).
PAT program
The PAT program focuses on energy-intensive sectors like textiles, iron and steel, aluminum, cement, fertilizer, chlor-alkali, paper and pulp, railroads, and thermal power. This program involves the government setting SEC targets for businesses in various industries to reduce energy use. A corporation can receive certifications for energy conservation if its production unit energy consumption falls short of the set objectives. To satisfy their compliance requirements, other units taking part in the PAT scheme might acquire the earned certificates or exchange them on Power Exchanges. The PAT plan has, however, encountered difficulties, such as lax objectives, an abundance of ESC, a rise in non-compliance, and delays in compliance cycles (Jennifer, 2024; Hussain, 2023; Chanda, 2021).
REC System
Conversely, the REC system functions under the RPO, which requires electricity producers to generate a specific proportion of their overall power from renewable sources such as wind and solar energy. The goal of these tradeable certificates is to encourage the adoption of renewable energy sources (Jennifer, 2024; Hussain, 2023; Chanda, 2021). Citing various research and projections, it can be stated that as of May 2023, 1,451 projects were either registered or in different stages of evaluation across two major registries, Verra and Gold Standard, representing a worth of over $1.2 billion for India's voluntary C market. Three Indian project developers made it into the top 15 globally in terms of producing C credits in 2022. Thus far, the sale of C credits used to offset emissions has brought in over $652 million for Indian organizations (Jennifer, 2024; Hussain, 2023) (Figure 11.4).
India launched the CCTS in 2023, which covers the voluntary and compliant sectors. Notwithstanding the expected initiation of the compliance sector in 2025-2026, there is no predetermined date for the voluntary C market's introduction. Obedient firms are free to buy more credits or sell any extra ones under India's updated C market program. Businesses can offset their emissions in the meantime by trading C (Jennifer, 2024).
11.5 C market needs to be implemented in RCF
Certain operations at mining sites, such as drilling, blasting, material loading and unloading, overburden removal etc. liberate GHG that hangs in the atmosphere and causes atmospheric deterioration (Figure 11.5). During coal mining and active mine fires, the most significant emissions are PM, sulfur dioxide SO2, NO2, CO2, etc. Winter is considered the most dangerous season of the year for respirable ambient air quality because of its dry weather and low humidity (Saha et al., 2022; Dash et al., 2020). Furthermore, CH4, another important GHG, is produced in large quantities by coal mining (USEPA 2019).
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Figure 11.5. Various mining processes that contribute to the liberation of GHG (partly AI-generated) (Dash et al., 2020)
RCF is the oldest and one of the leading coal mines in India (Nazir et al., 2024). Several past studies have shown that the RCF's open-cast mines have extremely high levels of PM air pollution. Under these conditions, scientists determine that the duration of exposure and the amount of particles in such a type concentration are the primary factors influencing any impact that particulate matter (PM) has on human health. The rate of GHG emissions in the RCF is progressively rising (0.4% annually) to an alarming degree. The area's average PM2.5, PM10, and particle counts were all much higher than the World Health Organization's recommended limits of these pollutants in atmospheric air from 2019 to 2020. Particle counts were 4741.2/l, average PM2.5 of 44.46 |ig/m[3], and atmospheric CO2 of 567.58 ppm. It has been established that the ambient polluted air has significant adverse effects on the health of nearby residents as well as mine employees because of the substantial amounts of pollutants generated by mining operations. These pollutants may be extremely harmful to an individual's wellness, lungs, immune system, heart, reproductive system, and brain. These pollutants can also have an impact on the genome of the inhabitants at a certain threshold (Saha et al., 2022; 2021; Gasparotto and Martinello 2020). Greater potential for economically reducing overall GHG emissions and enhancing air quality in the region exists with RCF's C markets. In this sense, by essentially placing a price on pollution and providing an economic incentive for cutting emissions, C markets, if held to high standards of integrity and openness, can aid in accelerating the necessary change. They may also contribute to the enormous amounts of money required to develop resilience (UNDP 2022). The RCF stakeholders ought to be required to fulfill the specified goals of lowering emissions through the implementation of trading which would benefit them economically and environmentally. For instance, given the increasing reliance on renewable energy, there would be a final decrease in excavation and GHG emissions in RCF if, on average, the mines gradually reduce their output by a significant amount by 2030. It may be possible to do this by breaking the years up to 2030 into time blocks, each with a set goal. To reduce GHG emissions in this way, RCF's business ventures need to have a shared interest in working together to reduce emissions. In this sense, any entity that falls short of those objectives may satisfy its duties by buying C credits from another business that exceeds the target. As a result, the region's economic and environmental circumstances will improve (Figure 11.6). While keeping constant tabs on global dynamics, the implementation of C markets in RCF in a methodical, phase-by-phase strategy makes C credit exports possible. This is diligent global influence with an environmentally sound twist, not just trade.
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Figure 11.6a. A valuation of C emissions of a coal mine; b. C market to commercialize the residual C credit of the coal mine; c. the C credit of the coal mine bought by other industries in the region that have already exceeded their C emission limits
11.6 Strategies
The authors of the study presented a framework for the following approach to be used in the establishment and appropriate execution of voluntary C markets in RCF based on the reports of by Blaufelder et al., (2021) which has been validated by Ramsay et al., (2024); Asian Development Bank (2023); Dawes et al., (2023) (Figure 11.7).
Introducing C marketing enterprises in RCF
Establish interactions with an array of alliances made up of leading specialists who collaborated to guarantee a well-organized and robust indigenous C market and a national emissions trading system in India. This is required to provide the regulatory framework and policy advocacy needed to support this undertaking. It can assist and support the coal mining company in meeting the requirements of the C Offset Standard to become a "C Neutral Company." (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021)
Establishing common guidelines for identifying and confirming C credits
The voluntary C market is concerned with efficient trading and liquidity since C credits are diverse. Every credit has features unique to the type of project or region that affects the price. The process of connecting customers and suppliers could be more efficient and effective due to this discrepancy. All credits should be characterized using shared characteristics to increase efficiency. To ensure that C credits reflect reductions in emissions, quality should be the first consideration, per fundamental C principles. To assist sellers in marketing credits and purchasers in locating appropriate ones, the final aspect should address other characteristics of the C credit and standardize them into a common taxonomy (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Drafting agreements with uniform language
It is upsetting to produce credible daily price signals in the voluntary C market due to the variety of C credits. Exchanges might create "reference contracts" (which combine fundamental C principles with extra features priced separately) for C trading to increase liquidity. Clear daily market pricing would result from this, making large-scale purchases easier. Despite this, many people still engage in OTC trading, where reference contracts are used as the basis for first discussions (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Introducing post-trade and marketing network
Effective operation of the voluntary C market requires a robust infrastructure. This supports organized financing remedies for project developers by listing and trading reference contracts in large volumes. Infrastructure for post-trade, such as clearinghouses and meta-registries, is also required. Modern data infrastructure encourages reference and market data openness, which is currently lacking because of restricted access and challenges in monitoring the OTC market (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Forging agreement regarding ways to allocate C credits properly
Essentially some businesses doubt that they will be able to drastically cut their GHG emissions even if they negate emissions, there are skeptical attitudes about the use of credits in decarbonization. In the absence of ignoring other mitigating initiatives, corporations might achieve net-zero emissions with the support of clear guidelines on ecologically appropriate offsetting schemes. Businesses would determine the amount of C credits they require by releasing information about their emissions, goals, and objectives. They may also buy and "retire" credits to make up for emissions they cannot completely eradicate (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Instituting safeguards to protect the integrity of the market
Due to its divergent credit structure, risk of fraudulent transactions, and ambiguous price framework, the voluntary C market has issues. A digitized framework for venture enrollment and credit verification could alleviate these problems by reducing expenses, speeding up the provision of credit, and enhancing reputation. Guidelines against illicit financing and the establishment of an oversight committee are more options (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Sending overt signs of interest
Buyers ought to employ medium and long-term assurances regarding lowering emissions, alongside an accounting of purchases, to highlight their intent of acquiring additional C credits to promote the affordability of these credits. Improved standards, industry cooperation, and uniform procedures for creating and offering geared toward customers' C credits may all contribute to propelling marketplace alerts (Ramsay et al., 2024; Asian Development Bank 2023; Dawes et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 11.7. Proposals for Voluntary C Markets in RCF
11.7 Future prospects
Enterprises have expressed a resurgence of enthusiasm for the voluntary C market as an avenue to promote flexible routes for decarbonization, given the national aim to achieve net zero emissions by 2050. Accordingly, if implemented correctly, the creation of a C market in RCF could enhance the region's atmosphere and the venture's viability by channeling significant funding toward additional mitigation measures like the application of technology that reduces emissions and uses natural remedies. But some issues that spring into focus need regular upgrades in the future (Tyagi and Ghosh 2024; Huang et al., 2023). These issues are as:
1. To guarantee high integrity and market liquidity, the provision of a taxonomy of extra qualities and a set of CCPs is the need of the hour.
2. The creation of core C reference contracts that are exchangeable on exchanges in highly important to focus liquidity and get the benefits that go along with it.
3. To guarantee robust, adaptable markets that can manage high trading volumes is mandatory and do so openly, a solid market with an infrastructure must be developed.
4. By agreeing on a common understanding of how C credits might help reach net-zero objectives, the legitimacy of utilizing them must be enhanced accordingly.
5. Boosting the integrity of the voluntary C markets by implementing more robust procedures, policies, and structures is highly essential.
6. Encouraging a distinct demand signal to accelerate the growth of liquid markets and increase supply is an essential aspect to focus on.
11.8 Challenges
Many projects in the compliance and voluntary domains are aiming to scale C markets. But defining the CCPs and their legal and governance foundations is a challenging endeavor, especially in RCF where the idea has not yet been put into practice.
Corporate interest in the voluntary C market as a tool to enable flexible paths for decarbonization has increased in response to the pledge to achieve net zero emissions within the first half of this decade. This has the tremendous ability, if administered adequately, to direct major investment into further mitigation, such as the use of nature-based remedies and emission-reducing technology (Tyagi and Ghosh 2024). However, there are concerns that the market might undercut the objectives of the Paris Agreement and the legitimacy of those taking part in it if there is a lack of clear and consistent advice on how participation in the voluntary C market relates to business net-zero transitions. Moreover, gaining the attention of the stakeholders in RCF in these aspects is also an uphill task (Jennifer 2024; Tyagi and Ghosh 2024; Huang et al., 2023; Blaufelder et al., 2021). Moreover, the endeavor also demands local support. So the next challenge in the pathway of introduction and implementation of the C market comes in terms of gathering local support.
These issues must be resolved. As soon as feasible, the voluntary C market has to get clear advice on how it may meet the goals of the Paris Agreement and SDGs in order to maintain its credibility and confidence in the face of increased corporate interest and continued efforts to scale it. To guarantee that voluntary crediting helps achieve the temperature targets of the Paris Agreement, COP26 offers a significant opportunity to introduce comprehensive guidelines on the usage and claims of C credits (Jennifer 2024).
11.9 Conclusion
It seems improbable that the mining of fossil fuels—especially coal—will be abandoned as a source of energy in the ensuing decades, particularly in a nation like India. There is still no general solution to the C footprint issue, after decades of research and development. There are suggestions for businesses, particularly those involved in coal mining. However, an absolute prohibition is ineffective in whatever form as coal serves as the backbone of the power sector in India. In light of this, in mines, drilling, blasting, and overburdening are examples of mining operations that release tiny particles into the atmosphere, which can cause deterioration in air quality. The most significant emissions during coal mining and active mine fires include pollutants like GHGs and C, among others. The riskiest time of year is during the winter because of the dry air and low humidity. In RCF, the rate of GHG discharge is rising at a pace of 0.4% per year. C markets can assist in the cost-effective reduction of national GHG emissions and the restoration of regional air quality. The panacea lies in harmony, and the C markets can help achieve a balance between the emission and deposition of GHGs. Although there are clear opportunities for the C market effort, the development of its framework needs thorough research at every level of development, introduction, and appropriate application which can bring about both economic and environmental prosperity to the region. Finally, Indian coal mining enterprises have an opportunity to make significant profits by entering the burgeoning global C trading markets, where prices and stakes are far greater in industrialized nations, indicating a promising future. However, it goes beyond financial gain— these organizations are essential in reducing India's emissions. The key is striking a balance between obligations locally and possibilities globally. In this regard, the introduction and implementation of the C market in RCF may bring about upliftment in the region both economically and environmentally.
11.10 Bibliography
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Nazir, Md, Roy, K, Saha, A, and Saha, D. (2024). A novel approach to explore new means of depletion of potable water crisis by phytoremediation of Abandoned Coalmine Pitlake and generate alternate livelihood: A case study of RCF, West Bengal, India. In Hydrology-Current Research and Future Directions. IntechOpen.
Pachauri, R. K., and Reisinger, A. (2007). IPCC fourth assessment report. IPCC, Geneva, 2007, 044023.
Ramsay, J., Marcus, T., and Yordanov, S. (2024). Voluntary Carbon Markets: Building a Strategic Approach to Carbon Credits. www.engieimpact.com. https://www.engieimpact.com/insights/voluntary-carbon- markets#:~:text=Supply%20Sideandtext=Groups%20of%20investors%20will%20regularly,a nd%20selling%20them%20through%20intermediaries. (Accessed on 28 April 2024)
Rice, D., Loehrke, J., and Weise, E. (2023). Carbon dioxide emissions continue to rise worldwide. Graphics show which countries release the most. www.usatoday.com.https://www.usatoday.com/story/graphics/2023/04/14/countires-emit- most-carbon-dioxide-emissions/11643011002/ (Accessed on 28 April 2024)
Saha, D., Keshri, J. P., and Saha, N. C. (2022). Comprehensive study on raniganj coalfield area, India: A review. Ecology Environment and Conservation, 28, S387-S398.
Saha, D., Kesri, J. P., and Saha, N. C. (2021) Air Pollution in Opencast Coal Mine is Dangerous for Human Health: A Special Case study to Kalipahari Open Cast Project Patch-A, Kalipahari Colliery, Sripur Area, Raniganj Coalfield. Indian Journal of Natural Sciences, 12(69), 37133-37145
Savaresi, A. (2016). The Paris Agreement: a new beginning?. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources Law, 34(1), 16-26.
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Smith, J., and Parkhurst, R. (2018). Opportunities for agricultural producers to participate in compliance and voluntary carbon markets.
Streck, C. (2021). How voluntary carbon markets can drive climate ambition. Journal of energy and natural resources law, 39(3), 367-374.
Tiseo, I. (2023). Largest global emitters of carbon dioxide 2022, by country. www.statista.com.https://www.statista.com/statistics/271748/the-largest-emitters-of-co2-in- the-world/ (Accessed on 28 April 2024)
Twidale, S. (2024). Global carbon markets value hit record $949 bln last year - LSEG. www.reuters.com. https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/global-carbon-markets-value-hit-record-949-bln-last-year-lseg-2024-02- 12/#:~:text=Around%2012.5%20billion%20metric%20tons,Year%20in%20Review%202023 %20said. (Retrieved on 8 April 2024)
Tyagi, A., and Ghosh, N. (2024). Carbon trading in India: Local actions for the global commons. www.orfonline.org. https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/carbon-trading-in- india-local-actions-for-the-global-commons. (Retrieved on 8 April 2024)
UNDP. (2022). What are carbon markets and why are they important? www.climatepromise.undp.org.https://climatepromise.undp.org/news-and- stories/what-are-carbon-markets-and-why-are-they-important. (Retrieved on 11 March 2024)
UNFCC. (2023). The Paris Agreement. unfccc.int. https://unfccc.int/process-and- meetings/the-paris-agreement?gad_source=1andgclid=Cj0KCQjwiMmwBhDmARIsABeQ7xSU0LHLe6l2yr30 XiaWRFaKHjKmUHsIRiMNDG0DbCWfQSn_B8Th4oQaAgzbEALw_wcB. (Retrieved on 8 April 2024)
USEPA. (2019). Coal Mine Methane (CMM) Finance Guide. www.epa.gov.in. https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-04/documents/cmop_finance_guide_march_2016_revision.pdf. (Retrieved on 11 March 2024)
Verbruggen, A., Laes, E., and Woerdman, E. (2019). Anatomy of emissions trading systems: what is the EU ETS?. Environmental science and policy, 98, 11-19.
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Chapter 12. Alternative livelihoods in this coalfield: An exploratory study
12.1 Abstract
Alternative livelihoods in coal mining regions offer a variety of key functions that are critical to the long-term development of communities affected by coal mining activities. Alternative livelihood projects give communities revenue streams other than coal mining. Diversifying revenue streams minimizes reliance on a single industry and improves economic resilience to changes in coal prices or market demand. This chapter addresses possibilities for alternative livelihoods in Raniganj's mining region to promote sustainable development. Many communities depend on mining activities that harm the environment or have unfavorable social and economic effects. The necessity for other sources of income that may help with these problems is explored in this chapter. Identifying and analyzing different alternative livelihood possibilities, assessing how well these alternative livelihoods could support sustainable development, and talking about case studies of alternative livelihood. Finally, alternative livelihoods are critical for long-term development, and community well-being, reducing the effects of coal mining. They expand economic prospects while also promoting social-environmental resilience, resulting in stronger, healthier, more inclusive communities in coal mining regions.
Keywords
Alternative livelihood, community revenue, Community well-being, Environmental resilience, Sources of income, Sustainable development
12.2 Introduction
The foundation of contemporary society for a country's social progress and economic growth is its mineral resources. Since the early 1920s, there has been a worldwide mining boom that has generated job possibilities at the federal, state, and municipal levels as well as significant tax foreign currency earnings. Research indicates that the majority of the detrimental impacts of mining operations have a significant economic impact on the nearby populations due to the closure of mines now or in the future (Mondal and Mistri 2021; Manchini and Sala 2018). Coal mining has grown, creating jobs and increasing financial physical capital, but it has both positive and negative impacts on urban and rural families (Hota and Behera 2016). From a different point of view, coal mines generate hazardous substances such as SPM, RSPM, O3, S oxides, and N oxides, which impact residents' livelihood systems. These activities include substantial vegetation clearing, excavation, and waste disposal, resulting in displacement or loss of residential, and agriculture. Mining also causes biodiversity loss, air water pollution, the marginalization of people owing to social environmental repercussions, relocation, and loss of traditional livelihoods (Hota and Behera 2015; Maconachie 2014).
12.3 Global scenario overview
The worldwide mining sector has been experiencing a boom since the 2000s, with rising production prices and profit margins. Increased resource and international direct investment have resulted in record mineral output in Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and Latin America (Horsley et al., 2015, Soderholm and Svahn 2015). Many regions throughout the world have implemented alternative livelihood options in mining regions, supporting economic empowerment and long-term development for future financial stability. Some of the international impact is addressed below.
The Asia-Pacific area has seen a notable surge in aquaculture, in the mining region which has bolstered economic growth and food security.
Aquaculture in Africa and Latin America has become more popular as well, offering chances for livelihood resolving issues related to food supply economic development after mine closure (Hisyde et al., 2017; Mallo et al., 2010).
In sub-Saharan Africa, the mining sector directly employs over two million people, the majority of whom are seasonal smallholder farmers who have "branched out" to earn additional income or have given up farming entirely. Millions of family members and downstream income earners also rely on the industry for their livelihoods. Given nearly 90% of Ghanaians depend on farming for a living; farming is a contributing factor to the country's efforts to address rural poverty (Banchirigah and Hilson 2010).
Meru County's Igembe South Sub-County is located on Mount Kenya's windward slope. Unemployed individuals following mine closures are increasingly turning to alternative income sources such as the s quarry stone business. The building industry is heavily reliant on quarry stones. As urbanization grows, quarry stones become increasingly attractive. The Maua- Kangeta-Meru route has long been utilized to extract quarry stone. Maua, Kangeta, and Karama gained from the quarry stone industry (Muriki et al., 2023).
China has demonstrated that jobless coal workers frequently do not seek other jobs when the mine is closed. Coal mining areas in China have enough solar and wind energy production capacity to allow all miners to switch to solar or wind occupations, the techno-economic viability of developing local solar /or wind power installations (as well as the jobs associated with them) in major coal-producing countries was assessed (Pai et al., 2020).
Globally, changes in mining industry, particularly in poor countries can create jobs and income possibilities for rural populations, and hence have the potential to alleviate poverty. The connections between resource extraction and local subsistence activities, such as coal mining, can generate jobs and improve infrastructure, allowing distant settlements to develop as well as diversify their livelihoods (Lu Lora-Wainwright 2014, Mishra 2009).
12.4 National scenario overview
Coal mining has several short- and long-term effects on livelihoods, affecting individuals with a variety of challenges. India's coal usage is predicted to rise from 660 Mt/year to 1800 Mt/year by 2030, indicating possible pollution. Five types of capital are used in livelihood systems: human, physical, natural, financial, and social. Threats to these capitals provide a variety of livelihood concerns, including health, environmental, financial, and social difficulties. External risks are caused by natural events, whereas manufactured risks are man-made ones such as deforestation, global warming, and ocean acidification (Paltasingh and Satapathy 2021, Mulvihill 2021, Su et al. 2018). Now, a brief overview of case studies in India, covering alternative livelihoods in coal mining communities.
Vijayanagara and Ballari districts are part of the Kalyana Karnataka region. People in these locations sought alternative forms of income following the mine's shutdown. By collaborating with line departments, they implement agroforestry models that consider the horticulture component (Yadava et al., 2024).
The expansion of aquaculture in the mining region has been rapid; several Indian states have made headway in this sector, opening the door to alternative livelihood options other than mining. Aquaculture production output in Chhattisgarh has increased at an unparalleled rate in recent years (Dwivedi, 2018; Bhendarkar et al., 2017).
According to the amount of binding agent used and the length of the heating process; coal mine overburden may be exploited to manufacture functional bricks that may be used as load-bearing or non-load-bearing units. Bricks made from Korba, Chhattisgarh, India's coal mine overburden dump help to reduce the region's expanding demand for building materials while also generating work for locals (Singh and Singh, 2020).
Families in Karnataka's mining-affected Kalyana area are required to raise their income to fulfill their necessities; the majority of their sources of income came from informal mining. As a result, there is a great need to provide for family members once the mine closes. Backyard dairy, poultry, sheep goat husbandry are examples of alternative livelihoods that individuals use to improve their abilities linked to livelihood development (Yadava et al., 2024).
The solar energy potential of the wasteland following underground mining regions in India's Rangareddy district, Telangana, demonstrates alternative life choices through the job creation electricity selling industry. Solar power generation through photovoltaic panel installation grid- connected system configuration. Renewable energy is becoming a critical component of the answer to many of the world's urgent concerns, including promoting sustainable development, decreasing climate change, safeguarding natural resources, as well as alternative livelihoods (Nazir et al., 2024; Behera et al., 2023).
At Saoner, India's Maharashtra, visitors may take in the natural surroundings and get knowledge about the mining industry at the Eco-Park. Mined waste material is used to construct several scientific models at the eco-park, including the ocean pool, swings, and fountain. It has a pristine setting with the majority of the natural forest still in its original form. In addition to various demonstrated technologies including vermicomposting, rainwater harvesting, solar pump drip irrigation, an open gym, a ball pit, an artificial mine tunnel, toy train, the park offers adventure rides.
The state of Chhattisgarh is working toward implementing an action plan to create the biggest artificial forest in the country over a sizable region, mostly the abandoned inactive mining belt. At Nini, the goal is to use the location for eco-ethnic horticulture tourism, which will comprise cottage rentals, and water sport marketing creating job opportunities (Basu and Mishra 2023). According to the few instances accessible, alternative livelihoods play an important role in fostering sustainable development, boosting community well-being, and minimizing the negative effects of coal mining in India. Alternative livelihood initiatives enable coal mining communities to develop stronger, healthier, and more inclusive by widening economic options and boosting social and environmental resilience.
12.5 The RCF offers various alternative livelihood opportunities
Mining has a long history, dating back to 4000 BC Coal mining in the Raniganj region, India was officially recognized in 1774. Coal is India's primary fossil fuel, crucial to its growing population economy. While addressing expanding energy demand, mining contributes significantly to economic growth, with coal used mostly by the power sector, followed by the iron, steel, and cement industries. Despite the benefits, coal mining has a severe impact on terrestrial aquatic ecosystems, as well as nearby communities. Chemical changes affect groundwater and surface water, which influences the structure topography. Microclimate changes affect wind patterns, vegetation, wildlife, and soil productivity, exacerbating ecological degradation (Basu and Mishra 2023, Karlsson 2022, Saha et al., 2022, Kanianska 2016). Despite that, alternative livelihoods in RCF provide a variety of vital functions that are critical for the long-term development of communities affected by coal mining operations. Here are some of the important existing alternative livelihoods in this mining area:
12.5.1 Coal mining-related small-scale industries
Coal mining-related small-scale industries contribute significantly to the livelihoods of inhabitants in coal mining areas. These sectors often originate as supplementary enterprises or support services for the coal mining sector; they contribute to the local economy in a variety of ways. In RCF, they currently operate small-scale coal mining enterprises that enable residents to maintain their livelihoods.
Equipment Maintenance and Repair
Small-scale workshop repair shops specialize in repairing and maintaining mining equipment, machinery, and vehicles used in coal mines. These enterprises employ mechanics, technicians, and welders who offer critical maintenance services to keep mining operations running smoothly (Figure 12. 1).
Transportation Services
Trucking, hauling, and logistics support are common transportation services local entrepreneurs provide for coal mining operations. They transport coal from mines to processing facilities or distribution hubs, providing job opportunities for drivers, loaders, and support personnel (Figure 12. 1).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12. 1. A local entrepreneurial venture offering maintenance and repair services and transportation in RCF
Mining Consumable Supplies
Neighborhood enterprises provide essential coal mining essentials machinery, such as explosives, drilling tools, safety gear, and protective equipment. These suppliers are critical in meeting mining companies' demands and supporting their daily operations.
Food Catering Services
Food vendors, restaurants, and catering companies meet the nutritional demands of mine workers, contractors, and personnel. They supply meals, snacks, and drinks to mine workers throughout shifts, resulting in job possibilities for cooks, waiters, and kitchen staff (Figure 12. 2).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.2. Food and catering services, an alternate livelihood in RCF
Housing accommodation services
Small-scale lodging providers provide lodgings, guesthouses, or rental accommodations for temporary workers, contractors, and tourists involved with coal mining activities. These enterprises help to boost the local hotel industry while also providing money to local property owners.
Amenities Community Services
Small-scale enterprises may offer various community service facilities that assist mining communities to thrive. These services may include healthcare clinics, educational institutions, recreational facilities, and social infrastructure that improve residents' quality of life.
Retailing Merchandising
Local retail outlets, convenience stores, and merchandise shops meet the requirements of mining towns by selling groceries, home products, clothes, and personal care items. These companies are important locations for locals to obtain basic goods and support the local economy.
Reclamation of the environment rehabilitation
Several small enterprises focus on environmental remediation rehabilitation activities aimed at restoring, water, and ecosystems impacted by coal mining operations. These enterprises may engage in revegetation, soil stabilization, and pollution control activities, resulting in job possibilities in environmental restoration endeavors (Figure 12. 3)
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.3. Rehabilitation site in RCF
According to the above discussion, coal mining-related small-scale enterprises play an important role in supporting alternative lives, creating jobs, and promoting economic growth in coal mining areas. These enterprises help RCF mining towns to be more resilient and prosperous by diversifying the local economy and offering auxiliary services to the mining sector. In this regard, there are so many small-scale companies sprouting in RCF that are Sagar Trading, Burnpur Polyfabs Pvt. Ltd., Khushbu Engineering Works, Pragati Wires Pvt. Ltd., Sova Electrocasting Ltd., Maharaja Ispat Pvt. Ltd., Satyam Iron Steel Co. Pvt. Ltd., Mechfast Engineering Pvt. Ltd., Sumangal Ispat Pvt. Ltd., Satyam Smelters Pvt. Ltd., Captain Steel India Ltd., Ma Chi Durga Cements Ltd., Durgapur Chemical Ltd., Great Eastern Energy Corporation Ltd., Asansol Aqua Pvt. Ltd., Asansol Bottling and Packaging Company Pvt. Ltd., Piyush Oil and Dal Mill, Manpas Agro Food Pvt. Ltd., Shri Shyam Agro Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Baba Food Industries, etc.
12.5.2 Construction industry
Mining waste is recycled in the construction industry because
- Repurposing mining waste into construction materials lessens the need for virgin resources while minimizing environmental effects.
- Manufacturers save money by reducing transportation expenses and establishing companies near coal mines.
- Utilizing mining waste helps to improve local economic development by generating employment opportunities.
- The circular economy encourages the use of mining waste in construction materials, therefore decreasing waste and increasing resource efficiency (Figure 12. 4).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12. 4. Construction Industry at Raniganj
- Diversifying supply chains, including mining waste, assure continuous access to resources.
- The integration of mining waste provides chances for innovative research into improved technologies and goods.
- Regulatory compliance promotes the reuse and recycling of industrial waste, which includes mining waste.
The Sonepur-Bazari mine in RCF is utilizing coal mine wastes as a sustainable solution to address mine-waste issues. These wastes, with high AlNanSiO5 mineral concentration, are used as building materials and construction materials, preserving limited natural resources. The waste is also used as filler for hot mix asphalt, cement, concrete, bricks, lightweight aggregates, enameling, paint dye, and ceramic refractories, providing alternative livelihood options (Figure 12. 5). Recycling mining wastes, particularly as building materials, is a sustainable development industrial ecology approach. Burned bricks are also being used to manage soil excavated during open-cast mining, providing livelihood opportunities for local brick industry employees (Chakraborty et al., 2023, Mondal and Mistri, 2021).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.5. The brick manufacturing industry at Raniganj
Durgapur Cement Works, Burnpur Cement Ltd., Shristi Cement Ltd., Bakreswar Cement Pvt. Ltd., Damodar Cement Industries Pvt. Ltd., Khaitan Cement Pvt. Ltd., Graphite India Ltd., NBE Bricks Factory, Brick HARI, Shree Swastick Industries, Natural Stone Manufacturers, Hind Stone Chip Manufacturers, others are examples of mining waste being reused in the construction industry in RCF.
12.5.3 Agriculture, and Horticulture
PLs are permanent landforms formed in deep openings of open-cast mines, varying in size and depth based on surface excavations. They are classified as tiny catchments having distinguishing features. The surrounding region of PLs in RCF is presently used for sustainable farming or agriculture. Farmls are defined as highly appropriate locations for agriculture horticulture, whereas adjacent moderately suitable areas (Sakellari et al., 2021, Das 2020, Venberg et al. 2011). Approximately 30 PLs from ECL mining regions in Paschim Bardhaman, including Sodepur, Kajora, and Raniganj, have been used for sustainable farming (Figure 12. 6).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.6. Horticulture farm at Raniganj
12.5.4 Fisheries, and Aquaculture
Some of the PLs in RCF have been designated for conservation efforts, and many have varying degrees of water quality and rehabilitation. The PLs Samdihi, Ratibat, Harabnanga, etc in Paschim Bardhaman district are ideal for pisciculture due to their density and abundance of zooplankton, which offers an adequate food supply for popular fish species such asCatla catla,Notopterus notopterus,Oreochromis niloticus(Saha et al., 2021, Mal et al., 2021).
Palit et al. (2016) conducted pilot-scale research on the socioeconomic scope and use profile of RCF PLs. They observed that the majority of the PLs had numerous functions. All of the uses were proportional to the age of the PLs. PLs that have been there for 20-30 years have spontaneously evolved into wetland ecosystems with diverse aquatic biota, high water quality, and stable embankments. All of these characteristics have resulted in a large number of PLs with a variety of potential uses in recent decades. Our research identified around 15 significant uses of PLs in RCF, West Bengal. Recreational fishing, or angling by villages, was the most popular use in over 40 PLs, followed by pisciculture (commercial fishing). Interestingly, around eleven PLs had excellent efficient irrigation, mostly for water supply agriculture in the region.
12.5.5 Dairy farming, Poultry farming, and Goat farming
Dairy farming, poultry farming, and goat farming are viable agricultural enterprises (Chattoraj et al., 2015) in RCF coal mining regions for a variety of reasons. Livestock farming offers a long-term economic solution for people in coal mining regions by diversifying livelihoods and reducing reliance on mining. This involves dairy, poultry, and goat production, which require fewer inputs like water fertilizers and can improve l use production in mining-affected areas. Livestock farming is more resilient to climatic variability and provides a consistent revenue stream for farmers in areas prone to monsoon interruptions or temperature swings. It also provides income diversification by producing value-added goods like milk, yogurt, cheese, and butter, which can have higher market prices. Livestock farming also employs workers and contributes to rural development and poverty reduction in coal mining communities by creating job opportunities (Figure 12. 7). It also provides environmental advantages like better soil fertility, l restoration, and C sequestration through agroforestry integration. Livestock husbandry provides long-term livelihood opportunities for families in coal mining communities, improving income, and food security, and contributing to socioeconomic development.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.7 a and b. Dairy farming at RCF; c. Poultry farm in RCF
12.6 The author proposes various alternative livelihood resources in the RCF
India aims to achieve net zero emission goals by 2070, requiring residents to find alternative income sources. The Raniganj coal belt area faces challenges due to its heavy dependence on coal mining. Public involvement in community development and environmental quality improvement is crucial as society evolves. Abandoned mining sites offer both opportunities and challenges in selecting suitable new uses. Global Indian perspectives suggest other entrepreneurial possibilities for better alternative livelihoods. Some of these include:
Pharmaceuticals fish feed production business.
Plants contain principles, which include alkaloids, terpenoids, tannins, saponins, and flavonoids, plants have been reported to produce a variety of effects in fish, and shrimp aquaculture, including anti-stress, growth promotion, appetite stimulation, immune stimulation, aphrodisiac properties. Garlic (Allium sativum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), pomegranate (Punica granatum), Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), Indian ginseng (Whitania somnifera) are the plant species that have shown the most promise for usage in aquaculture /or by soil cultivation. These plants transported only a small amount of heavy metal to their shoot bulbs and were reported as hypoaccumulators by Jiang et al. (2001). Many unique bioactive compounds with a variety of bioactivities are thought to be abundant in algae. Recent research has demonstrated the potential of algae to heal infections or increase fish fitness. Thus Pharmaceutical fish feed production business will provide alternative livelihood options for local people in RCF.
Bioremediation, water treatment plant
Organizations that specialize in water treatment pit lake cleanup may be hired for industrial or agricultural projects. This allowed the abandoned pit lake's water quality to be repaired and returned to the environment, creating new economic prospects for communities around RCF.
Hydroponics
Hydroponics is a farming method that uses nutrient solutions to produce crops without soil, providing a non-soil-based alternative for areas affected by coal mining activities. This method allows for the repair and regeneration of damaged areas while maintaining agricultural productivity. Hydroponic systems require less water than traditional soil-based cultivation methods and can be used indoors or in controlled environments, ensuring year-round growth regardless of weather conditions. This method also addresses water shortage concerns by recirculating water resources and controlling fertilizer. Hydroponics offers a sustainable resilient solution to agricultural issues in coal mining zones, offering a sustainable resilient path to food production economic growth. It could also provide income opportunities for people in remote coal mining areas of RCF.
Vermicompost biogas production
Water hyacinth aquatic weeds have an efficient carbohydrate content, with up to 55% on dry matter. The basic energy equivalents method was used to evaluate the potential for producing power from biogas fromSalvinia molestaand water hyacinth. This biomass can be used for aquatic restoration, converting organic matter into biogas converting intestinal leftovers into fertilizer. The vermicompost biogas production industry can create job opportunities in RCF.
Apiculture
Beekeepers maintain sustainability by recycling honeycomb frames in wooden box hives, preserving their hive's health strength. This cyclical practice helps small-scale beekeepers improve their chances of making a living in rural communities, which can be achieved on small farms.
Mining tourism
India's mining sector is a significant economic driver, with tourism accounting for 8% of employment and 9.4% of GDP in 2017. The RCF region could benefit from creating tourism opportunities through mining vacant, mining heritage, nature paths, kayaking, boating, bird watching, ecotourism, and water sports. The abandoned pit lake, which offers water sports like paddle boarding, canoeing, and scuba diving, could also attract tourists and generate revenue for the neighborhood. This would also create job opportunities for companies that rent equipment and offer guided tours (Figure 12. 8).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 12.8. Temple of Prince Dwarkanath Tagore
Renewably Sourced Energy
Renewable energy is critical to the future of energy, food, and economic stability. All efforts should be aimed at harnessing alternative sources of energy to augment our energy demand for household, institutional, commercial, and industrial use. New renewable energy sources are inextricably tied to energy efficiency, energy conservation, and climate change challenges such as global warming. A 10-MW solar power-producing facility in Paschim Bardhaman district. In terms of space, the facility will be the largest since it will be built on a 52-acre property (Goswami 2014). As part of its efforts to promote the use of environmentally beneficial non- conventional energy sources, the government is taking this action. Examine the possibility of generating renewable energy near the pit lake to support sustainable energy production and provide employment for alternative livelihood.
Boosts confidence in entrepreneurship through innovative approaches
The MoRD is establishing Self Employment Training Institutes in RCF that provide training skill development to rural youth to encourage entrepreneurship. Banks run these institutes in collaboration with the government state governments. Despite government and non-government entities' attempts to promote micro-enterprises, these efforts appear insufficient. Innovative approaches organizations have been established to boost young people's confidence and enable them to start their businesses.
12.7 Conclusion
This chapter discusses the current options for alternative livelihood in RCF from a global and national perspective, as well as the possibility of using Hydroponics - an alternative farming, mining tourism, bioremediation methods, etc. to improve the environment and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities in RCF, where many mining activities are being carried out by advanced machinery, resulting in less reliance on human labor or mining, will cease shortly for obvious reasons. The above-mentioned alternative livelihood options can meet the economic demands of RCF residents. This technique is also consistent with the Indian government's "Made in India" initiative, which aims to offer parishioners who might otherwise engage in informal mining an alternative means of sustenance.
12.8 Bibliography
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Nazir, M., Roy, K., Saha, A., and Saha, D. (2024). A Novel Approach to Explore New Means of Depletion of Potable Water Crisis by Phytoremediation of Abandoned Coalmine Pitlake and Generate Alternate Livelihood: A Case Study of Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal, India.
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Saha, D., Saha, A., and Saha, N. C. (2021). Seasonal Variation of Water Quality and Its Impact on Fish Diversity in Harabhanga Abandoned Open Cast pit, Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal, India.
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Chapter 13. The potential assessment of mining tourism is being explored
13.1 Abstract
The tourism industry benefits from tourists for various reasons, with hotel, hospitality, and transportation sectors playing crucial roles in ensuring happiness and engagement while preserving natural, historical, and cultural heritage. Mining regions can diversify their economies by developing niche and industrial tourism. A rapidly growing segment of this industry is mining tourism, fueled by the need to use enormous quantities of mining land and people's desire for unusual and exciting locations. Mining tourism is unusual in India, despite its significance as a commercial endeavor. The potential of mining tourism in RCF, the earliest known coalfield in India, is the primary focus of this study. The authors reveal how mining tourism is connected to other types of tourism by logically exploring numerous mines from the RCF that have high levels of preservation, good connectivity, and quality. The study explores mining tourism attractions in various locations, challenges in infrastructure exploration, and potential issues in RCF, highlighting the potential for implementation. The effective, successful growth of mining tourism in these locations in the future will depend on stakeholder initiatives, such as awareness campaigns and the construction of basic tourist facilities.
Keywords
Basic tourist facilities, Economies, Infrastructure exploration, Mining land, Mining tourism, Stakeholder initiatives
13.2 Introduction
Visitors and their activities during their visit are determined by the fact that they willingly leave their homes to visit a different environment and participate in a variety of activities regardless of their proximity. The UN Conference on International Travel and Tourism, which took place in 1963, classified people who travel to another nation/place into three categories: temporary visitors (those who stay for at least 24 h), leisure visitors (those who travel for leisure, health, sport, holiday, study, or religious purposes), and excursionists (those who stay for less than 24 hours). Travelers can be divided into two categories: those who go on business and those who go on personal trips for things like sports, health, study, family visits, and religious pilgrimages (Gursoy et al., 2022; Camilleri and Camilleriv, 2018). Tourism is vital to developing countries because it creates jobs, generates income, and allows for exchange earnings. It impacts various industries and varies based on each country's unique characteristics. However, it is challenging to define the limits of this specific sector because of its interdependence with others. Despite the lack of reliable statistics, long-term plans have been developed for the expansion of tourism (Khan et al., 2020; Saner et al., 2019).
Mining tourism is a growing global special interest that offers visitors entertainment, education, exploration of the mining landscape, interpretation of technology, and preservation of mining heritage. This type of travel is becoming increasingly prevalent, especially in developed nations, due to its management, employment opportunities, and local knowledge of the mining sector. Creative solutions are needed to meet the constantly shifting demands of this sector (Rozycki and Dryglas, 2017). A nation's economy depends heavily on mining, but this requires large amounts of land, some of which may become unusable once the mines are exhausted. As a consequence, it's important to consider reusing the mining land for other uses as well, and mining-based tourism proves beneficial in this context. The growth of mining tourism offers numerous advantages, such as
a) Increasing travel to previously unexplored areas
b) Creating new jobs and economic opportunities through tourism
c) Allowing travelers to see uncharted territory, and
d) Raising awareness of, preserving, and protecting mining heritage (Edwards and Coit, 1996).
13.3 Global scenario overview
The mining and tourism sectors are growing globally, and growth opportunities arise from mine closures. The correlation between mining and tourism is an undeniable fact, and the extent to which authorities and local governments possess knowledge of prospective industrial and post-industrial areas significantly impacts the quality of these associations. Because it generates revenue and jobs, mining has greatly aided in the expansion of industry. On the other hand, post-mining cities deal with issues like unstable finances, environmental deterioration, and social change. In order to tackle these problems, a lot of post-mining cities are turning mining heritage values into tourist attractions. The allure of resources connected to mining determines how well tourism develops.
In Sawahlunto, an old coal mining city in Indonesia, the most attractive assets include natural beauty, mining heritage sites, museums, and architectural elements. These attractions attract tourists, indicating they are likely to plan more travel. In less than 15 years, Sawahlunto transformed from a coal mining city to a sophisticated mining heritage tourism destination, preserving its historic sites from becoming a "ghost town." This success can be attributed to innovative approaches taken by stakeholders to address the challenges faced by post-mining cities and become one of Indonesia's most esteemed cultural mining tourism destinations (Syafrini et al., 2022; Armis and Kanegae, 2020).
Europe and America are becoming more interested in repurposing abandoned mines and quarries; this is especially the case at the Big Pit Mining Museum in Blaenafon, South Wales. The National Museums and Galleries of Wales is now in charge of conserving the museum due to its increased heritage value, despite its early difficulties as a tourist destination (Wanhill, 2000).
PLs, created during the post-mining phase of surface-cut mining, offer both passive and active recreational activities for local populations, considering factors like water quality, bank steepness, shoreline stability, and water depth. To prevent the failure of investments in new infrastructure for recreational use, stakeholders must collaborate and develop regional concepts as competition between sites and communities can arise in newly created lake districts. 25 former open-cut coal mine pits in Alberta, Canada, have been transformed into PLs with recreational fishing and hiking trails. An abandoned coal mine turned hiking and fishing spot is called Quarry Lake. It was decided that East PL, a lake created by coal mining, would be a good place to create a recreational sport fishery for arctic grayling. In 1994, TransAlta received a reclamation certificate. In the 1980s, Lovett and Silkstone PLs were established as models for additional mine pit-based sport fisheries. A mine in British Columbia transformed its tailings ponds and former mine pits into sport fisheries, which are home to a well-known fishing derby (Stephenson and Castendyk, 2019; Gerner and McCullough, 2018).
Lake districts in eastern Germany, primarily used for recreational purposes, have grown due to their proximity to Dresden and the increasing quantity of filled PLs. Lake Senftenberg, a popular weekend getaway, is attracting more overnight visitors due to its proximity to Leipzig and Halle, the two largest cities in the area. The canals and water gates connecting these lakes facilitate direct boat travel, further increasing their popularity as recreational locations (Schultze et al., 2013).
Apart from mining, tourism is considered a potential source of income in various remote areas of Australia. Another excellent example is Kuranda, which is close to Cairns. To promote and develop tourism destinations that draw inspiration from the mining heritage, local communities require ongoing support. This will all support the growth of regional tourism businesses (Buultjens et al., 2010). In Western Australia, the Collie PL District's mine PLs offer recreational opportunities to locals and visitors alike. Black Diamond and Stockton Lakes, which were once abandoned and never restored, are now used as recreation areas. Though it is frequently accessed illegally, Lake Kepwari, which has already undergone rehabilitation and is now more modern, is suggested to be abandoned as a recreational facility (McCullough et al., 2020; Carlinon and McCullough, 2019).
The Masurian Lakes of Silesia are a complex of lakes and recreational facilities that were created from post-industrial areas in Dabrowa Gornicza, Poland. Using the Cuyuna Range in the United States as an example, this destination is growing in popularity due to its mining history (Sutherland, 2015).
Mining and post-mining areas have a great deal of tourism potential. To plan and create the best tourism offering that will draw visitors to a particular area, it is crucial to carry out an accurate inventory of post-mining resources. However, without suitable lodging, food, and auxiliary facilities, this goal cannot be achieved.
13.4 National scenario overview
India has the eighth-largest tourism industry in the world, accounting for 9.2% of the GDP of the nation in 2018. The well-organized industry concentrates on attractions related to nature, culture, religion, and architecture. India has seen the rise of tourism, an idea based on geographical legacies from diverse environments, especially in the Himalayan region, the desert, the coastal region, and the peninsula (World Travel and Tourism Council 2019, Ministry of Tourism, Government of India 2019, Singh and Anand 2013).
An impressive rise in mining tourism was observed in 2018 when over 145,000 people visited the Saoner and Gondegaon mines in Maharashtra, which are a joint venture between Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation and Western Coalfields Ltd (Singh & Mishra, 2018; Goradia, 2016). Sustainable mining closure practices have resulted in the conversion of over 15 coal mines nationwide into eco-parks and mining museums. By 2021-2022, a few more are expected to join the list. It demonstrates the extent to which eco-mining-tourism in coal mines has been developed. Rozycki and Dryglas, (2017) have highlighted that there exist numerous other tourism sectors that could delve deeper into the potential of mining tourism.
In an effort to capitalize on the growing popularity of eco-parks as travel destinations for eco-tourists, CIL is currently transforming its closed mines into ecological parks. Additionally, the local population is finding that these eco-parks and tourist destinations provide a means of subsistence. Plans are underway to create additional eco-parks and eco-restoration sites in the mining areas owned by CIL. Currently, 30 such eco-parks are drawing consistent foot traffic. Ananta medicinal garden (MCL), Bal Gangadhar Tilak eco-park (WCL), Gunjan Park (ECL) (Figure 13.1), Gokul eco-cultural park (BCCL), Kenapara eco-tourism site, and Ananya Vatika (SECL), Krishnashila eco-restoration site and Mudwani eco-parks (NCL), and Chandra Sekhar Azad eco-park, CCL is a few of the popular coal mine tourism destinations.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.1. Gunjan Park in RCF
A previously mined-out area in Chhattisgarh has become a well-liked tourist attraction where guests can enjoy floating restaurants, boating, and lush surroundings. The Surajpur district's Kenapara ecotourism site has great potential and provides tribal people with a means of subsistence. The Mudwani eco-parks in Singrauli, Madhya Pradesh, draw tourists with their lovely scenery and recreational amenities. They also feature a landscaped waterfront and pathways.
CIL has increased its green space to 1610 ha in 2022-2023. A carbon sink potential of 2.2 Lt/year has been developed by 4392 ha of greening inside the mining lease area during the previous five fiscal years, up to FY '22. Eco-Parks are ecological systems that can sustain themselves on their own by producing food, energy, and water. They raise awareness about environmental preservation by connecting green landscapes with high goals for environmental protection and nature conservation. Eco-parks improve human values and wildlife, require less watering and upkeep, and can be used for research and recreation. The environment benefits from the conversion of closed mines into ecological parks (Basu and Mishra 2023; The India Review, 2023).
13.5 Potential locations for mining tourism
Naturally, mining tourism is a relatively new sector of the tourism industry that is expanding quickly throughout the world. It is driven by two societal needs: first, people's desire to travel to unusual and exciting locations; and, second, the necessity to utilize the vast amounts of mining land that are otherwise left undeveloped after a certain amount of time. Even though many mining fields and tourism are regarded as significant economic activities, this tourism is infrequent and lags behind India. In this sense, the recently established West Bengal district of Paschim Bardhaman, which is home to approximately 100 coal mines, as a part of the oldest coalfield in India, is a potential location for mining tourism. Situated in certain locations, the district's distinctive mining sites might operate as a "pull factor" for tourism in the area (Figure 13.2).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.2. Sodepur Colliery, a rehabilitated land and a potential tourist spot at RCF
In the Indian economy, the tourism sector offers socioeconomic advantages including foreign exchange, employment, and income by combining travel, lodging, and transportation. Investing in infrastructure services like lodging and transportation supports economic growth on the whole. In terms of international tourism receipts, India is ranked 12th. The Paschim Bardhaman district provides prospective tourism circuits, helping to the general growth of the economy. Attractions including Churulia, Maithon Dam, Asansol Ramakrishna Mission, Garh Jungle, Ichhai Ghosher Deul (Figure 13.3), and mining tourist sites are located here (Tiwari et al., 2020). The authors explore these points of interest and create a tourist circuit, emphasizing the area's potential for tourism growth and securing an identity on the Indian tourism map.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.3a. Asansol Ramakrishna Mission; b. Garh Jungle; c. Icchai Ghoser Deul
13.6 In RCF, unfold mining tourism
The remains of Narankuri Mines
One of the oldest coal mines in India was established in 1830 by local businessmen and is located in the hamlet of Narayankuri in Raniganj block of Paschim Bardhaman district. After purchasing the mine, Prince Dwarakanath built many coal mines, a haulage building (Figure 13.4a), and an office/residence bungalow (Figure 13.4b). Even as a child, Rabindranath Tagore resided there. Two or three coal mines are still visible today, albeit they are hidden by untamed vegetation. The haulage home, surrounded by bushy trees, is in poor condition with three prone pillars falling and overburdened from an adjacent open-pit mine depositing behind it. The Mathurachandi Ghat (Figure 13.4c), situated by the Damodar, is still acknowledged as the shrine dedicated to the local goddess Mathurachandi. In 2017, the Asansol-Durgapur Development Authority erected a bust of Prince Dwarakanath. Immediate action is required to preserve this historic mining location for future generations to see the evolution of coal mining in India. Building a small museum here for tourists with the right design, maintenance, and preservation is possible. The haulage house was in the same appalling condition as Ghosh (2021), but Singh and Ghosh (2019) proceeded one step further to describe the waste situation encompassing the heritage house's current state, saying that "cow dung cakes were pasted on the wall, a banyan tree has grown up covering it, and the Gram Panchayat's dustbin is kept just beside this heritage house." Future generations should inherit the history of RCF, and tourism centered on this legacy offers one possible way to accomplish so. However, owing to its distinct qualities and possible hazards, the relationship between mining and tourism is complicated. Methods of interpretation and accuracy are also crucial.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.4.a. Haulage building; b. Remains of the bungalow of Prince Dwarakanath Tagore; c. Mathurachandi Ghat on the bank of Damodar River in RCF
Chinakuri mine is India's deepest coal mine
Adventure tourism is a fast-expanding global sector that offers a variety of opportunities in hotels, event management, trip planning, marketing, and communications to young professionals. This industry fosters sustainable practices, helps regional economies, and draws in high-value clients. Proponents differentiate mining tourism from other forms of tourist or industrial tourism by emphasizing adventure tourism. They see mining tourism as an adventurous and cognitive type of tourism centered on the experiences and actions of travelers. An excellent illustration of adventure tourism is the underground visit, which offers a very distinctive and enigmatic experience from what is available above ground. Thus, by offering experiences and activities like underground treks and vertical/horizontal mobility, Chinakuri mine's tourism attractions may promote mining adventure tourism while also enhancing the functioning of underground mining (Garrod and Dowell, 2020; Rybar and Hroncek, 2017; Rybar and Strba, 2016).
The Chinakuri mine, ECL is situated in the heart of the RCF, on the bank of the Damodar River, not far from Asansol, West Bengal. This coal mine is the deepest in the country, reaching a depth of almost 700 m below the surface. However, mining the Dishergarh coal seam at this mine using the bord, pillar, and longwall methods has become troublesome due to the formation of coal bumps. India's history of coal mining commenced in 1774 at Chinakuri, the country's deepest coal mine. Suetonius Grant Heatly, an Englishman, was employed in 6 mines, one of which was in Chinakuri, and discovered coal in India. Mr. Betts built a mine in 1823-24 near the location where Heatly had worked in Chinakuri later in the 1820s, a time when the number of coal mines under European administration was expanding quickly. Prince Dwarakanath Tagore became the first Indian entrepreneur in the coal industry in 1835. He founded the Carr, Tagore, and Company and subsequently acquired the Chinakuri mine in 1837. Prior to nationalization, this mine was owned by M/S. Andrew Yule & Co. and mined many coal seams using different techniques. The locals could point to a location close to the current mine that they believe is the ancient mine, hidden in plants and creepers, but sadly there is now no evidence of this historically significant mine. With the district's history of coal in India and the locals' pride in it, the Chinakuri mine and its surroundings are unquestionably a cultural asset that doubles the area's potential as a tourism destination (Ates 2016; Konicek et al., 2010; CMPDIL, 1984; Peterson, 1997). It might become a popular tourist site for people interested in history, mining techniques, and adventure with proper preservation and planned infrastructural development.
Tourism potential and the preserved status of the said mining site
a) The site is easily accessible from nearby cities and towns, supporting the growth of the tourism industry.
b) It is well-connected and well-preserved, suggesting little risk of future degradation.
c) The creation of the infrastructure for tourists and the guarantee of visitor safety is necessary for mining tourism to succeed.
Mahabir Coal mine
Over the past century, there has been an increase in the popularity of dark tourism worldwide. Popular tourist spots in India, like Jaliwanwala Bagh, Punjab, Cellular Jail, Andaman, and the Nicobar Islands, are known for their tragic histories, deaths, and accidents (Dey 2018; Stone and Sharpley 2008). The ENVIS Center of Environmental Problems of Mining records almost 200 incidents of fatal mining accidents between 2015 and 2020. Mining accidents are a typical occurrence in the nation. Mahabir mine (Figure 13.5) stands notable due to its exceptional rescue operation, nonetheless. 6 mine workers were killed in an accident at Mahabir coal mine on November 13, 1989, and 64 more people remained trapped until being freed four days later. The rescue operation was a great success, and the method was later recognized and applied globally. According to Stone and Sharpley (2008), gloomy tourism serves as a means of dispelling and normalizing people's fear and sorrow about death by serving as a reminder that they are fortunate to be alive (Korstanje 2015; Banerjee 2010). Despite the unfortunate past of the Mahabir coal mine, the achievement of its rescue attempt may give rise to optimism and confidence in humanity.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.5. Mahabir Coal mine
In 2023, director Tinu Suresh Desai created the Hindi-language thriller Raniganj Mission, which is produced by Pooja Entertainment and stars Akshay Kumar and Parineeti Chopra. The film was inspired by the 1989 Mahabir coal mine accident and was made possible by mining engineer Jaswant Singh Gill, a courageous and industrious mining engineer from ISM Dhanbad (now IIT) who rescued 65 trapped miners at the mine. Cleanliness and basic infrastructure are necessary for the appropriate use of tourism, nevertheless.
Promoting film tourism and shooting films in coal mines
Film tourism has become more popular since the 1990s, with a rising emphasis on motion pictures. Travelers' mental impressions of tourist locations are aided by film tourism, and its expansion suggests astute destination management techniques to draw travelers (Vila et al., 2021; Strielkowski 2017). Film tourism is one of the tourist goods that is expanding the fastest. In 2012, there were 40 M visitors to tourist locations driven by the film industry; by 2018, that Figure 13. had risen to 80 M visitors (TCI Research 2018). People's ability to stay up to date with audio-visual developments in all forms is the primary cause of this rise (Lordache, Van Audenhove, and Loisen, 2019). Coal mines and mining localities have gained popularity in India as filming settings for regional and major Bollywood films in several languages. For instance, the bungalow from the movie "Gunday" was renamed "Bikram-Bala Sadan" in honor of the main characters and turned into a tourist attraction. Once a typical coal mine, Khottadih Colliery, RCF gained popularity among local tourists following the film's premiere (Singh and Ghosh, 2019). These locations have a lot of potential for tourism, which might grow if travelers are made comfortable and the required infrastructure has been put in place.
13.7 Infrastructure and logistical efficiency need to be improved
Damalia, Harabanga, Ratibati PL
The Damalia, Harabanga, and Ratibati PLs in the Satgram-Sripur area, ECL (Raniganj Block, Paschim Bardhaman), with significant potential to develop into popular destinations for ecotourism. These PLs would offer leisure options that are both tranquil and busy. The homestay bank of the PLs is the ideal location for a holiday. The purpose of the amenities is to increase visitor satisfaction and happiness. Recreational design considers the water quality as well as safety factors including bank steepness, coastal stability, and the right water level. Various methods such as hydroponic farming, aquaculture, horticulture, plantations, bioremediation with carbon sequestration, and so on can effectively achieve the goal. The sustainable utilization of PLs in RCF was described in detail by Nazir et al. (2024).
In 2019, Gunjan Ecological Park, a first-rate children's theme park next to Sripur More in Asansol, opened on the bank of the Ratibati PL (Figure 13.6). Now covered in towering vegetation, the park offers several noteworthy amenities, such as entertaining rides, engaging activities, delectable food and beverages, gathering places, picnics, and informal conversations. To promote ecotourism, which assists promoting community engagement and boosts the economy, the site needs more effective planning, management, and government support.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 13.6. Ratibati PL in Gunjan Park in RCF
13.8 The growth of mining tourism is a significant focus area
Creating a tourist-friendly environment and providing interesting and instructive activities for tourists are essential to the growth of mining tourism in the vicinity of RCF mining sites. By going through this process, mining tourism may be made into a worthwhile and fulfilling endeavor that preserves the cultural and historical elements of mining history while benefiting both tourists and local communities. The following actions are necessary for mining tourism to mold itself:
Appraisal of the Sites
Determine the historical, cultural, and geological value of possible mining sites by conducting an extensive evaluation by the relevant authorities. Find locations with distinctive qualities, historical relics, or beautiful scenery.
Collaboration with mining companies and the right government agencies
To acquire access to active or closed mining locations, cooperate with mining corporations. For reliable information, guided tours, and chances for guests to observe contemporary mining techniques, create partnerships.
Maintaining and restoring the appropriate locations
Assure the maintenance and conservation of historical mining landscapes, machinery, and buildings. Assist professionals in the field of heritage conservation to preserve the sites' originality and cultural significance.
Development of Infrastructure
Provide tourist centers, walking pathways, observation platforms, and signs, among other infrastructure essential to tourism. Especially in situations where there may be risks, be sure that safety precautions are taken.
Involve Stakeholders and the Community
Incorporate historical organizations, mining corporations, local governments, and other pertinent parties into the planning process. Consider their viewpoints, worries, and possible contributions to the growth of mining tourism. Encourage community participation and ownership of the tourist project. Encourage locals to lead, organize events, or offer services to boost the community's economy and sense of pride.
Services for Visitors
Provide the conveniences, restrooms, and information centers that are necessities for visitors. Make sure guests enjoy their stay and the parking, lodging, and recreational amenities provided.
Addressing the Environment
Reduce the influence that tourism has on the environment by using sustainable practices. Consider garbage disposal, environmentally friendly transportation, and landscape reconstruction initiatives.
Cultural encounters and educational initiatives
Create educational initiatives that shed light on the significance, history, and technology of mining activities. To engage visitors and improve their comprehension, use interactive exhibitions, guided tours, and explanatory displays. Incorporate cultural activities like storytelling, traditional performances, and regional food to fully immerse guests in the mining community's culture. Authenticity may be increased by working with regional artists and cultural organizations.
Promotion and Marketing
Create a thorough marketing plan to encourage tourism related to mining. Reach a larger audience by working with travel agents, social media, and internet platforms. Draw attention to the distinctive qualities and experiences that the mining sites have to offer.
Education and Accreditation
Educate local tour guides and employees to provide tourists with accurate, interesting information. The quality of the tourism experience may be guaranteed and guides' professionalism can be improved with the help of certification programs.
Constant Enhancement
Create a mechanism that allows for ongoing input and development. Evaluate visitor satisfaction regularly, respond to complaints, and modify services in response to shifting consumer demands, visitor preferences, and market conditions.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
13.9 Conclusion
In the foregoing discussion, possible mining tourism has been described. Their distinctiveness might attract travelers who are interested in various mining tourism sectors. The railway stations of Asansol, Raniganj, Andal, and Durgapur, along with Kazi Nazrul Islam Airport in Durgapur, are easily accessible and well-connected. These locations are also well-served by roads, including the National Highway-National Highway-60, and railroads, including the Delhi-Howrah Main Line, Asansol - Chennai Line, and the Andal New Jalpaiguri Line. There are locations, and they are not distant from one another or inside the same town or hamlet. As a consequence, they meet the tourist circuit requirements set forth by the Indian government's Ministry of Tourism. This possible mining tourism circuit may be created on a limited scale to fulfill the objectives of the government's "Product/Infrastructure Development for Destinations and Circuits" initiative. A growing subset of global tourism is mining tourism. Even though India has a large number of mining fields and views tourism as a significant economic activity, this kind of travel is uncommon there. Given the history of mining in the nation, we can see that mining tourism has a strong foundation. All that is required in this case is the establishment of tourism infrastructure. Mining tourism is a growing niche in the global tourism industry, but it is rare in India due to the country's mining history. Nonetheless, mining tourism is well- established in the nation and may be further supported by the expansion of tourism infrastructure. The deepest coal mine in India, Chinakuri Mine, has a lot of potential for tourists. Historical significance notwithstanding, mining heritage tourism might thrive in the Narankuri mining site. The dark tourist industry has its roots in the Chinakuri and Mahabir mines, which have been linked to catastrophic incidents. There is room for expansion at Khottadih Colliery, where movie-induced mining tourism is already in operation. The PLs in Raniganj Block, Paschim Bardhaman, specifically Damalia, Harabanga, and Ratibati, also have a great deal of potential to become well-liked ecotourism attractions. These locations are well- connected, therefore small-scale tourism promotion centered on mining-related tourism might be undertaken. The establishment of a symbiotic relationship between residents, visitors, and the sites, as well as the provision of infrastructure and information, are prerequisites for the development of tourism circuits. This report recommends more research to grow mining tourism in the area under investigation.
13.10 Bibliography
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Ates, Y. (2016). The significance of historical mining sites as cultural/heritage resources: A Case study of Zilan Historical Mining Site, Ere is, Van, Turkey.Journal of Underground Resources, Year,5, 15-24.
Banerjee, A. (2010). Chile-like rescue in Bengal 21 years ago: Metal sheets beaten into a capsule to save 64 miners trapped 380ft underground for 4 days.The Telegraph.
Basu, D., & Mishra, S. (2023). Journal of Mining and Environment (JME). Journal of Mining and Environment (JME), 14(3), 871-896.
Buultjens, J., Brereton, D., Memmott, P., Reser, J., Thomson, L., & O'Rourke, T. (2010). The mining sector and indigenous tourism development in Weipa, Queensland.Tourism management,31(5), 597-606.
Camilleri, M. A., & Camilleri, M. A. (2018). The tourism industry: An overview (pp. 3-27). Springer International Publishing.
Carlino, A. M., & McCullough, C. D. (2019, September). Modelling the long-term water balance of a pit lake with recreational end uses. In Mine Closure 2019: Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Mine Closure (pp. 1405-1420). Australian Centre for Geomechanics.
Central Mine Planning & Design Institute Limited (CMPDIL) (1984). Coal mining in India.
Dey, P. (2018). Dark Tourism in India—walking through the alleys of India’s dark past. Retrieved from times travel: https://timesofindia. indiatimes. com/travel/destinations/dark- tourism-inindiawalking-through-the-alleys-of-indias-dark-past/as66107504. cms.
Garrod, B., & Dowell, D. (2020). Experiential marketing of an underground tourist attraction.Tourism and Hospitality.
Gerner, M., & McCullough, C. D. (2018). Planning for a positive future: Development of beneficial end uses from a quarry pit Lake, Victoria, Australia. From Start to Finish: A Life of Mine Perspective; AusIMM: Brisbane, Australia, 249-258.
Ghosh, P. (2021). Mining tourism potential assessment of Raniganj Coalfield, India. Advances in Hospitality and Tourism Research (AHTR), 9(2), 341-367.
Gursoy, D., Malodia, S., & Dhir, A. (2022). The metaverse in the hospitality and tourism industry: An overview of current trends and future research directions. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 31(5), 527-534.
Khan, A., Bibi, S., Lorenzo, A., Lyu, J., & Babar, Z. U. (2020). Tourism and development in developing economies: A policy implication perspective. Sustainability, 12(4), 1618.
Konicek, P., Soucek, K., Stas, L., Singh, R., & Sinha, A. (2010). Practices to control rock burst in deep coal mines of Upper Silesian coal basin and their applicability for Disergarh seam of Raniganj coalfield. In ISRM International Symposium-Asian Rock Mechanics Symposium (pp. ISRM-ARMS6). ISRM.
Korstanje, M. (2015). The anthropology of dark tourism.Exploring the contradictions of capitalism. CERS, Leeds.
Lordache, C., Van Audenhove, L., & Loisen, J. (2019). Global media flows: A qualitative review of research methods in audio-visual flow studies. International Communication Gazette, 81(6-8), 748- 767.
McCullough, C. D., Schultze, M., & Vandenberg, J. (2020). Realizing beneficial end uses from abandoned pit lakes. Minerals, 10(2), 133.
Nazir, M., Roy, K., Saha, A., & Saha, D. (2024). A Novel Approach to Explore New Means of Depletion of Potable Water Crisis by Phytoremediation of Abandoned Coalmine Pitlake and Generate Alternate Livelihood: A Case Study of Raniganj Coalfield, West Bengal, India.
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Peterson, J. C. K. (1997). Bengal District Gazetteers: Burdwan (reprint). Kolkata, India: Government of West Bengal.
Rozycki, P., & Dryglas, D. (2017). Mining tourism, sacral and other forms of tourism practiced in antique mines-analysis of the results. Acta Montanistica Slovaca, 22(1).
Rybar, P., & Hroncek, P. (2017). Mining tourism and the search for its origins.Geotourism/Geoturystyka.
Rybar, P., & Strba, L. (2016). Mining tourism and its position in relation to other forms of tourism. Proceedings of the Geotour, 7-12.
Saner, R., Yiu, L., & Filadoro, M. (2019). Tourism development in least developed countries: Challenges and opportunities. Sustainable Tourism: Breakthroughs in Research and Practice, 94-120.
Schultze, M., Hemm, M., Geller, W., & Benthaus, F. C. (2013). Pit lakes in Germany: Hydrography, water chemistry, and management. Acidic Pit Lakes-Legacies of surface mining on coal and metal ores, Springer, Berlin.
Singh, R. S., & Ghosh, P. (2019). Potential of mining tourism: A study of select coal mines of Paschim Bardhaman District, West Bengal. Indian Journal of Landscape Systems and Ecological Studies, 42(1), 101-114.
Stephenson, H. G., & Castendyk, D. (2019). The reclamation of Canmore Creek—An example of a successful walk away pit lake closure. Min. Eng, 71, 20.
Stone, P., & Sharpley, R. (2008). Consuming dark tourism: A thanatological perspective.Annals of tourism Research,35(2), 574-595.
Strielkowski, W. (2017). Promoting tourism destination through film-induced tourism: The case of Japan. MARKET/TRZISTE, 29(2), 193-203.
Sutherland, F. (2015). Community-driven mining heritage in the Cuyuna Iron Mining District: Past, present, and future projects.The Extractive Industries and Society,2(3), 519-530.
Syafrini, D., Nurdin, M. F., Sugandi, Y. S., & Miko, A. (2022). Transformation of a coal mining city into a cultured mining heritage tourism City in Sawahlunto, Indonesia: A Response to the Threat of Becoming a Ghost Town. Tourism Planning & Development, 19(4), 296-315.
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Vila, N. A., Brea, J. A. F., & de Carlos, P. (2021). Film tourism in Spain: Destination awareness and visit motivation as determinants to visit places seen in TV series. European Research on Management and Business Economics, 27(1), 100135.
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Chapter 14. Clean and green coal mining is necessary to achieve the Clean India Mission
14.1 Abstract
Coal mining processes either directly or indirectly exacerbate the issue of air pollution. PM, CO2 SO2, NOx, and PTEs are the most significant emissions from coal mining and active mine fires. These air pollutants damage the quality of the air, which in turn impacts the surrounding flora, fauna, and human health in coal mining areas. Pollution caused by coal mining has an impact on both mine employees and the surrounding communities. This can lead to lung conditions such as silicosis or CWP, COPD, skin, renal, and cardiac diseases, etc. To mitigate their adverse impact on the environment, several countries, including India, are implementing "CCTs." These are environmentally friendly and economically viable methods for utilizing coal. Initially, only a few countries such as the US, the EU, and Japan engaged in the commercial development of CCTs. China has been drawing closer to these countries recently. This entails decreasing the amount of ash in cleaned coal, improving combustion efficiency, and lowering pollutants, all of which may contribute to a society free of pollution. The current study on clean coal strategies is emphasized not only in India but also in numerous other developed nations across various continents. Conversely, GMC represents India's national approach to environmental regulation of the mining sector, encouraging the mining sector to enhance its resource utilization efficiency, safeguard the environment, and balance its interactions with communities nearby. It also offers some fresh perspectives on clean coal strategies and the introduction of green coal as a fossil coal alternative.
Keywords
CCTs, Coal mining, Economically viable, GMC, Green coal.
14.2 In global perspective
Japan
Japan has achieved the world's lowest NOx emission levels through highly efficient coal combustion processes. Innovative burners and high thermal efficiency are key to reducing emissions and cutting costs. Japan's coal combustion technology, utilizing flue gas and ash treatments, SO2 removal, and low NOx combustion technologies, has the lowest global NOx emission and dust generation. The Rankine regenerative-reheat steam cycle system is often utilized to attain the input steam conditions of the steam turbine, which ultimately dictates the efficiency of coal-fired power generation. Japan has been developing CFBC technologies (Figure 14. 1) since 1986, with ICFBC being the representative one (Figure 14. 1). It offers efficient burning of coals, biomass, waste tires, and slugs.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 14.1. CFBC technology
The HYCOL is a high-pressure, high-temperature gasification technology that efficiently converts pulverized coal into H2 and CO, achieving 98% carbon conversion. CGT using the HYCOL process (Chai et al., 2021) has been used in the EAGLE project (Figure 14. 2). This technology is appropriate for producing chemicals, fuel cells, and synthetic fuel. Additionally, Japan used a variety of technologies to fulfill its clean coal mission, including the development of the Multi-purpose CGT (EAGLE project), the CO2-recovery-type IGCC system, the Nakoso Air/Oxygen-blown IGCC, the Super IGFC, CO2 recovery and utilization technologies, and the In-situ CO2 coal capture utilization technologies, etc. Moreover, Japan is creating methods to repurpose CO2 that originates from coal mines and other sources for a variety of uses, such as the creation of bio-oil, polymers, light oil, methanol, kerosene, photocatalytic conversion, and innovative catalysts. In order to utilize low-rank coal, Jananish is employing next-generation high-efficiency gasification technology. More cutting-edge low-rank coal and CO2 fixation technologies are anticipated in the future (Guan 2017; Kasahara et al., 2016; Wang and Li 2016; Carrasco-Maldonado et al., 2016; Kuramochi 2015; Tang et al., 2015; Yamauchi and Akiyama 2013).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 14.2. HYCOL technology (Chai et al., 2021)
China
China's primary energy source is coal, accounting for up to 64% of the nation's total energy consumption in 2015, which increased greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Despite policy measures, coal is projected to remain dominant in China's energy portfolio, with over 50% by 2030 and 30% by 2050, despite high renewable energy penetration. Therefore, developing more efficient and clean technology options is crucial. China has developed commercial demonstration facilities and upgraded its coal-fired power plants, delivering over 100 GW of installed capacity by 2014. This technological innovation is crucial for China's transition to a low-carbon, green economy. New coal gasification pathways and conventional direct combustion are examples of coal-fired power production technology. IGCC technology offers high efficiency and environmental performance. China also presents five innovative methods for turning coal into chemicals: low-rank coal pyrolysis, coal gasification, coal liquefaction, coal conversion to SNG, and coal conversion to chemicals (Figure 14. 3) (Chang et al., 2016; IEA 2016; Kopyscinski et al., 2010; Dai et al., 2009).
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 14.3. SNG production from coal (Kopyscinski et al., 2010)
The US
In the US, Department of Energy is focusing on CCT to make coal-based energy generation more cost-effective, reliable, efficient, and environmentally friendly. CCTDP, initiated in 1985, aims to develop innovative technologies for electric power utilities, including advances in gasification, gas purification, fuel cells, combustion turbines, and enhanced steam cycles. Modern materials are needed to address environmental issues related to coal consumption. The US has adopted Vision 21, a 15-year R&D roadmap aiming to create ultra-clean energy plants with near-zero emissions. The project integrates technology subsystems for market-driven products from fossil fuels and opportunity feedstocks (Bezdek and Wendling 2013; Reddy 2013; Ruth 2003).
EU
Modern technical solutions such as CCS and CCU might be helpful during coal region transitions to allow for the use of coal while capturing and permanently storing CO2 created during the process. Smart Specialization in regions of the EU prioritizes CCS, with 540 million tons of CO2 required annually by 2025, compared to 28 million tons currently stored. After being captured and transported, CO2 can be stored in various geological formations, including deep saline aquifers, depleted hydrocarbon fields, basalts, and coalfields. Denmark and Poland have the highest CO2 storage rates, followed by France, Romania, and Austria, among other nations with significant potential. The 2009 CCS directive aims to establish a regulatory framework for CO2 storage based on geological formations, site lifespan, and monitoring strategies. A regulation regarding the storage of CO2 has been ratified by 16 Member States;
Poland has been chosen the location for the storage, Germany has imposed limits, the UK, Sweden, and Netherlands are considering the directive, and Bulgaria, Denmark, Greece, Hungary, and Italy are getting ready for the assessment (Alves Dias et al., 2018).
14.3 Various aspects of environmental deterioration and the necessity for CCTs in Indian coal mining regions
Compared to natural gas and oil, coal requires less sophisticated equipment and no pipelines or vessels for extraction, transportation, or processing. Globally, and in India especially, this results in record consumption of carbon. Since coal is a base-load energy source, there are no intermittent problems with its dependable usage on national networks (Zaman et al., 2018; Melikoglu, 2017). Putting aside all of the above-mentioned advantages, the mining sector and the activities associated with it produce large amounts of pollutants such as NOX, SO2, CO2, and PM. GHG emissions from coal combustion are major contributors to global warming. A wide range of mining operations, including loading, transporting, blasting, cutting, and preparing for surface beneficiation, have an impact on the environment both underground and surface-cut mining. India wants to combat global warming by lowering GHG emissions from the burning of coal and mining activities but doing so would need the development of more advanced pre- and post-combustion technologies (Onel and Tanriverdi 2020; Dupont et al., 2018; Schleiniger 2016).
14.4 Concerning RCF
The RCF region is experiencing increased ambient particle pollution due to mining and related activities. The main sources of SO2 and NOx in coal extraction sites are burning coal and transportation activities. Open-cast coal mining is the most frequent operation in the region, affecting human health, the environment, air, water, and land. Coal mining disrupts nearby flora, soil, and bedrock, causing changes in surface water levels, groundwater levels, and flow routes. Massive air pollution occurs during open-pit mining activities, including blasting, drilling, loading and unloading, transportation, and burning coal and trash. This has significantly impacted the community's health, worsening several ailments (Saha et al., 2021). Chakraborty et al., (2023) examined 83 samples of surface soil, coal, and shale from open-cast mining regions and noticed that these operations enhance soil TE concentrations. The research indicates that PTEs contaminated with metallic TE, possibly due to mining operations, are likely responsible for the irregular distribution of Pb and Cr. Due to their high mobility and resistance to degradation, metallic TEs build up in the environment and deteriorate soil quality.
By getting into the food chain and influencing the health of living things, they may harm plant growth and pose a threat to the biosphere (Kumar et al., 2019; Zhu et al., 2018; Wcislo et al., 2016). These findings suggest the need for strict soil monitoring systems to identify pollution hotspots and develop strategies to mitigate environmental impacts. Sarkar and Bhattacharya (2016), GIS study validated the environmental impact of opencast coal production in the Sonepur Bazari and Khottadih mines (Figure 14. 4). Pandaveswar had the lowest suspended particulate matter concentration, while Sonepur Bazari and Khottadih had the highest. All other locations had poor air quality due to mining vehicle traffic, and excavation.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 14. 4 a. Khottadih coal mines; b. Sonepur Bazari coal mines
14.5 Implementation of CCT
India is modifying its mining practices to cut down on emissions of greenhouse gases and pollution. To achieve this, cleaner coal techniques like lowering ash and washed coal must be used in order to improve combustion efficiency and lower pollution. The change seeks to advance an effective, economical, and environmentally responsible approach while fostering a safer working environment. i) Coal beneficiation, ii) Coal combustion, iii) Coal conversion, and iv) Post-combustion are the four categories into which CCTs can be classified in India.
Coal Beneficiation
Coal beneficiation reduces ash generation by decreasing combustion ash proportion. Different coal types have different wash abilities, requirements, and mechanical removal of extraneous impurities is easier. However, some impurities are difficult to remove due to intermeshing with ROM coal. Advanced coal cleaning techniques like barrel-cum-cyclone, vorsyl separator, and heavy media cyclone are used for higher efficiency. Advanced coal beneficiation separators, multi-stage density separators, and microbial leaching are used for difficult-to-wash coals. These technologies aim to benefit coal production and reduce ash generation. India's coal beneficiation infrastructure has been challenged by issues, as 1997 policy guidelines restrict the use of unwashed coal in thermal power plants. To lower the amount of ash content and CO2 emissions, advanced coal cleaning techniques have been developed; washed coal is predicted to lower emissions from 0.326 to 0.266 kg/kWh.
Coal Combustion
A fluidized bed of fine coal particles is used in the FBC process to transfer heat rapidly, increasing efficiency and lowering pollution. It lowers NOx emissions and functions at lower temperatures than PF. PFBC and CFBC are the two variants. India uses CFBC, which works well with lignite or low-grade coal that has a high ash content. Crushed coal and limestone suspension are used in pressurized CFBC to absorb sulphur content.
Coal Conversion
Gasification and liquefaction technologies are used to turn coal into gas and oil, respectively, making them part of the third category of clean coal infrastructure. Although they boost productivity and decrease pollution, coal conversion processes increase the infrastructure requirements for coal suppliers and users.
A vital strategy for developing low-carbon energy is coal gasification, which generates producer gas that contains methane CH4, H2, and CO. Compared to natural gas (49.0 mJ/cu. m.), this environmentally friendly gas has a lower calorific value of 33.12 mJ/cu. m. Reactors for gasification are made to accommodate various coal characteristics, such as systems with fixed, fluidized, or entrained beds.
Post-combustion
The fourth stage alternative, post-combustion technology, removes CO2, NOx, and other end- of-pipe pollutants from the atmosphere by capturing and holding onto them. In traditional power plants, desulphurization and de-NOx operations have been tested. Prospective technologies for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions include advanced CCT.
To improve coal mining efficiency, various strategies are employed, including maintaining horizons, controlling remote coaling machines, stabilizing weak roofs, mining in sections, picking bands or intrusions, controlling soft floor cutting and mixing with coal, controlling erratic floor blasting, and selectively mining clean coal sections. Surface mining equipment is large and insensitive to waste material, thin bands, and intrusions. However, bench formation, cleaning, and burden removal are often not followed, leading to diluted coal.
The aforementioned discussion makes it evident that the clean coal mining concept lessens the detrimental impacts of coal mining and enhances the state of the environment in the coal mining region.
14.6 A viewpoint on CCT
Mission mode will be used to pursue advanced CCTs for significant improvements in CO2 sequestration, underground coal gasification, coal bed and mine CH4 extraction, and coal combustion efficiency. These advanced CCTs include Magneto Hydro Dynamics; Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells; Underground Coal Gasification; Coal Bed CH4; Combined Cycle Technologies; Advanced Combustion Technologies; and CCS (Panigrahi and Panigrahi 2022, Goswami 2014, 2013) (Figure 14. 5).
14.7 Moving forward with CCTs to promote sustainable mining practices
An extensive plan for integrating cutting-edge clean coal technologies into our coal mining operations was outlined by the authors. Reducing the detrimental impact on the environment, expanding operational effectiveness, and promoting a responsible and sustainable coal mining industry are the goals.
Enhanced Beneficiation of Coal
To lower impurities and raise the grade of coal that is mined, invest in technologies like dry coal cleaning, froth flotation, and dense media separation. As a consequence, there will be less of an impact on the environment and cleaner combustion.
Technologies for Emission Control
Install cutting-edge emission control devices to capture and minimize air pollutants during coal combustion, such as fabric filters, electrostatic precipitators, and SCR systems. This will improve the quality of the air around mining operations.
Management of Water
Implement cutting-edge water treatment techniques, such as reverse osmosis and membrane filtration, to reduce water consumption and make sure treated water is responsibly released back into the environment. To maximize the use of water resources, create effective water recycling systems.
CCUS
Investigate the possibilities for utilizing CCUS technologies to absorb and retain CO2 emissions from power plants that burn coal. Look into possible partnerships for employing captured carbon in products with added value.
Security and Surveillance
Implement leading-edge sensing technologies to improve environmental monitoring and safety protocols, such as real-time monitoring and data analytics. Put automated systems in place to identify possible risks early and take appropriate action.
Engagement of Stakeholders
In order to promote willingness and cooperation, get involved with community organizations, government agencies, and ecological organizations. Update stakeholders on the status of implementing innovative CCT regularly and solicit their input.
Provide a timeline and budget
Provide a timeline explaining the phased adoption of advanced green coal practices and a detailed budget for the implementation of the proposed technologies. Add the price of training, equipment, and going on maintenance.
Illustrations are not included in the reading sample
Figure 14.5. Roadmap illustrating the Progression of CCTs to Encourage Sustainable Mining Methods
The goal is to revolutionize mining operations and achieve environmental sustainability by implementing advanced CCTs, providing an efficient, ethical, and eco-friendly roadmap for coal mining.
14.8 Exploring possibilities for green mining
In an effort to reduce its negative effects on the environment and boost underground production to 100 mt by FY2030, CIL is exploring green mining options. The business considers subterranean output to be socially and environmentally benign, with little impact on land degradation. Underground mining is a viable option for about 70% of the nation's coal reserves. In order to uncover coal assets that are locked up, CIL can use environmentally friendly technologies that circumvent land acquisition and prevent degradation. By FY2025, CIL intends to deploy 50 continuous miners, with a maximum production capacity of 25 Mt annually. Currently, 21 machines are in use at SECL, CCL, and ECL, producing 9 Mt annually. Operating in ECL and BCCL, two PSLW machines produced 1.58 Mts in FY2022 compared to 1.13 Mts in FY2021, indicating a 40% growth. There will soon be two more PSLWs in BCCL, totaling 4.5 Mt of annual capacity. Additionally, CIL wants to mine coal in opencast mines that have reached the highest pit level by punch entry. Up until FY2024, they intend to locate and gradually implement five such mines through punch entry. During the current fiscal year, CIL intends to install 10 high wall machines in its opencast mines, with a potential annual production of 5 Mt. The company thinks that with a variety of options—including mass production technologies, domestic manufacturing facilities, skilled labor, contract outsourcing, and shorter gestation times— UG production could become economically feasible. CIL intends to increase its underground coal assets that are locked up gradually (CIL 2022). Alongside other developed nations, the three categories of technical innovation, environmental protection, and scale expansion render the use of CIL's responsive strategies. According to the simulation's findings, (i) Environmental taxes and subsidies with different rates can, albeit somewhat slowly, improve the performance of companies that prioritize environmental protection and technological innovation. (ii) The combined effect of taxes and subsidies does not considerably outweigh their individual effects. (iii) Although to differing degrees, environmental laws lower mining companies' productivity. Additionally, there should be other measures in place to offset the negative effects of environmental regulation (Qi et al., 2019).
In this scenario, India introduced green coal—which is produced from agricultural residue and MSW-as an environmentally friendly replacement for conventional coal. Because it can reduce the amount of CO2 produced by burning coal by using it as an energy substitute, green coal has become more and more popular. It is said that 1 kg of coal can offset 2 kg of CO2 with the same amount of green coal. In Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, the NTPC and VVNL of India have recently put into service a commercial green coal plant to produce torrefied charcoal or green coal. The current strategy of combining clean coal and green coal reduces production costs, harms the environment and public health to a much lesser extent, and ensures future generations' safety. This sustainability transformation is crucial for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and positively impacting the environment, economy, and society. India's National Thermal Power Corporation and Vidyut Vyapar Nigam Limited have launched a commercial green coal plant in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, to combat CO2 emissions and achieve Sustainable Development Goals.
14.9 Conclusion
Communities and mine workers are impacted by coal mining pollution, which can result in lung disorders and other physical problems. Countries like India are putting into practice CCT, which was first created by the US, EU, and Japan, to lessen these effects. The study emphasizes the importance of CCTs in reducing energy consumption and the environmental impact of RCF. The mission mode concentrates on cutting-edge coal technologies, such as magneto hydro dynamics, molten carbonate fuel cells, and combined cycle technologies, for CO2 sequestration, subterranean gasification, coal bed CH4 extraction, and coal combustion efficiency. CIL plans to apply green mining techniques to increase underground production while lowering the impact on the environment and degradation of land, thereby pursuing the goal of sustainable development. Approximately 70% of the nation's coal reserves are suitable for this methodology. According to the simulation, environmental taxes and subsidies might assist companies that prioritize technological innovation and environmental protection to perform better. Still, their combined effects are not appreciably greater than their ones. In addition, similar to other developed countries, environmental laws can reduce the productivity of mining companies to varying degrees. To fulfill energy demands and show environmental sensitivity, coal power plants in this scenario have increased production. They are implementing mitigating strategies such as large-scale plantations and the reclamation of mined-out areas. Restoring disturbed land to stable, fruitful uses after mining is a key component of responsible environmental stewardship. Green coal provides eco-friendly options for polluting industries like thermal power plants, steel plants, and cement plants. It is a sustainable replacement for conventional fossil coal.
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Frequently Asked Questions
What is the focus of the text contained in this HTML file?
The text appears to be a language preview for a book or academic publication concerning the impact of coal mining on the Raniganj Coalfield (RCF) in India. It includes the table of contents, chapter summaries, and key themes, all intended for academic use and analysis.
What chapters are included in the publication?
The publication covers a wide range of topics, as reflected in its chapter titles:
- Rise of the coal industry through the ages
- Geo-morphological analysis
- Excavating: Revealing the Reality of Coal Mining
- The consequence of coal mining on vegetation
- The effects of coal mining on agricultural land and sustainability
- Investigation of the water quality of abandoned coal mine pit lakes
- Relevance of Water Footprint Evaluation: Focusing on Coal Mining and Associated Industries
- Pit lakes, a legacy of coal mining: A holistic strategy for rehabilitation, utilitarianism, and sustainability for communities
- The need for a suitable assay of the carbon footprint in this coalfield is crucial
- The emergence of a comprehensive approach to carbon sequestration and bioremediation
- The carbon market is essential and has to be implemented as an exigency
- Alternative livelihoods in this coalfield: an exploratory study
- The potential assessment of mining tourism is being explored
- Clean and Green coal mining is necessary to achieve the Clean India Mission
What key themes are addressed in this publication?
The publication emphasizes the following key themes:
- The historical development of the coal industry in the RCF.
- The geo-morphological analysis of the region and the environmental impacts of coal mining.
- The effect of coal mining on vegetation, agricultural land, and water resources.
- The assessment and rehabilitation of abandoned coal mine pit lakes.
- The importance of water footprint evaluation in coal mining and related industries.
- Strategies for carbon sequestration and bioremediation in the coalfield.
- The implementation of carbon markets and the exploration of alternative livelihoods in the region.
- The potential for mining tourism and the need for clean and green coal mining practices.
Who are the authors of this publication?
The authors are:
- Dr. Dibyendu Saha
- Md Nazir
- Ayan Saha
- Kushal Roy
What geographical area is the focus of this publication?
The publication primarily focuses on the Raniganj Coalfield (RCF) in the Paschim Bardhaman district of West Bengal, India.
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- Citar trabajo
- Dibyendu Saha (Autor), Md Nazir (Autor), Ayan Saha (Autor), Kushal Roy (Autor), 2024, Achieving Sustainability in Raniganj Coalfield. The Indian Coal Industry in the 19th Century and Today, Múnich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/1478213
